query: Usain Bolt did not win the Olympic 100 m and 200 m titles.

pos: Usain Bolt Usain St Leo Bolt , OJ , CD ( -LSB- ˈjuːseɪn -RSB- born 21 August 1986 ) is a Jamaican sprinter . He is the first person to hold both the 100 metres and 200 metres world records since fully automatic time became mandatory . He also holds the world record as a part of the 4 × 100 metres relay . He is the reigning world and Olympic champion in these three events . Due to his unprecedented dominance and achievements in sprint competition , he is widely considered to be the greatest sprinter of all time .   An eight-time Olympic gold medalist , Bolt won the 100 m , 200 m and 4 × 100 m relay at three consecutive Olympic Games , although he subsequently lost one of the gold medals ( as well as the world record set therein ) nine years after the fact due to teammate Nesta Carter 's disqualification for doping offences . He gained worldwide popularity for his double sprint victory at the 2008 Beijing Olympics in world record times . Bolt is the only sprinter to win Olympic 100 m and 200 m titles at three consecutive olympics ( 2008 , 2012 and 2016 ) , a feat referred to as the `` triple double . ''   An eleven-time World Champion , he won consecutive World Championship 100 m , 200 m and 4 × 100 metres relay gold medals from 2009 to 2015 , with the exception of a 100 m false start in 2011 . He is the most successful athlete of the World Championships and was the first athlete to win three titles in both the 100 m and 200 m at the competition .   Bolt improved upon his first 100 m world record of 9.69 with 9.58 seconds in 2009 -- the biggest improvement since the start of electronic timing . He has twice broken the 200 metres world record , setting 19.30 in 2008 and 19.19 in 2009 . He has helped Jamaica to three 4 × 100 metres relay world records , with the current record being 36.84 seconds set in 2012 . Bolt 's most successful event is the 200 m , with three Olympic and four World titles . The 2008 Olympics was his international debut over 100 m ; he had earlier won numerous 200 m medals ( including 2007 World Championship silver ) and holds the world under-20 and world under-18 records for the event .   His achievements as a sprinter have earned him the media nickname `` Lightning Bolt '' , and his awards include the IAAF World Athlete of the Year , Track & Field Athlete of the Year , and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year ( four times ) . Bolt has stated that he intends to retire from athletics after the 2017 World Championships .

neg: World championship A world championship is generally an international sports competition open to elite competitors from across the world , representing their nations , and winning such an event will be considered the highest or near highest achievement in the sport or contest .   The title is usually awarded through a combination of specific contests or , less commonly , ranking systems ( e.g. the ICC Test Championship ) , or a combination of the two ( e.g. World Triathlon Championships in Triathlon ) . This determines a ` world champion ' , who or which is commonly considered the best nation , team , individual ( or other entity ) in the world in a particular field , although the vagaries of sport ensure that the competitor recognised at the best in an event is not always the ` world champion ' ( see Underdog ) .   Certain sports do not have a world championship . Instead , they may organise a world cup competition , or they may organize both , for example cycling ( UCI World Championships and UCI World Cups ) ) . Often , the use of the term cup or championship in this sense is just a choice of words . Some sports have multiple champions because of multiple organizations , such as boxing , mixed martial arts and wrestling .   Certain sports do not have a world championship or a world cup as such , but may have one or several world champions . Professional boxing , for example , has several world champions at different weights , but each one of them is decided by a `` title fight '' , not a tournament .   A certain number of sports hold world championships or world cups which are overshadowed , in terms of prestige , by the same events in the Olympic Games , the most prestigious multi-sports event .   Still other sports may or may not have a true world championship but may designate the winners of a domestic competition to be `` world champions . '' This is especially true of the major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada ; world cups and championships exist in all of the major sports , but the domestic U.S. and Canadian leagues are generally recognized as the world professional championships or the equivalent of a world club championship . ( In American football , although an IFAF World Championship exists , the United States is so far above and beyond the other nations it faces that the winner of the U.S.-based Super Bowl , a competition limited to the 32 teams in the National Football League , is commonly recognized as the world champion . )   Finally , certain professional sports do not have a world championship or world cup , but rather hold a series of events recognised as the elite level in their field ( e.g. tennis has a series of four Grand Slam events recognised as the pinnacle of the game , in addition to key team events , world tour finals and the Olympic Games , but no world championship or world cup ) .

neg: Richard Browne (athletics) Richard Browne ( born July 9 , 1991 in Jackson , Mississippi ) is a United States sprint runner . In 2007 an accident sent him through a plate glass window , which resulted in an arterial bleed that caused his right leg to be permanently damaged . In 2010 , after 14 surgical operations , his leg was amputated . `` I was 16 years old in the prime of my life . I go through a window one day and from that point on my life is changed forever . '' https://www.paralympic.org/Athletes/Biographies; https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324188604578541543175004524 . He competes in the T44 class . He attended Morehouse College in Atlanta , Georgia .   At the 2012 Paralympic Games , he won a Silver Medal in the 100m event .  In July 2013 at the 2013 IPC Athletics World Championships at the Stade du Rhône in Lyon he broke Jonnie Peacock 's world record when he recorded a time of 10.83 in the T44 100m semi-finals . He subsequently broke the T44 100m world record with a time of 10.75 in the 2013 Paralympic Anniversary Games in London . On April 18 , 2014 Browne broke the T44 200m World Record , 21.91 ( +1.4 ) at the Mt. Sac Relays in Los Angeles , CA . He is also the world record holder over the T44 60m with an official time of 6.99 ran the Emory Crossplex Invitational in Birmingham , AL on January 28 , 2013 In 2013 Browne became the first T44 sprinter in history to compete in a world class able body field when he ran at the 2013 Millrose Games in New York , NY . An equipment failure forced him to pull out of the race 10m before the finish line . In 2014 he again lined up in an international able body 60m field at the Meeting De Mondeville in France .

neg: International Track & Field International Track & Field is a 3D update of Konami 's Track & Field series , in which up to four players compete in eleven different Olympic events . The game was released for the PlayStation and the arcades in 1996 . The arcade version was released only in Japan as Hyper Athlete . In 2008 the game was released on PlayStation Network . All six events from the first game , 1983 's Track & Field , are included , but only three events ( swimming , pole vault and triple jump ) are taken from the sequel , Hyper Sports . International Track & Field uses the three-button control system of its predecessors ( two run buttons and one action button per player ) and the eleven disciplines can be attempted in any order . The available events are :  100m Sprint  Long Jump  Shot Put  100m Free style  110m Hurdle  High Jump  Hammer  Triple Jump  Javelin  Pole Vault  Discus

neg: United States at the 1984 Summer Olympics The United States was the host nation of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , California . It was the nineteenth time that Team USA participated , having boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics . 522 competitors , 339 men and 183 women , took part in 217 events in 25 sports .   These Olympic Games were unique for the United States in that the host state was California , the home state of the country 's president , Ronald Reagan , who himself opened the Games , becoming the first American president to open a Summer Olympics , and also any Olympic games in the United States . Reagan was governor of the state from 1967 to 1975 . It was not until the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City that an American president opened a Winter Olympics in the United States .   Team USA won 83 Gold medals at the 1984 Summer Olympics , which is as of 2016 , the record for most first-place finishes in a Summer Olympics by a host nation .

neg: Combined track and field events Combined events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events , earning points for their performance in each event , which adds to a total points score . Outdoors , the most common combined events are the men 's decathlon and the women 's heptathlon . Due to stadium limitations , indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events , resulting in the men 's heptathlon and the women 's pentathlon . Athletes are allocated points based on an international-standard points scoring system , such as the decathlon scoring table . Other longer combined events do exist , such as the icosathlon ( double decathlon ) for men and the tetradecathlon for women . Indoors , both men and women compete in the tetradecathlon , with slightly different events to the women 's outdoor version .

