query: Einstein was failed to complete his PhD in 1905.

pos: Albert Einstein Albert Einstein ( -LSB- ˈaɪnstaɪn -RSB- -LSB- ˈalbɛɐ̯t ˈaɪnʃtaɪn -RSB- ; 14 March 1879 -- 18 April 1955 ) was a German-born theoretical physicist . He developed the theory of relativity , one of the two pillars of modern physics ( alongside quantum mechanics ) . Einstein 's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science . Einstein is best known by the general public for his mass -- energy equivalence formula ( which has been dubbed `` the world 's most famous equation '' ) . He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics `` for his services to theoretical physics , and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect '' , a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory .   Near the beginning of his career , Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field . This led him to develop his special theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern ( 1902 -- 1909 ) , Switzerland . He realized , however , that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields , and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916 , he published a paper on general relativity . He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory , which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules . He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light . In 1917 , Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe .   Between 1895 and 1914 he lived in Switzerland ( except for one year in Prague , 1911 -- 12 ) , where he received his academic diploma from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich ( later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule , ETH ) in 1900 . He later taught there at the same institute as a professor of theoretical physics between 1912 and 1914 before he left for Berlin . In 1901 , after being stateless for more than five years , Einstein acquired Swiss citizenship , which he kept for the rest of his life . In 1905 , Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zürich . The same year , his annus mirabilis ( miracle year ) , he published four groundbreaking papers , which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world , at the age of 26 .   He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and , being Jewish , did not go back to Germany , where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences . He settled in the United States , becoming an American citizen in 1940 . On the eve of World War II , he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of `` extremely powerful bombs of a new type '' and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research . This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project . Einstein supported defending the Allied forces , but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon . Later , with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell , Einstein signed the Russell -- Einstein Manifesto , which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons . Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , until his death in 1955 .   Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works . Einstein 's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word `` Einstein '' synonymous with `` genius '' .

neg: Isaac Newton in popular culture Isaac Newton was an English scientist , mathematician , natural philosopher , theologian and one of the most influential scientists in human history . His Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica , published in 1687 , is considered to be one of the most influential book in the history of science , laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics . In this work , Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries . In mathematics , Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the differential and integral calculus .   Because of the resounding impact of his work , Newton became a scientific icon , much like Albert Einstein after his theory of relativity . Many books , plays , and films focus on Newton or use Newton as a literary device . Newton 's stature among scientists remains at the very top rank , as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of scientists in Britain 's Royal Society ( formerly headed by Newton ) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science , Newton or Albert Einstein . Newton was deemed the more influential . In 1999 , leading physicists voted Einstein `` greatest physicist ever ; '' Newton was the runner-up .

neg: Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences The Institute of Philosophy was founded as the Institute of Scientific Philosophy in 1921 by Gustav Shpet , who was its first director until 1923 . The philosophy department of the University of Moscow had been disbanded in the summer of 1921 , however philosophers such as Semyon Frank and Ivan Ilyin attempted to set up temporary courses at the new institute . However , the Bolsheviks soon put a stop to this and Frank and Ilyin where amongst the deportees sent into exile on the philosophers ' ships . Shpet 's name was put forward for deportation but Anatoli Lunacharsky , the People 's Commissar for Education , intervened and he was allowed to remain in Russia .

neg: Scientific theory A scientific theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can , in accordance with the scientific method , be repeatedly tested , using a predefined protocol of observations and experiments . Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and are a comprehensive form of scientific knowledge .   It is important to note that the definition of a `` scientific theory '' ( often ambiguously contracted to `` theory '' for the sake of brevity , including in this page ) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word `` theory '' . Per NAS 2008 : `` The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word . It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence . '' In everyday non-scientific speech , `` theory '' can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess , conjecture , idea , or , hypothesis ; such a usage is the opposite of the word `` theory '' in science . These different usages are comparable to the differing , and often opposing , usages of the term `` prediction '' in science versus `` prediction '' in vernacular speech , denoting a mere hope .   The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain . As additional scientific evidence is gathered , a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new empirical findings ; in such circumstances , a more accurate theory is then desired . In certain cases , the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful ( due to its sheer simplicity ) as an approximation under specific conditions ( e.g. , Newton 's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light ) .   Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions . They describe the causal elements responsible for a particular natural phenomenon , and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry ( e.g. , electricity , chemistry , astronomy ) . Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge , as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease .   As with other forms of scientific knowledge , scientific theories are both deductive and inductive in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability .   Paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and science historian Stephen Jay Gould said , `` ... facts and theories are different things , not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty . Facts are the world ′ s data . Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts . ''