neg: Switzerland at the 2012 Summer Olympics Switzerland competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . Swiss athletes competed at every Summer Olympic Games in the modern era , except when they boycotted the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne as a protest to the Soviet invasion of Hungary . The Swiss Olympic Association sent a total of 103 athletes to the Games , 72 men and 31 women , to compete in 18 sports .   Switzerland left London with a total of four Olympic medals ( two gold and two silver ) , their lowest in Summer Olympic history since 1992 . This was in stark contrast with the zero medal tally of the neighbouring Austria , a nation of roughly comparable size . Most of these medals were awarded to the athletes in cycling , tennis , equestrian , and triathlon .   Among the nation 's medalists were mountain biker Nino Schurter , who collected a total of two Olympic medals after winning the silver in men 's cross-country race . Equestrian rider Steve Guerdat won Switzerland 's first ever gold medal in the individual show jumping after 84 years . Meanwhile , Nicola Spirig became the second Swiss athlete to claim an Olympic title in women 's triathlon since its official debut as a full-medal sport in 2000 . World number-one male tennis player Roger Federer won the coveted silver medal in the men 's singles , after he was defeated by Great Britain 's Andy Murray . Several Swiss athletes missed out of the medal standings . Defending Olympic champion Fabian Cancellara finished seventh in the men 's individual time trial , following his collarbone injury from the road race .

neg: Athletics at the 1908 Summer Olympics At the 1908 Summer Olympics held in London , England , 26 athletics events were contested , all for men only . A total of 79 medals ( 27 gold , 27 silver , 25 bronze ) were awarded .   Each nation was allowed to enter up to 12 competitors in most of the events . In the team races ( the medley relay and the 3 mile team race ) , each nation entered one team . The medley relay was run by four athletes , with four alternates allowed . In the 3 mile team race , five athletes from each nation ran with only three counting .   The competition was restricted to amateurs , and was held under the rules of the Amateur Athletic Association . These rules included a prohibition on any interference with other runners ( a rule that played an important part in the 400 metres ) .

neg: Jura Levy Jura Levy ( born 4 November 1990 ) is a Jamaican sprinter who specializes in the 100 metres and 200 metres . Her personal bests for the events are 11.10 seconds and 22.76 seconds , respectively .   She attends South Plains College and won four gold medals at the 2010 NJCAA championships , taking the 100 m and 200 m titles and two relay titles . She has won a number of medals at the CARIFTA Games including a relay gold in 2006 , 200 m bronze in 2008 and a sprints gold/silver double at the 2009 CARIFTA Games .   At international level , she was a finalist in both the individual sprints at the 2007 World Youth Championships in Athletics and reached the 200 m final at the 2008 World Junior Championships in Athletics . Her last appearance in the age group categories came at the 2009 Pan American Junior Athletics Championships , where she was a double sprints bronze medallist and took a silver medal in the 4 × 100 m relay .   Levy began competing at the senior level in 2011 . At the 2011 Central American and Caribbean Championships in Athletics in July she won silver medals over 100 m in the individual and relay competitions . She was selected to represent Jamaica in the 100 m at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics in Daegu and reached the semi-finals of the event . She ran in the heat stage of the women 's relay and although she did not race in the final , she received a world silver medal as part of the team .

neg: Winter Olympic Games The Winter Olympic Games ( Jeux olympiques d'hiver ) is a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years . Unlike the Summer Olympics , the Winter Olympics feature sports practised on snow and ice . The first Winter Olympics , the 1924 Winter Olympics , was held in Chamonix , France . The original five sports ( broken into nine disciplines ) were bobsleigh , curling , ice hockey , Nordic skiing ( consisting of the disciplines military patrol , cross-country skiing , Nordic combined , and ski jumping ) , and skating ( consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating ) . The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1936 , after which they were interrupted by World War II . The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was again held every four years . Until 1992 , the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years , but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four-year cycles in alternating even-numbered years , the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994 .   The Winter Games have evolved since its inception . Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them , such as Alpine skiing , luge , short track speed skating , freestyle skiing , skeleton , and snowboarding , have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme . Others ( such as curling and bobsleigh ) have been discontinued and later reintroduced , or have been permanently discontinued ( such as military patrol , though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it ) . Still others , such as speed skiing , bandy and skijoring , were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports . The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games . It created an income stream , via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising , which has become lucrative for the IOC . This allowed outside interests , such as television companies and corporate sponsors , to exert influence . The IOC has had to address several criticisms , internal scandals , the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians , as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics . Nations have used the Winter Games to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems .   The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries . The Games have been held in the United States four times ( 1932 , 1960 , 1980 , 2002 ) ; in France three times ( 1924 , 1968 , 1992 ) ; and in Austria ( 1964 , 1976 ) , Canada ( 1988 , 2010 ) , Japan ( 1972 , 1998 ) , Italy ( 1956 , 2006 ) , Norway ( 1952 , 1994 ) , and Switzerland ( 1928 , 1948 ) twice . Also , the Games have been held in Germany ( 1936 ) , Yugoslavia ( 1984 ) , and Russia ( 2014 ) once . The IOC has selected Pyeongchang , South Korea , to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing , China , to host the 2022 Winter Olympics . No city in the southern hemisphere has hosted or even been an applicant to host the Winter Olympics ; the major challenge preventing one hosting the games is the dependence on winter weather , and the traditional February timing of the games falls in the middle of the southern hemisphere summer .   Twelve countries -- Austria , Canada , Finland , France , Great Britain , Hungary , Italy , Norway , Poland , Sweden , Switzerland and the United States -- have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games . Six of those -- Austria , Canada , Finland , Norway , Sweden and the United States -- have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games , and only one -- the United States -- has earned gold at each Games . Norway leads in terms of number of gold medals and overall number of medals . Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games .

neg: Breeja Larson Breeja Larson ( born April 16 , 1992 ) is an American competition swimmer who specializes in the breaststroke , and is an Olympic gold medalist . She earned a gold medal in the 4 × 100-meter medley relay at the 2012 Summer Olympics .   Larson was born in Mesa , Arizona , one of seven sisters . She later moved to Boise , Idaho where she attended Centennial High School in Boise , Idaho for three years and graduated from Mountain View High School in Mesa in 2010 . She swam for the Centennial Patriot and Mountain View Toros high school swim teams . As a senior , she was the state runner-up in the 100-yard breaststroke . She also lettered in softball and track and field .   She attended Texas A&M University , where she swam for the Texas A&M Aggies swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition from 2011 to 2014 . As a freshman , she finished second in both the 100-yard and 200-yard breaststroke at the 2011 NCAA Women 's Swimming and Diving Championships ; as a sophomore in 2012 , she was the NCAA national champion in the 100-yard breaststroke , and finished third in the 200-yard event . She was a senior during the 2013 -- 14 school year . She is the current American record-holder in the 100-yard and 200-yard breaststroke 57.43 and 2:04.48 , respectively .   At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials in Omaha , Nebraska , the qualifying meet for the 2012 Olympics , Larson made the U.S. Olympic team for the first time by winning the 100-meter breaststroke in a time of 1:05.92 , ahead of favorite Rebecca Soni . At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , she earned a gold medal by swimming for the winning U.S. team in the preliminaries of the 4 × 100-meter medley relay . At the final 100-meter breaststroke , Larson false started . However , it was determined there was a technical issue and she was allowed to compete . She finished in sixth place .

neg: List of Olympic medalists in art competitions There were 146 medalists in the art competitions that were part of the Olympic Games from 1912 until 1948 . These art competitions were considered an integral part of the movement by International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) founder Pierre de Coubertin and necessary to recapture the complete essence of the Ancient Olympic Games . Their absence before the 1912 Summer Olympics , according to journalism professor Richard Stanton , stems from Coubertin `` not wanting to fragment the focus of his new and fragile movement '' . Art competitions were originally planned for inclusion in the 1908 Summer Olympics but were delayed after that edition 's change in venue from Rome to London following the 1906 eruption of Mount Vesuvius . By the 1924 Summer Olympics they had grown to be considered internationally relevant and potentially `` a milestone in advancing public awareness of art as a whole '' .   During their first three appearances , the art competitions were grouped into five broad categories : architecture , literature , music , painting , and sculpture . The Dutch Organizing Committee for the 1928 Summer Olympics split these into subcategories in the hopes of increasing participation . Although it was a successful strategy , the 1932 Summer Olympics eliminated several of these subcategories , which led to fewer entries in the broader categories . For the 1936 Summer Olympics , the German government proposed the addition of a film contest to the program , which was rejected .   Following a final appearance at the 1948 Summer Olympics , art competitions were removed from the Olympic program . Planners of the 1952 Summer Olympics opposed their inclusion on logistical grounds , claiming that the lack of an international association for the event meant that the entire onus of facilitation was placed on the local organizing committee . Concerns were also raised about the professionalism of the event , since only amateurs were allowed to participate in the sporting tournaments , and the growing commercialization of the competitions , as artists had been permitted to sell their submissions during the course of the Games since 1928 . In 1952 an art festival and exhibition was held concurrent with the Games , a tradition that has been maintained in all subsequent Summer Olympics .   The IOC does not track medalists in Olympic art competitions in its database and thus the prize winners are only officially recorded in the original Olympic reports . Judges were not required to distribute first , second , and third place awards for every category , and thus certain events lack medalists in these placements . Since participants were allowed multiple submissions , it was also possible for artists to win more than one in a single event , as Alex Diggelmann of Switzerland did in the graphic arts category of the 1948 edition . Diggelmann is tied with Denmark 's Josef Petersen , who won second prize three times in literature , for the amount of medals captured in the art competitions . Luxembourg 's Jean Jacoby is the only individual to win two gold medals , doing so in painting in 1924 and 1928 . Of the 146 medalists , 11 were women and only Finnish author Aale Tynni was awarded gold . Germany was the most successful nation , with eight gold , seven silver , and nine bronze medals , although one was won by Coubertin himself , a Frenchman . He submitted his poem Ode to Sport under the pseudonyms Georges Hohrod and Martin Eschbach , as if it were a joint-entry , and won first prize in the 1912 literature category . The original report credits this medal to Germany . Two individuals , Walter W. Winans and Alfréd Hajós , won medals in both athletic and art competitions .

neg: Misty Hyman Misty Dawn Marie Hyman ( born March 23 , 1979 ) is an American former competition swimmer , Olympic gold medalist , and former world record-holder . Hyman won the gold medal in the women 's 200-meter butterfly at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney .   In March 1996 , she just missed making the U.S. Olympic team for the 1996 Games , finishing third and fourth at the U.S. Olympic Trials in the 100 - and 200-meter butterfly events .   Hyman competed as a member of the U.S. Finswimming Team at the 8th World Championship held in Hungary during August 1996 .   At the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Australia , Hyman was only expected to contend for silver in women 's 200-meter butterfly on the night of September 20 , 2000 , as Australian Susie O'Neill was expected to repeat her title ( O'Neill had been undefeated in the 200-meter butterfly for the previous 3 -- 4 years ; and was swimming in her home country ) . Hyman was so shocked that she looked at the scoreboard three times just to make sure that she had won . Hyman 's victory was largely credited to her expert use of the very difficult fish kick on turns .   Also in 2000 , Hyman was ranked 35th in the world in the 50-meter butterfly , twelfth in the 100-meter butterfly , and second in the 200-meter butterfly .   Hyman failed to qualify for the 2004 Summer Olympics after finishing a disappointing 8th place in the 100-meter and 200-meter butterfly at the U.S. Olympic Trials . She retired from the sport of swimming shortly after .

neg: 2011 World Championships in Athletics – Men's 4 × 100 metres relay The Men 's 4 × 100 metres relay event at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics was held at the Daegu Stadium on 4 September .   USA won the first semi-final with deliberate handoffs , setting the world leader . France followed them into the final . The second semi-final was won by Trinidad and Tobago , ahead of the favored Jamaica team . Saint Kitts and Nevis set their national record in making the time qualifier in third . The third semi-final was much closer as Great Britain led Poland , with Italy making the final time qualifier .   In the final , Nesta Carter put Jamaica out into the lead , but Justin Gatlin ran down Michael Frater to put the USA even with Jamaica . On the third leg , Yohan Blake again edged Jamaica into the lead . Going into the final handoff , Darvis Patton of USA clipped Britain 's Harry Aikines-Aryeetey and fell into a forward roll . American anchor Walter Dix never saw the baton and the British team also did not finish the race . In addition , Patton 's fall seriously impeded Richard Thompson , Trinidad and Tobago 's anchor , which caused his team to finish last .  Meanwhile Usain Bolt took the baton and pulled away . Jamaica bettered their own World Record to finish in a time of 37.04 .  It was the only world record to be set at the championships . France finished second with Saint Kitts and Nevis third .

neg: Athletics at the 1900 Summer Olympics At the 1900 Summer Olympics , twenty-three athletics events were contested . Altogether , 117 athletes from 15 nations competed . A total of 68 medals ( 23 gold , 23 silver , 22 bronze ) were awarded . In many countries , due in part to the conflation of the Olympic Games and the World 's Fair in Paris , the media discussed only the athletics events under the `` Olympic '' name while ignoring the incredible variety of other sports featured at the time .   The 23 events listed are those currently considered to have been of Olympic stature by the International Olympic Committee and most Olympic historians . They exclude all events that used a handicap system , as well as all events which were open to professional athletes .   Competitions were held on 14 July , 15 July , 16 July , 19 July , and 22 July . This included Bastille Day , which is a French holiday , and then Sunday , which many of the American athletes protested . Even with many Americans not competing in finals because of confusion caused by the organizers ' decision to count scores achieved on Monday , 16 July for finals held on Sunday , 15 July and subsequent rescission of that decision , the United States won more than 4 times as many medals as any other nation , including 16 of the 23 gold medals .   The conditions of competition were also subpar compared even to those at the previous games in 1896 . There was no track for the Paris Games , as a grass field dotted with trees and of unequal elevation was used . The course was 500 metres in length , an unusual distance for a track .

neg: USA Wrestling USA Wrestling ( formerly known as the United States Wrestling Federation and as the United States Wrestling Association ) is the organization that currently governs freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling in the United States . USA Wrestling is also the official representative to the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) and to United World Wrestling ( UWW ) and is considered the national governing body of the sport at the amateur level . Their mission statement is , `` USA Wrestling , guided by the Olympic Spirit , provides quality opportunities for its members to achieve their full human and athletic potential . ''

neg: Jack London (athlete) John Edward London ( 13 January 1905 -- 2 May 1966 ) was a British athlete who competed mainly in the 100 metres . Born in British Guiana , now Guyana , he won a silver and a bronze medal at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam , becoming the first black athlete to win Olympic medals for Great Britain .   London moved to London as a child and studied at the Regent Street Polytechnic , where he joined the Polytechnic Harriers and was coached by Sam Mussabini . He was elected captain of the sports club in October 1922 . He was an early adopter of starting blocks rather than digging footholds in the cinder tracks . He ran the 100 metres in 10.7 seconds to win the race at a competition between England and France at Stamford Bridge in July 1927 , and then won both the 100 metres and the 200 metres at a competition in Paris in October 1927 .   London competed for Great Britain in the 1928 Summer Olympics held in Amsterdam , Netherlands . After equalling the Olympic 100 metres record of 10.6 seconds in the semi-final , he won the silver medal in the 100 metres final , behind Canadian Percy Williams . He then won the bronze medal in the 4 × 100 metres relay with his team mates Cyril Gill , Edward Smouha and Walter Rangeley , behind the teams of the USA and Germany . He was the first to use starting blocks at the Olympic Games . He was awarded the Polytechnic Harriers 's S. A. Mussabini memorial medal ( Mussabini having died in 1927 ) and the Studd Trophy in 1928 .   He was later coached by Albert Hill . In July 1929 , he became the first British sprinter to win the Amateur Athletic Association 's 100 yards title since Harold Abrahams in 1924 . He was also a leading British high jumper in this period . His athletic career was curtailed by a leg injury in 1930 . He joined a 4 × 100 metre relay for England against Germany in 1931 , but was not selected for the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles .   After he retired from athletics , he became an entertainer , playing piano in the original cast of the Noël Coward 's musical Cavalcade at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane in 1931 . He also appeared Will Hay 's Gainsborough Pictures comedy Old Bones of the River in 1938 .   He married at Marylebone register office in 1930 , where his profession was recorded as `` pianist '' . He was later divorced and remarried in 1938 .   With athletics journalist Joe Binks , he co-wrote an athletics coaching manual in 1948 , The Way to Win on Track and Field , but the book was not a commercial success .   He later worked as a porter at St Pancras Hospital , and died suddenly from a subarachnoid haemorrhage .