neg: Lloyd Berkner Lloyd Viel Berkner ( February 1 , 1905 in Milwaukee , Wisconsin -- June 4 , 1967 in Washington , D.C. ) was an American physicist and engineer . He was one of the inventors of the measuring device that since has become standard at ionospheric stations because it measures the height and electron density of the ionosphere . The data obtained in the worldwide net of such instruments were important for the developing theory of short wave radio propagation to which Berkner himself gave important contributions .   Later he investigated the development of the Earth 's atmosphere . Since he needed data from the whole world , he proposed the International Geophysical Year in 1950 . At that time , the IGY was the largest cooperative study of the Earth ever undertaken .   Berkner was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956 . The IGY was carried out by the International Council of Scientific Unions while he was president in 1957-59 . He was also a member of the President 's Scientific Advisory Committee in 1958 while he was president of Associated Universities Inc. .   In 1963 , Berkner , with L.C. Marshall , advanced a theory to describe the way in which the atmospheres of the solar system 's inner planets had evolved .   Beginning in 1926 , as a naval officer , Berkner assisted in the development of radar and navigation systems , naval aircraft electronics engineering , and studies that led to the construction of the Distant Early Warning system , a chain of radar stations designed to give the United States advance warning in the event of a missile attack across the North Pole .   Berkner worked with Dallas community leaders to establish the Graduate Research Center of the Southwest ( later renamed the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies , which would eventually become The University of Texas at Dallas ) .   He wrote more than 100 papers and several books , including Rockets and Satellites ( 1958 ) , Science in Space ( 1961 ) , and The Scientific Age ( 1964 ) .   In 1961 , Berkner was president of the Institute of Radio Engineers .

neg: Quantum spacetime In mathematical physics , the concept of quantum spacetime is a generalization of the usual concept of spacetime in which some variables that ordinarily commute are assumed not to commute and form a different Lie algebra . The choice of that algebra still varies from theory to theory .  As a result of this change some variables that are usually continuous may become discrete .  Often only such discrete variables are called `` quantized '' ; usage varies .  The idea of quantum spacetime was proposed in the early days of quantum theory by Heisenberg and Ivanenko  as a way to eliminate infinities from quantum field theory .  The germ of the idea passed from Heisenberg to Rudolf Peierls , who noted that electrons in a magnetic field  can be regarded as moving in a quantum space-time , and to Robert Oppenheimer , who carried it  to Hartland Snyder ,  who published the first concrete example .  Snyder 's Lie algebra was made simple by C. N. Yang in the same year .   Physical reasons have been given to believe that physical spacetime is a quantum spacetime .  In quantum mechanics position and momentum variables are already noncommutative , obey the Heisenberg uncertainty principle , and are continuous .  Because of the Heisenberg uncertainty relations , greater energy is needed to probe smaller distances .  Ultimately , according to gravity theory , the probing particles form black holes that destroy what was to be measured . The process can not be repeated , so it can not be counted as a measurement .  This limited measurability led many to expect that our usual picture of continuous commutative spacetime breaks down at Planck scale distances , if not sooner .   Again , physical spacetime is expected to be quantum because physical coordinates are already slightly noncommutative .  The astronomical coordinates of a star are modified by gravitational fields between us and the star , as in the deflection of light by the sun , one of the classic tests of general relativity .  Therefore the coordinates actually depend on gravitational field variables .  According to quantum theories of gravity these field variables do not commute ;  therefore coordinates that depend on them likely do not commute .   Both arguments are based on pure gravity and quantum theory , and they limit the measurement of time  by the only time constant in pure quantum gravity , the Planck time .  Our instruments , however , are not purely gravitational but are made of particles . They may set a more severe , larger , limit than the Planck time .   Quantum spacetimes are often described mathematically using the noncommutative geometry of Connes ,  quantum geometry , or quantum groups .   Any noncommutative algebra with at least four generators could be interpreted as a quantum spacetime , but  the following desiderata have been suggested :   Local Lorentz group and Poincaré group symmetries should be retained , possibly in a generalised form . Their generalisation often takes the form of a quantum group acting on the quantum spacetime algebra .  The algebra might plausibly arise in an effective description of quantum gravity effects in some regime of that theory . For example , a physical parameter , perhaps the Planck length , might control the deviation from commutative classical spacetime , so that ordinary Lorentzian spacetime arises as .  There might be a notion of quantum differential calculus on the quantum spacetime algebra , compatible with the ( quantum ) symmetry and preferably reducing to the usual differential calculus as .  This would permit wave equations for particles and fields and facilitate predictions for experimental deviations from classical spacetime physics that can then be tested experimentally .   The Lie algebra should be semisimple ( Yang , I. E. Segal 1947 ) . This makes it easier to formulate a finite theory .   Several models were found in the 1990s more or less meeting most of the above criteria .