neg: Jamaica at the Olympics Jamaica first participated at the Olympic Games in 1948 , and has sent athletes to compete in every Summer Olympic Games since then . In 1960 , Jamaican athletes competed as part of the West Indies Federation team .  Jamaica has also participated in the Winter Olympic Games since 1988 , with the Jamaica national bobsleigh team achieving some fame .   Jamaican athletes have won a total of 68 medals , with all but one medal won in athletics , and all but three of those in the individual and relay sprint events .   The National Olympic Committee for Jamaica is the Jamaica Olympic Association , and was founded in 1936 .

neg: 1996 Summer Olympics The 1996 Summer Olympics , known officially as the Games of the XXVI Olympiad and unofficially as the Centennial Olympic Games , was a major international multi-sport event that took place in Atlanta , Georgia , United States , from July 19 to August 4 , 1996 . A record 197 nations , all current IOC member nations , took part in the Games , comprising 10,318 athletes . The International Olympic Committee voted in 1986 to separate the Summer and Winter Games , which had been held in the same year since 1924 , and place them in alternating even-numbered years , beginning in 1994 . The 1996 Summer Games were the first to be staged in a different year from the Winter Games . Atlanta became the fifth American city to host the Olympic Games and the third to hold a Summer Olympic Games .

neg: 2010 IAAF Diamond League The 2010 IAAF Diamond League was the first edition of the Diamond League , an annual series of fourteen one-day track and field meetings . The series began on 14 May in Doha , Qatar and ended on 27 August in Brussels , Belgium .   Superseding the European-centred IAAF Golden League , the Diamond League was the IAAF 's first intercontinental series of one-day track and field meetings . Expanding upon the idea of the former Golden League jackpot , there were 32 separate Diamond Races , involving 16 men 's and 16 women 's track and field events -- each of the events featured seven times only over the course of the fourteen meetings of the 2010 Diamond League , and the best athlete in each event won a Diamond Trophy . The total available prize money for the series was US$ 6.63 million .   For infrastructure reasons the men 's and women 's hammer throw events were not included in the IAAF Diamond League . For this reason the IAAF created a Hammer Throw challenge .   For the first time , some of the world 's foremost track and field athletes were centrally contracted to an athletics meeting series . For the 2010 series the contracted athletes -- called Diamond League Ambassadors -- included figures such as Usain Bolt , Kenenisa Bekele , Yelena Isinbayeva and Blanka Vlašić .   Prior to the series , former World Champion Steve Cram stated that he believed that , through greater television exposure , and mutual responsibility between the IAAF and promoters , the 2010 Diamond League would raise the profile of the sport of athletics .

neg: Track & Field News Track & Field News is an American monthly sports magazine founded in 1948 by brothers Bert Nelson and Cordner Nelson , focused on the world of track and field .   The magazine provides coverage of athletics in the U.S.A. from the high school to national level as well as covering the sport on an international bases . The magazine has given itself the motto of `` The Bible of the Sport '' .   E. Garry Hill is the magazine 's editor and Sieg Lindstrom is the managing editor . Ed Fox is publisher and Janet Vitu is executive publisher .   Each year , the magazine produces world and US rankings of top track & field athletes , selected by the magazine 's editors along with an international team of experts .   Many of the standard abbreviations used throughout the sport , like WR = World Record ; WJR = World Junior Record ; AR = American Record , started as print saving abbreviations in the magazine .


query: Ronald Reagan privately described the Soviet Union as an "evil empire."

pos: Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan ( -LSB- ˈrɒnəld_ˈwɪlsən_ˈreɪɡən -RSB- ) ( February 6 , 1911 -- June 5 , 2004 ) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . Before his presidency , he was the 33rd Governor of California , from 1967 to 1975 , after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader .   Raised in a poor family in small towns of northern Illinois , Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on several regional radio stations . After moving to Hollywood in 1937 , he became an actor and starred in a few major productions . Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild , the labor union for actors , where he worked to root out Communist influence . In the 1950s , he moved into television and was a motivational speaker at General Electric factories . Having been a lifelong Democrat , his views changed . He became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party . In 1964 , Reagan 's speech , `` A Time for Choosing '' , in support of Barry Goldwater 's foundering presidential campaign , earned him national attention as a new conservative spokesman . Building a network of supporters , he was elected Governor of California in 1966 . As governor , Reagan raised taxes , turned a state budget deficit to a surplus , challenged the protesters at the University of California , ordered National Guard troops in during a period of protest movements in 1969 , and was re-elected in 1970 . He twice ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for the U.S. presidency in 1968 and 1976 ; four years later , he easily won the nomination outright , becoming the oldest elected U.S. president up to that time , defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980 .   Entering the presidency in 1981 , Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives . His supply-side economic policies , dubbed `` Reaganomics '' , advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth , control of the money supply to curb inflation , economic deregulation , and reduction in government spending . In his first term he survived an assassination attempt , spurred the War on Drugs , and fought public sector labor . Over his two terms , the economy saw a reduction of inflation from 12.5 % to 4.4 % , and an average annual growth of real GDP of 3.4 ; while Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending , tax cuts and increased military spending contributed to increased federal outlays overall , even after adjustment for inflation . During his re-election bid , Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was `` Morning in America '' , winning a landslide in 1984 with the largest electoral college victory in American history . Foreign affairs dominated his second term , including ending of the Cold War , the bombing of Libya , and the Iran -- Contra affair . Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an `` evil empire '' , and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate , President Reagan challenged Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev to `` tear down this wall ! '' . He transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback , by escalating an arms race with the USSR while engaging in talks with Gorbachev , which culminated in the INF Treaty , shrinking both countries ' nuclear arsenals . Reagan 's presidency came during the decline of the Soviet Union and just ten months after the end of his term , the Berlin Wall fell , and on December 26 , 1991 , nearly three years after he left office , the Soviet Union collapsed .   Leaving office in 1989 , Reagan held an approval rating of sixty-eight percent , matching those of Franklin D. Roosevelt , and later Bill Clinton , as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . He was the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two full terms , after a succession of five prior presidents failed to do so . While having planned an active post-presidency , in 1994 Reagan disclosed his diagnosis with Alzheimer 's disease earlier that year , appearing publicly for the last time at the funeral of Richard Nixon ; he died ten years later in 2004 at the age of 93 ; Reagan had the second-longest life out of all the presidents ; the current longest lifespan of a president is held by Gerald Ford , who died two years after Reagan . An icon among Republicans , he is viewed favorably in historian rankings of U.S. presidents , and his tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the U.S.

neg: Great Purge The Great Purge or the Great Terror was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union which occurred from 1936 to 1938 . It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and government officials , repression of peasants and the Red Army leadership , and widespread police surveillance , suspicion of `` saboteurs '' , `` counter-revolutionaries '' , imprisonment , and arbitrary executions . In Russian historiography , the period of the most intense purge , 1937 -- 1938 , is called Yezhovshchina ( Ежовщина literally , `` Yezhov phenomenon '' , According to the dictionary , the suffix - shchina in this case produces a word which refers to some kind of phenomenon associated with the word to which the suffix is attached . Quote : `` 1 . Словообразовательная единица , образующая имена существительные женского рода , которые обозначают бытовое или общественное явление , идейное или политическое течение , характеризующееся признаком , названным < ... > ''  Juraj Sipko ( Sipko J. Etnopsyholingvisticke predpoklady slovensko-ruskych a rusko-slovenskych porovnavani , Presov , 2003 ) comparing Russian and Slovak languages , points out that in Russian the suffix - shchina ( in meaning 1 given by Efremova ) most commonly bears openly negative or derisive connotations . commonly translated as `` times of Yezhov '' or `` doings of Yezhov '' ) , after Nikolai Yezhov , the head of the Soviet secret police , NKVD . Mobile gas vans were invented to kill people . It has been estimated between 600,000 and 3 million people died at the hands of the Soviet government during the Purge .   In the Western world , Robert Conquest 's 1968 book The Great Terror popularized that phrase . Conquest 's title was in turn an allusion to the period called the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution ( French : la Terreur , and , from June to July 1794 , la Grande Terreur , the Great Terror ) .

neg: Old Bolshevik Old Bolshevik ( ста́рый большеви́к , stary bolshevik ) , also Old Bolshevik Guard or Old Party Guard , became an unofficial designation for those who were members of the Bolshevik party before the Russian Revolution of 1917 . Many of the Old Guard were either tried and executed by the NKVD during the Great Purge of 1936 -- 38 or died under suspicious circumstances .   Vladimir Lenin expressed the opinion that what one could call the `` old party guard '' , a `` thinnest layer '' , had a `` huge , unshared prestige '' .   According to a 1972 Soviet book by D.A. Chygayev , in 1922 there were 44,148 Old Bolsheviks . Vadim Rogovin cites the statistics published by the 13th Congress of the Russian Communist Party ( Bolsheviks ) , that in 1924 , of 600,000 Party members , 0.6 % joined before 1905 , 2 % joined in 1906 -- 1916 and < 9 % joined in 1917 .   Joseph Stalin removed many of the Old Bolsheviks from power during the Great Purge of the 1930s . ( The most prominent survivors in the Communist Party were Lazar Kaganovich , Vyacheslav Molotov , Kliment Voroshilov , Anastas Mikoyan , and Stalin himself . ) Some were executed for treason ; some were sent to labor camps ( the Gulag ) ; and a few , such as Alexandra Kollontai , went abroad as ambassadors , preventing them from participating in the central government . Many communist opponents of Stalin , most notably the Trotskyists , cite this fact in support of their argument that Stalin betrayed the aims of the revolution ; they believed in Permanent Revolution , while Stalin and his supporters believed in Socialism in One Country .   Various things in the Soviet Union , such as a publishing house , several steamships , motorboats , kolkhozes and settlements , gained the name Old Bolshevik .   The first prominent Old Bolshevik to die was Yakov Sverdlov in 1919 ; the last was Lazar Kaganovich in 1991 who also reached the greatest age .

neg: The State (book) __ NOTOC __   The State ( Der Staat ) is a book by German sociologist Franz Oppenheimer first published in Germany in 1908 . Oppenheimer wrote the book in Frankfurt am Main during 1907 , as a fragment of the four-volume System of Sociology , an intended interpretative framework for the understanding of social evolution on which he laboured from the 1890s until the end of his life . The work summarizes Oppenheimer 's general theory on the origin , development and future transformation of the state . The State , which Oppenheimer 's missionary zeal pervades , was widely read and passionately discussed in the early 20th century . It was well received by -- and influential on -- as diverse an audience as Israeli halutzim , American and Slavic communitarians , West German Chancellor Ludwig Erhard , and anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard .   A classical liberal and socialist sympathiser , Oppenheimer regarded capitalism as `` a system of exploitation and capital revenues as the gain of that exploitation '' , but placed the blame not on the genuinely free market , but on the intervention of the state . Oppenheimer 's view of the state is profoundly opposed to the then dominant characterisation propounded by G. W. F. Hegel of the state as an admirable achievement of modern civilisation . Proponents of this view tend to accept the social contract view that the State came about as every larger groups of people agreed to subordinate their private interests for the common good .   In contrast , Opphenheimer 's view was an advancement of the `` conquest theory '' of the state that developed during the late 19th century by Ludwig Gumplowicz . According to conquest theory , the state came into being through war and conquest , a consequence of which was the establishment of social classes ; the dominant conquerors and the subordinate conquered . This , in turn , led to the emergence of a political system to consolidate the power of the conquerors , to perpetuate and regulate class divisions . Oppenheimer 's views led the American essayist , Albert Jay Nock , writing in the first half of the 20th century , to remark that in his own book , Our Enemy , the State :

neg: 2006 Russian ban of Moldovan and Georgian wines The 2006 Russian import ban of Moldovan and Georgian wines began in late March 2006 and created a diplomatic conflict between the Republic of Moldova and Georgia on the one hand and Russia on the other . Wine trade with Russia is responsible for 80-90 % of the total wine exports in both countries .   The Chief Sanitary Inspector of Russia Gennadiy Onishchenko claimed that heavy metals and pesticides had been found in Georgian and Moldovan wines and that they were falsified alcoholic products labeled as wines . The Russian Consumer Agency claimed that it had examined 21 sorts of Georgian wine sold in Moscow and concluded that 85.7 % did not comply with sanitary requirements . Pesticides were discovered in 60 % samples of Moldovan and 44 % samples of Georgian wine . However , the Moldovans claimed that no proof was provided by the Russians and that dozens of countries across the world imported Moldovan wines without any reported problems . Moldova argued that the ban amounted to economic blackmail . Seven Georgian wineries were later closed down after the government revision revealed that they had produced falsified wine .   In May 2005 , Georgian Defense Minister Irakli Okruashvili stated that `` many -LSB- Georgian -RSB- wine producers exported falsified wine to Russia , because Russia is a market where you can sell even turds '' . Okruashvili thought that Russia 's decision to ban the import of Georgian wines `` was not a surprise '' for Tbilisi .   Russia accounted for 80 % of Georgian wine sales , and the ban became a `` big blow '' to the industry . Georgian producers swiftly admitted that wines were regularly faked . Prior to the ban , the Georgian government closed down several testing laboratories in Georgia , and several wineries were made to dump their product . Seven Georgian wineries were closed down after the government revision revealed that they had produced falsified wine . Production of falsified wine in Georgia for the rapidly expanding Russian market had been `` big business for the last decade '' according to the Western press .   The ban on wine imports came at a time of worsening relations between the countries . The differences involved the Rose Revolution and pro-NATO/pro-EU moves in Georgia and a divergence of the Russian and Moldovan positions regarding the future of Transnistria . A year earlier , the Russian Duma had demanded a ban on Moldovan wine imports , because Moldova was considered to pursue anti-Russian policies .   EU 's external relations commissioner , Benita Ferrero-Waldner stated that the EU was worried about what she called an `` embargo '' against Moldova , but the EU could n't take any measures since Russia was not a member of the World Trade Organization .  The president of NATO Parliamentary Assembly Pierre Lellouche also said , on May 5 , he was deeply concerned about the Russian ban on Georgian products .   From 5 May to 6 May 2006 , the Russian government also banned the import of Borjomi and Nabeglavi , two popular brands of Georgian mineral water .  The government claimed that it was a health hazard since it failed to meet water purity standards . The Georgian government responded by stating that the action was an expansion of the wine embargo and a part of a political campaign to punish the country for pro-Western policies , a claim President Mikheil Saakashvili of Georgia reiterated at the Conference on Common Vision for Common Neighborhood held in Vilnius , Lithuania , from May 1 to 4 , and attended also by the presidents of the three Baltic states , Poland , Ukraine , Moldova , Romania , Bulgaria and the United States Vice-President Richard Cheney .   Neither the Georgian or Moldovan wines , nor the Borjomi or Nabeglavi mineral waters had been banned nor restricted in any other country besides Russia . One Russian expert has also criticized the Russian ban on `` Borjomi '' .   The drink ban appeared to exacerbate tensions between Russia and the Government of Georgia . The 2008 South Ossetia war would occur later that year . Following the conflict , Georgia also withdrew from the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) , a bloc of several post-Soviet countries .   Georgian wines are currently ( 2013 ) sold in over 50 countries , including Ukraine , which became the key market after the Russian ban . However , sales fell sharply , to about one third of what Georgia exported prior to the ban .