neg: Spacetime In physics , spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single interwoven continuum .   Until the turn of the 20th century , the assumption had been that the three-dimensional geometry of the universe ( its description in terms of locations , shapes , distances , and directions ) was distinct from time ( the measurement of when events occur within the universe ) . However , Albert Einstein 's 1905 special theory of relativity postulated that the speed of light through empty space has one definite value -- a constant -- that is independent of the motion of the light source . Einstein 's equations precisely described important consequences of this fact : both the shape of space and the measurement of time simultaneously change for observers who have different relative velocities , which is to say , for observers who have different inertial frames of reference .   Einstein 's theory was framed in terms of kinematics ( the study of moving bodies ) , and showed how measurements of space and time varied for observers in different reference frames . His theory was a breakthrough advance over Lorentz 's 1904 theory of electromagnetic phenomena and Poincaré 's electrodynamic theory . Although these theories included equations identical to those that Einstein introduced ( i.e. the Lorentz transformation ) , they were essentially ad hoc models proposed to explain the results of various experiments -- including the famous Michelson -- Morley interferometer experiment -- that were extremely difficult to fit into existing paradigms .   In 1908 , Hermann Minkowski , expanding upon Einstein 's work , presented a geometric interpretation of special relativity that fused time and the three spatial dimensions of space into a single four-dimensional continuum now known as Minkowski space -- an example of what mathematicians call a 4‑dimensional manifold . A key feature of this interpretation is the definition of a spacetime interval that combines distance and time . Although measurements of distance and time between events differ among observers , the spacetime interval is independent of the inertial frame of reference in which they are recorded .

neg: Einstein Gargoyle Einstein Gargoyle , also referred to as Albert Einstein , Einstein , and Einstein Gargoyles , is an outdoor 1986 sculpture by Wayne Chabre , installed on the exterior of Willamette Hall on the University of Oregon campus in Eugene , Oregon , United States . The portrait bust depicts Albert Einstein in high relief with a fluttering necktie , and was inspired by a photograph of the scientist on his birthday . It is made of hammered copper sheet and measures approximately 2.5 ft x 1.5 ft x 1.5 ft. The sculpture 's condition was undetermined when it was surveyed by the Smithsonian Institution 's `` Save Outdoor Sculpture ! '' program in March 1993 . The sculpture is administered by the University of Oregon .

neg: Einstein Telescope Einstein Telescope ( ET ) or Einstein Observatory , is a proposed third-generation ground-based gravitational wave detector , currently under study by some institutions in the European Union . It will be able to test Einstein 's general theory of relativity in strong field conditions and realize precision gravitational wave astronomy .   The ET is a design study project supported by the European Commission under the Framework Programme 7 ( FP7 ) . It concerns the study and the conceptual design for a new research infrastructure in the emergent field of gravitational-wave astronomy .

neg: Leo Szilard Leo Szilard ( -LSB- ˈsɪlɑːrd -RSB- Szilárd Leó -LSB- ˈsila : rd ˈlɛo : -RSB- ; Leo Spitz until age 2 ; February 11 , 1898 -- May 30 , 1964 ) was a Hungarian-born physicist and inventor . He conceived the nuclear chain reaction in 1933 , patented the idea of a nuclear reactor with Enrico Fermi , and in late 1939 wrote the letter for Albert Einstein 's signature that resulted in the Manhattan Project that built the atomic bomb .   Szilard initially attended Palatine Joseph Technical University in Budapest , but his engineering studies were interrupted by service in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I . He left Hungary for Germany in 1919 , enrolling at Technische Hochschule ( Institute of Technology ) in Berlin-Charlottenburg , but became bored with engineering and transferred to Friedrich Wilhelm University , where he studied physics . He wrote his doctoral thesis on Maxwell 's demon , a long-standing puzzle in the philosophy of thermal and statistical physics . Szilard was the first to recognize the connection between thermodynamics and Information theory .   In addition to the nuclear reactor , Szilard submitted patent applications for a linear accelerator in 1928 , and a cyclotron in 1929 . He also conceived the idea of an electron microscope . Between 1926 and 1930 , he worked with Einstein on the development of the Einstein refrigerator . After Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1933 , Szilard urged his family and friends to flee Europe while they still could . He moved to England , where he helped found the Academic Assistance Council , an organization dedicated to helping refugee scholars find new jobs . While in England he discovered a means of isotope separation known as the Szilard -- Chalmers effect .   Foreseeing another war in Europe , Szilard moved to the United States in 1938 , where he worked with Enrico Fermi and Walter Zinn on means of creating a nuclear chain reaction . He was present when this was achieved on December 2 , 1942 . He worked for the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory on aspects of nuclear reactor design . He drafted the Szilard petition advocating a demonstration of the atomic bomb , but the Interim Committee chose to use them against cities without warning .   After the war , Szilard switched to biology . He invented the chemostat , discovered feedback inhibition , and was involved in the first cloning of a human cell . He publicly sounded the alarm against the possible development of salted thermonuclear bombs , a new kind of nuclear weapon that might annihilate mankind . Diagnosed with bladder cancer in 1960 , he underwent treatment using a cobalt-60 treatment that he had designed . He helped found the Salk Institute for Biological Studies , where he became a resident fellow . Szilard founded Council for a Livable World in 1962 to deliver `` the sweet voice of reason '' about nuclear weapons to Congress , the White House , and the American public . He died in his sleep of a heart attack in 1964 .