neg: Lebensraum The German concept of Lebensraum ( -LSB- ˈleːbənsˌʁaʊm -RSB- , `` living space '' ) refers to policies and practices of settler colonialism which proliferated in Germany from the 1890s to the 1940s . First popularized around 1901 , Lebensraum became a geopolitical goal of Imperial Germany in World War I ( 1914 -- 1918 ) originally , as the core element of the Septemberprogramm of territorial expansion . The most extreme form of this ideology was supported by the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) and Nazi Germany until the end of World War II .   Following Adolf Hitler 's rise to power Lebensraum became an ideological principle of Nazism , and provided justification for the German territorial expansion into East-Central Europe . The Nazi Generalplan Ost policy ( the Master Plan for the East ) was based on its tenets . It stipulated that most of the indigenous populations of Eastern Europe would have to be removed permanently ( either through mass deportation to Siberia , death , or enslavement ) including Polish , Ukrainian , Russian , and other Slavic nations considered racially inferior and non-Aryan . The Nazi government aimed at repopulating these lands with Germanic colonists in the name of Lebensraum during World War II and thereafter . The entire populations were to be decimated by starvation , allowing for their own agricultural surplus to feed Germany .   Hitler 's strategic program for world domination was based on the belief in the power of Lebensraum , pursued by a racially superior society . People deemed to be part of inferior races , within the territory of Lebensraum expansion , were subjected to expulsion or destruction . The eugenics of Lebensraum assumed the right of the German Aryan master race ( Herrenvolk ) to remove indigenous people they considered to be of inferior racial stock ( Untermenschen ) in the name of their own living space . Nazi Germany also supported other ` Aryan ' nations ' pursuing their own Lebensraum , including Fascist Italy 's Spazio vitale .

neg: Mao Tse-tung: Ruler of Red China Mao Tse-tung : Ruler of Red China is a book written by Robert Payne and published by Henry Schuman , New York in 1950 , shortly after Mao Zedong ( here his name is transliterated as Mao Tse-tung ) came to power . Fifteen years before the Cultural Revolution , Payne anticipated Mao 's wider interests :   Mao holds all the arts of China in his hands . Lenin had neither the learning nor the inclination to assume the role of transformer of culture . Mao , far more widely read and with a comparable subtlety of mind , has clearly determined to accept the position thrust on him , and no one can foresee the changes in the basic structure of Chinese culture which will derive ultimately from his will .   Though lacking some of the documents and details that were available in later years , the book discusses the party 's history , including its foundation , in detail . In chapter three , Payne explains how Pravda in 1920 had wrongly reported the formation of a Communist Party of China . This was actually a conference consisting of a mixed bag of anarchists and non-Leninist socialists which `` ended in a fiasco '' .   A revised and updated edition was published in 1961 as Portrait of a Revolutionary : Mao Tse-tung . The original edition has been republished several times in recent years : as a paperback in 2007 , as a hardback in 2008 and on Kindle in 2011 .

neg: Andrei Kirilenko (politician) Andrei Pavlovich Kirilenko ( -LSB- Андре́й Па́влович Кириле́нко , p = ɐnˈdrʲej ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ kʲɪrʲɪˈlʲɛnkə -RSB- -- 12 May 1990 ) was a Soviet statesman from the start to the end of the Cold War . In 1906 , Kirilenko was born at Alexeyevka in Belgorod Oblast to a Ukrainian working-class family . He graduated in the 1920s from a local vocational school , and again in the mid-to-late 1930s from the Rybinsk Aviation Technology Institute . He became a member of the All-Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1930 . As many like him , Kirilenko climbed up the Soviet hierarchy through the `` industrial ladder '' ; by the 1960s , he was Vice-Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) . After Nikita Khrushchev 's forced resignation , Kirilenko became Leonid Brezhnev 's `` chief lieutenant '' within the Central Committee .   His main objective was to ensure Brezhnev 's power base and , if possible , to strengthen Brezhnev 's position within the Party . He was the first organisational secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) from Khrushchev 's ouster to the death of Leonid Brezhnev . Kirilenko was responsible for personnel selection and detailed supervision of the economic planning of the CPSU during most of the Brezhnev Era . In 1976 , Brezhnev appointed Konstantin Chernenko to be his `` counterweight '' in the Central Committee ( CC ) . He became a member of the Political Bureau ( Politburo ) in 1965 . He was forced to resign from active politics due to health reasons and because Yuri Andropov was appointed to the General Secretaryship . When Andropov became General Secretary in 1982 , Kirilenko was pushed aside . He died on 12 May 1990 in Moscow .

neg: State socialism State socialism is a classification for any socialist political and economic perspective advocating state ownership of the means of production either as a temporary measure in the transition from capitalism to socialism , or as characteristic of socialism itself . It is often used interchangeably with state capitalism in reference to the economic systems of Marxist -- Leninist states such as the Soviet Union to highlight the role of state planning in these economies , with the critics of said system referring to it more commonly as `` state capitalism '' . Libertarian and democratic socialists claim that these states had only a limited number of socialist characteristics . However , Marxists-Leninists maintain that workers in the Soviet Union and other Marxist-Leninist states had genuine control over the means of production through institutions such as trade unions .   State socialism is held in contrast with libertarian socialism , which rejects the view that socialism can be constructed by using existing state institutions or by governmental policies . By contrast , proponents of state socialism claim that the state , through practical considerations of governing , must play at least a temporary part in building socialism . It is possible to conceive of a democratic state that owns the means of production but is internally organized in a participatory , cooperative fashion , thereby achieving both social ownership of productive property and workplace democracy in day-to-day operations .

neg: Russian mafia Russian organized crime or Russian mafia , sometimes referred to as Bratva ( : `` brotherhood '' ) , is a collective of various organized crime elements originating in the former Soviet Union .   Organized crime in Russia began in the imperial period of the Tsars , but it was not until the Soviet era that vory v zakone ( `` thieves-in-law '' ) emerged as leaders of prison groups in gulags ( Soviet prison labor camps ) , and their honor code became more defined . After World War II , the death of Joseph Stalin , and the fall of the Soviet Union , more gangs emerged in a flourishing black market , exploiting the unstable governments of the former Republics , and at its highest point , even controlling as much as two-thirds of the Russian economy . Louis Freeh , former director of the FBI , said that the Russian mafia posed the greatest threat to U.S. national security in the mid-1990s .   In modern times , there are as many as 6,000 different groups , with more than 200 of them having a global reach . Criminals of these various groups are either former prison members , corrupt officials and business leaders , people with ethnic ties , or people from the same region with shared criminal experiences and leaders . However , the existence of such groups has been debated . In December 2009 , Timur Lakhonin , the head of the Russian National Central Bureau of Interpol , stated `` Certainly , there is crime involving our former compatriots abroad , but there is no data suggesting that an organized structure of criminal groups comprising former Russians exists abroad '' , while in August 2010 , Alain Bauer , a French criminologist , said that it `` is one of the best structured criminal organizations in Europe , with a quasi-military operation . ''

neg: Origins of the Cold War The Origins of the Cold War are widely regarded to lie most directly in the relations between the Soviet Union and the allies ( the United States , Great Britain and France ) in the years 1945 -- 1947 . Those events led to the Cold War that endured for just under half a century .   Events preceding the Second World War , and even the Russian Revolution of 1917 , underlay pre -- World War II tensions between the Soviet Union , western European countries and the United States . A series of events during and after World War II exacerbated tensions , including the Soviet-German pact during the first two years of the war leading to subsequent invasions , the perceived delay of an amphibious invasion of German-occupied Europe , the western allies ' support of the Atlantic Charter , disagreement in wartime conferences over the fate of Eastern Europe , the Soviets ' creation of an Eastern Bloc of Soviet satellite states , western allies scrapping the Morgenthau Plan to support the rebuilding of German industry , and the Marshall Plan .

neg: We begin bombing in five minutes On August 11 , 1984 , United States President Ronald Reagan , while running for re-election , was preparing to make his weekly Saturday radio address on National Public Radio . During a sound check before the address , Reagan made the following joke to the radio technicians : `` My fellow Americans , I 'm pleased to tell you today that I 've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever . We begin bombing in five minutes . '' The joke was a parody of the opening line of that day 's speech : `` My fellow Americans , I 'm pleased to tell you that today I signed legislation that will allow student religious groups to begin enjoying a right they 've too long been denied -- the freedom to meet in public high schools during nonschool hours , just as other student groups are allowed to do . ''   Contrary to popular misconception , this microphone gaffe was not broadcast over the air , but rather leaked later to the general populace . But the Tokyo newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun reported in October 1984 that the Soviet Far East Army was placed on alert after word of the statement got out and that the alert was not withdrawn until 30 minutes later . An unnamed aide to US Representative Michael Barnes ( D-Md . ) confirmed that the Pentagon was aware of the alert . There was no report of any change in the DEFCON level for the United States . The Soviet reaction , and mild confusion it created , was covered by NBC news anchor Tom Brokaw .   This was not the first time Reagan had joked before giving a speech or address . The Soviet official news agency , TASS , condemned the joke , declaring that `` The USSR condemns this unprecedented and hostile attack by the US President '' and that `` this kind of behavior is incompatible with the great responsibility borne by heads of nuclear states for the destinies of their own people and mankind '' .

neg: Axis of evil The term axis of evil was used by U.S. President George W. Bush in his State of the Union address on January 29 , 2002 , and often repeated throughout his presidency , to describe governments that his administration accused of sponsoring terrorism and seeking weapons of mass destruction . Iran , Iraq , and North Korea were portrayed by Bush during the State of the Union as building nuclear weapons . The notion of such an axis was used to pinpoint these common enemies of the United States and rally the American populace in support of the War on Terror .

neg: Superstate A superstate is defined as `` a large and powerful State formed when several smaller countries unite '' , `` A large and powerful state formed from a federation or union of nations '' .  This is distinct from the concept of superpower , although these are frequently seen together . It is also distinct from the concept of empire , where one nation dominates other nations through military , political , and economic power , although an empire may also be a superstate .   In the early 20th century , `` superstate '' had a similar definition as today 's supranational organisations . In a 1927 article by Edward A. Harriman on the League of Nations , a superstate was defined as merely `` an organisation , of which a state is a member , which is superior to the member themselves '' , in that '' -LSB- a -RSB- complete superstate has legislative , executive and judicial organs to make , to execute and to interpret its laws '' . According to this definition , Harriman saw the League of Nations as a `` rudimentary superstate '' , and the United States as `` an example of a complete and perfect superstate '' .   In World Order of Bahá ` u 'll áh , first published in 1938 , Shoghi Effendi , the Guardian of the Bahá ' í Faith , described the anticipated world government of that religion as the `` world 's future super-state '' with the Bahá ' í Faith as the `` State Religion of an independent and Sovereign Power . ''   In the 1970s , academic literature used the term `` superstate '' to indicate a particularly rich and powerful state , in a similar fashion to the term superpower .   In contemporary political debate , especially the one centred on the European Union , the term `` superstate '' is used to indicate a ( usually deemed unwelcome ) development in which the Union takes over the character of a State ( including the monopoly on violence ) thus abolishing the sovereignty and independence of its member states .  For instance , Glyn Morgan opposes the perspective of a `` European superstate '' to the ones of `` a Europe of nation-states '' and of `` a post-sovereign European polity '' . In her definition , a `` European superstate is nothing more than a sovereign state - a tried and tested type of polity that predominates in the modern world - operating on a European wide scale '' , i.e. , `` a unitary European state ''   The term was famously used by Margaret Thatcher in her 1988 Bruges speech , when she decried the perspective of `` a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels '' , and has since entered the eurosceptic lexicon .  Tony Blair argued in 2000 that he welcomed an EU as a `` superpower , not a superstate ''

neg: VSKhSON VSKhSON is an acronym for the All-Russian Social-Christian Union for the Liberation of the People ( -LSB- Всероссийский социал-христианский союз освобождения народа , translit = Vserossiyskiy sotsial-khristianskiy soyuz osvobozhdeniya naroda -RSB- ) , an underground anti-Soviet organization that operated in the Soviet Union during 1964 -- 1967 . The Union was founded by Leningrad State University alumni in February 1964 , and counted 28 members and 30 candidates .   VSKhSON ideology was named `` Social Christianity '' and has its roots in the Third Position , that neither communism nor capitalism . It was aimed to project of Christian ethics on a reformed social and economical structure of Soviet society . In order to achieve that goal , it was supposed to create the Supreme Council with the right to veto any government initiative , which should consist of one-third of members of the highest Russian Orthodox hierarchy , and two-third of life `` outstanding representatives of the nation '' , while the head of the proposed `` Christian state '' should be elected by the Supreme Council , then approved by the public vote .   VSKhSON members stood for the abolition of Soviet totalitarianism and the resurrection of a `` healthy balance between the individual , society , and government '' , and the resurrection of the individual ( versus Soviet collectivism ) . As compared to other secret youth organizations of the 1960s -- early 1970s , the bylaws of VSKhSON had stated that every member of the organization `` is not only a propagandist and organizer , but a soldier '' . In many ways the organization can be compared to the emigre National Alliance of Russian Solidarists .   In February 1967 , having been reported by a traitor , the organization was uncovered by the KGB and designated as terrorist . Twenty one of the organization 's members were put on trial and received long terms of internment . Co-founder Igor Ogurtsov was sentenced to seven years of imprisonment , eight years of labor camps and five years of exile . After returning to Russia in 1992 from exile in Germany , Ogurtsov continued a life of political activism .   The founders of the organization , Igor Ogurtsov , Yevgeny Vagin , Mikhail Sado and Boris Averichkin , have never been rehabilitated . The Presidium of the Supreme Court of Russia has affirmed the validity of the guilty verdict and sentence of VSKhSON members on 20 November 1996 .

neg: Terentii Shtykov Terentii Fomich Shtykov ( Russian : Терентий Штыков ; Korean : 테렌티 스티코프 ; -- 25 October 1964 ) was effectively the first supreme leader of North Korea , as the de facto head of its 1945-1951 military occupation and the first Soviet Ambassador to North Korea from 1948 until 1950 . Shtykov 's support for Kim Il-sung was crucial in Kim 's rise to power , and the two persuaded Stalin to allow the Korean War to begin in June 1950 .   A protégé of the influential politician Andrei Zhdanov , General Shtykov served as a political commissar during World War II , ending up on the Military Council of the Primorskiy Military District . Through direct access to Joseph Stalin , Shtykov became the `` real supreme ruler of North Korea , the principal supervisor of both the Soviet military and the local authorities . '' Shtykov conceived of the Soviet Civil Administration , supported Kim 's appointment as head of the North Korean provisional government , and assisted Stalin with editing the first North Korean constitution .   As the preeminent representative of the Soviet Union 's political authority over the nascent North Korea from October 1945 until December 1950 , Shtykov 's legacy was to aid the Kim family 's rise to power . The war they started freed Kim from Soviet domination ; China intervened following North Korea 's poor military performance in the early autumn . Shtykov was fired as ambassador in December and demoted to major general the following month . He later served as the Soviet ambassador to Hungary from 1959 to 1960 .   Andrei Lankov asserts that Shtykov made more impact on Korean history than any foreigner other than Japanese colonial politicians , and that he was `` the actual architect of the North Korean state as it emerged in 1945-50 . '' Several of Shtykov 's policies , most notably North Korean land reform , are today credited to Kim Il-sung by official North Korean media .

neg: United States presidential election in New York, 1980 The 1980 United States presidential election in New York took place on November 4 , 1980 . All 50 states and The District of Columbia , were part of the 1980 United States presidential election . New York voters chose forty one electors to the Electoral College , which voted for President and Vice President .   New York was won by former California Governor Ronald Reagan , in a narrow victory against President of the United States Jimmy Carter , who failed to gain reelection against Reagan . Also in the running was Independent candidate Congressman John B. Anderson of Illinois , who ran in New York as the Liberal Party candidate .   Reagan won the state with a plurality of 46.66 % of the vote to Carter 's 43.99 % , a margin of 2.67 % . Anderson finished in third with 7.54 % .   New York 's election results reflect the Republican Party 's re-consolidation of base under what is popularly called the `` Reagan Revolution , '' which sounded various overwhelming conservative electoral victories across the United States throughout the 1980s - and most evidently against the relatively unpopular President Carter during the 1980 presidential election .   New York weighed in for this election as more Democratic than the national average by about 7 % .   This election is notable in that , while the highly populated regions of New York City , Buffalo , and Albany turned out for Carter , the election in the state was tipped by the majority of less-populated upstate counties , combined with heavily populated suburban counties around NYC , most of which were won by Reagan . Carter actually picked up plurality wins in 2 counties which he had lost in 1976 : Monroe County , home to the city of Rochester , and Niagara County .   A major contributing factor to Reagan 's victory over Carter was the relatively strong third party showing by independent candidate John B. Anderson , a former liberal Republican congressman who garnered 8 % of the vote in the State - twice the 4 % margin by which Carter had won New York in 1976 . Running on the ballot line of New York 's Liberal Party , Anderson attracted the votes of many liberals and moderates who normally leaned Democratic but were dissatisfied with the policies of the Carter Administration , thus splitting the left-leaning vote in New York State .   In the heavily populated , and very liberal , 5 boroughs of New York City , Carter still won overall , and Reagan made only modest gains in vote share over Gerald Ford 's 1976 showing of 33 % , taking 37 % in the city in 1980 . However , although still winning 4 out of 5 boroughs , Carter bled a massive amount of support in the city to Anderson , dropping from 66 % in 1976 to only 55 % in 1980 . Since Democratic victories in New York State in that era depended on running up massive margins in New York City to overcome the rest of the state 's Republican lean , the reduced margin in the city from vote-splitting would prove fatal to Carter 's chances of winning the state in 1980 . While Reagan only bled about 1 % of Republican base support in the state ( winning a plurality in a 3-way-race with 46.66 % while Gerald Ford had lost the state in a two-man race with 47.52 % in 1976 ) , Carter bled nearly 8 % of his 1976 support , falling from a 51.95 % majority win in 1976 to a losing 43.99 % in 1980 , most of those lost Democratic base votes going to Anderson instead .   This remains the last election in which a Republican presidential nominee has won Tompkins County in upstate New York , home to the college town of Ithaca , where Cornell University and Ithaca College are located . Reagan narrowly won the county with a plurality of 42 % to Carter 's 40 % , while Anderson took nearly 14 % , making it Anderson 's strongest county in the state . In 1984 , Tompkins County would vote against Reagan and in the following years it would become the most Democratic county in upstate New York , giving Barack Obama over 70 % of the vote in 2008 .

neg: Iran crisis of 1946 The Iran crisis of 1946 , also known as the Iran-Azerbaijan Crisis ( Qaʾilih Âzarbâyjân , `` Azerbaijan crisis '' ) , followed the end of World War II and stemmed from the Soviet Union 's refusal to relinquish occupied Iranian territory , despite repeated assurances . In 1941 , Iran had been jointly invaded and occupied by the Allied powers of the Soviet Red Army in the north and by the British in the centre and south . Iran was used by the Americans and the British as a transportation route to provide vital supplies to the Soviet Union 's war efforts .   As of August 1941 , the United States was a neutral nation and had not yet entered as a belligerent in World War II . Therefore , the bloc known as ` The Allies ' were principally ( with Poland and France occupied by Germany in 1939 and 1940 , respectively ) the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union , recently forming their alliance after the German invasion of territories of the Western Soviet Union in June 1941 . In the aftermath of the occupation of Iran , those Allied forces agreed to withdraw from Iran within six months after the cessation of hostilities . However , when this deadline came in early 1946 , the Soviets , under Joseph Stalin , remained in Iran and local pro-Soviet Iranians proclaimed a separatist People 's Republic of Azerbaijan .   In late 1945 , in addition to the People 's Republic of Azerbaijan , the Republic of Mahabad also came into existence . Soon , the alliance of the Kurdish and People 's Azerbaijani forces , supported in arms and training by the Soviet Union , engaged in fighting with Iranian forces , resulting in a total of 2,000 casualties . Negotiation by Iranian premier Ahmad Qavam and diplomatic pressure on the Soviets by the United States eventually led to Soviet withdrawal . The crisis is seen as one of the early conflicts in the growing Cold War at the time .

neg: Politics (magazine 1944–1949) politics was a journal founded and edited by Dwight Macdonald from 1944 to 1949 .   Macdonald had previously been editor at Partisan Review from 1937 to 1943 , but after falling out with its publishers , quit to start politics as a rival publication , first on a monthly basis and then as a quarterly .   politics published essays on politics and culture and included among its contributors James Agee , John Berryman , Bruno Bettelheim , Paul Goodman , C. Wright Mills , Mary McCarthy , Marianne Moore , Irving Howe , Daniel Bell , Hannah Arendt .   The journal reflected Macdonald 's interest in European culture . He used politics to introduce US readers to the thinking of the French philosopher Simone Weil , publishing several articles by her , including `` A Poem of Force '' , her reflections on the Iliad . He also printed work by Albert Camus . Another European , the Italian political and literary critic Nicola Chiaromonte , was also given space in the journal .   politics was also Macdonald 's vehicle for his repeated and energetic attacks against Henry Wallace and his Progressive Party campaign for President .   In a letter to Philip Rahv at the end of December 1943 , George Orwell mentioned that Macdonald had written asking him to contribute to his forthcoming journal . Orwell had replied telling him he might `` do something ` cultural ' '' but not ` political ' as he was already writing his `` London Letters '' to Partisan Review .   In his `` As I Please '' article for the 16 June 1944 issue of Tribune , George Orwell recommended politics . He stated that he disagreed with its policy but admired `` its combination of highbrow political analysis with intelligent literary criticism . '' He went on to add that there were no monthly or quarterly magazines in England `` to come up to '' the American ones , of which there were several .   Macdonald , in an editorial comment for the November 1944 issue of politics referred to a letter from Orwell which cast interesting light on the ` russification ' of English political thought over the last two years . Orwell had read the May issue 's review of Harold Laski 's Faith , Reason and Civilisation and mentioned that the Manchester Evening News , the evening edition of the Manchester Guardian , had refused to print his own review because of its anti-Stalin implications . Despite considering the book `` pernicious tripe '' , Orwell had praised the author for being `` aware that the USSR is the real dynamo of the Socialist movement in this country and everywhere else . '' , but criticized him for shutting his eyes to `` purges , liquidations '' , etc. . Macdonald pointed out that the fact that such a review should be considered `` too hot '' shows how much the feats of the Red Army had misled the English public opinion about Russia . He added that the `` English liberal press had been far more honest about the Moscow Trials than our own liberal journals '' and that Trotsky had been able to write in the Guardian .

neg: Commonwealth of Independent States The Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ; -LSB- Содружество Независимых Государств , СНГ , r = Sodruzhestvo Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv , SNG -RSB- ) , also called the Russian Commonwealth ( to distinguish it from the British Commonwealth of Nations ) , is a regional organization formed during the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Nine out of the 15 former Soviet Republics are member states , and two are associate members ( Ukraine and Turkmenistan ) . Georgia withdrew its membership in 2008 , while the Baltic states , which regard their membership in the Soviet Union as an illegal occupation , ( Estonia , Lithuania and Latvia ) chose not to participate .   The CIS has few supranational powers but aims to be more than a purely symbolic organization , nominally possessing coordinating powers in the realms of trade , finance , lawmaking , and security . It has also promoted cooperation on cross-border crime prevention . Furthermore , eight of the nine CIS member states participate in the CIS Free Trade Area . Three organizations are under the overview of the CIS , namely the Collective Security Treaty Organization , the Eurasian Economic Union ( alongside subdivisions , the Eurasian Customs Union and the Eurasian Economic Space , which comprises territory inhabited by over 180 million people ) , and the Union State . While the first and the second are military and economic alliances , the third aims to reach a confederation of Russia and Belarus with a common government , flag , currency , etc. .

neg: Dictator A dictator is a political leader who wields absolute power . A state ruled by a dictator is called a dictatorship . The word originated as the title of a magistrate in the Roman Republic appointed by the Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency ( see Roman dictator and justitium ) .   Like the term `` tyrant '' ( which was originally a respectable Ancient Greek title ) , and to a lesser degree `` autocrat '' , `` dictator '' came to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive , even abusive rule , yet had rare modern titular use .   In modern usage , the term `` dictator '' is generally used to describe a leader who holds and/or abuses an extraordinary amount of personal power , especially the power to make laws without effective restraint by a legislative assembly . Dictatorships are often characterised by some of the following traits : suspension of elections and of civil liberties ; proclamation of a state of emergency ; rule by decree ; repression of political opponents without abiding by rule of law procedures ; these include one-party state , and cult of personality .   The term `` dictator '' is comparable to but not synonymous with the ancient concept of a tyrant ; initially `` tyrant '' , like `` dictator '' , did not carry negative connotations . A wide variety of leaders coming to power in a number of different kinds of regimes , such as military juntas , one-party states and civilian governments under personal rule , have been described as dictators . They may hold left or right-wing views , or may be apolitical .