neg: Harry Woolf (historian) Harry Woolf ( August 12 , 1923 -- January 6 , 2003 ) was an American educator and historian of science who served as provost of The Johns Hopkins University and was later the fifth Director of the Institute for Advanced Study .   Born in New York City , Woolf received his B.A. and M.A. degrees in 1948 and 1949 from the University of Chicago in mathematics , physics , and history . His Ph.D. in 1955 was from Cornell University in the history of science . Between 1953 and 1961 , Woolf was a faculty member at Boston University , Brandeis University , and the University of Washington . In 1961 he moved to The Johns Hopkins University , where he was the Willis K. Shepard professor of the history of science , department chairman from 1961 to 1972 , and finally provost ( 1972 -- 1976 ) .   Woolf 's organizational talents caught the eye of the board of the Institute for Advanced Study , and he was appointed Director in 1976 , succeeding Carl Kaysen and serving until 1987 when he was succeeded by Marvin L. Goldberger . During Woolf 's term , the Institute grew significantly in both physical size and endowment , the latter growing from $ 51.7 million in 1975 to $ 187.9 million in 1987 , the year that Woolf stepped down as Director .   Woolf was the author of The Transits of Venus : A Study of Eighteenth-Century Science ( 1959 ) , and the editor of several journals and multiple monographs , including the sixteen-volume Dictionary of Scientific Biography ( 1964 -- 1980 ) . His awards and honors include the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung Medal in 1990 , and fellowship in the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .

neg: Einstein (surname) Einstein is a German-Jewish surname . Notable people with the surname include :   Albert Einstein ( 1879 -- 1955 ) , German-American physicist  Einstein family , his family  Mileva Einstein ( née Marić ) ( 1875 -- 1948 ) , first wife of Albert Einstein  Hans Albert Einstein ( 1904 -- 1973 ) , Swiss-American engineer , son of Albert and Mileva  Bernhard Caesar Einstein ( 1930 -- 2008 ) , German-American physicist , son of Hans Albert Einstein , grandson of Albert Einstein  Eduard Einstein ( 1910 -- 1965 ) , second son of Albert and Mileva  Elsa Einstein ( 1876 -- 1936 ) , cousin and second wife of Albert Einstein  Hans Einstein ( 1923 -- 2012 ) , foremost authority on Valley Fever , grandson of a first cousin of Albert Einstein

neg: Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT The Research Laboratory of Electronics ( RLE ) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) was founded in 1946 as the successor to the famed MIT Radiation Laboratory ( Rad Lab ) of World War II .  During the war , large scale research at the RadLab was devoted to the rapid development of microwave radar . Projects included physical electronics , microwave physics , electromagnetic properties of matter , and microwave communication principles . The `` Rad Lab '' designed almost half of the radar deployed in World War II , created over 100 different radar systems , and constructed $ 1.5 billion worth of radar .   At the height of its activities , the Rad Lab employed nearly 4,000 people working on several continents . What began as a British-American effort to make microwave radar work , evolved into a centralized laboratory committed to understanding the theories behind experimental radar while solving its engineering problems . The Rad Lab formally closed on December 31 , 1945 , and its staff members resumed their peacetime activities . In its wake remained tons of surplus equipment and the concept for a basic research center that was to continue in RLE .   On January 1 , 1946 , under the sponsorship of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development , the RadLab 's Basic Research Division continued work at MIT as a transitional organization . Under the leadership of Director Julius A. Stratton and Associate Director Albert G. Hill , it continued investigation on problems in physical electronics that involved cathodes , electronic emission , and gaseous conduction . In microwave physics , the electromagnetic properties of matter at microwave frequencies were studied . Modern techniques were applied to both physics and engineering research , and in microwave communications , engineering applications were emphasized . On July 1 , 1946 , the Basic Research Division was finally incorporated into the new Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT .

neg: Fellow of the Royal Society Fellowship of the Royal Society ( FRS , ForMemRS and HonFRS ) is an award and fellowship granted by the Royal Society of London to individuals the society judges to have made a `` substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge , including mathematics , engineering science and medical science '' .   Fellowship of the Society , the oldest scientific academy in continuous existence , is a significant honour which has been awarded to many eminent scientists from history including Isaac Newton ( 1672 ) , Charles Darwin ( 1839 ) , Michael Faraday ( 1824 ) , Ernest Rutherford ( 1903 ) , Srinivasa Ramanujan ( 1919 ) , Albert Einstein ( 1921 ) , Winston Churchill ( 1941 ) , Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar ( 1944 ) , Dorothy Hodgkin ( 1947 ) , Alan Turing ( 1951 ) and Francis Crick ( 1959 ) . More recently , fellowship has been awarded to Stephen Hawking ( 1974 ) , Tim Hunt ( 1991 ) , Elizabeth Blackburn ( 1992 ) , Tim Berners-Lee ( 2001 ) , Venkatraman Ramakrishnan ( 2003 ) , Andre Geim ( 2007 ) , James Dyson ( 2015 ) , Ajay Kumar Sood ( 2015 ) and around 8000 others in total , including over 280 Nobel Laureates since 1900 . , there are around 1600 living Fellows , Foreign and Honorary Members .   Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as `` the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar '' with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year .

neg: The Einstein Theory of Relativity The Einstein Theory of Relativity ( 1923 ) is a silent short film directed by Dave Fleischer and released by Fleischer Studios .

neg: Vsevolod Frederiks Vsevolod Konstantinovich Frederiks ( or Fréedericksz ; Всеволод Константинович Фредерикс -LSB- ˈvʲsʲɛvəɫəd fʲrʲɪdʲɪˈrʲiks -RSB- ; April 29 , 1885 , Warsaw -- January 6 , 1944 , Gorkiy ) was a Russian/Soviet physicist . His primary contribution to physics was in the field of liquid crystals . The Frederiks transition was named after him .   After high school Frederiks attended Geneva University and for one semester attended the lectures of Paul Langevin in Paris . After defending his thesis and obtaining his PhD , Fredericks decided to continue his studies at Göttingen University . He was there for more than eight years , and with the outbreak of World War I he became a civil prisoner . During that period he became personal assistant to David Hilbert .   In the summer of 1918 Frederiks returned to Russia , and worked at the Institute of Physics and Biophysics in Moscow . In 1919 he became a lecturer at the University of Petrograd .   He was arrested by the NKVD in 1937 , and although released before the war he died before reaching home .

neg: Einstein's Blackboard Einstein 's Blackboard is a blackboard which physicist Albert Einstein ( 1879 -- 1955 ) used on 16 May 1931 during his lectures while visiting the University of Oxford in England .  The blackboard is one of the most iconic objects in the collection of the Museum of the History of Science in Oxford .

neg: The Relativity of Wrong The Relativity of Wrong is a collection of seventeen essays on science , written by Isaac Asimov . The book explores and contrasts the viewpoint that `` all theories are proven wrong in time '' , arguing that there exist degrees of wrongness .   The book was the twentieth of a series of books collecting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction . Like most of the essays Asimov wrote for F&SF , each one in The Relativity of Wrong begins with an autobiographical anecdote which serves to set the mood . Several of the essays form a sequence explaining the discovery and uses of isotopes .

neg: Albert Einstein Institution The Albert Einstein Institution is a non-profit organization that specializes in the study of the methods of nonviolent resistance in conflicts and to explore its policy potential and communicate these findings through print and other media , translations , conferences , consultations , and workshops . The institution 's founder and senior scholar , Gene Sharp , is known for his writings on strategic nonviolent struggle .

neg: Petr Beckmann Petr Beckmann ( November 13 , 1924 in Prague , Czechoslovakia -- August 3 , 1993 in Boulder , Colorado ) was a professor of electrical engineering who became a well-known advocate of libertarianism and nuclear power . Later in his life he challenged Albert Einstein 's theory of relativity and other accepted theories in modern physics .

neg: Einstein notation In mathematics , especially in applications of linear algebra to physics , the Einstein notation or Einstein summation convention is a notational convention that implies summation over a set of indexed terms in a formula , thus achieving notational brevity . As part of mathematics it is a notational subset of Ricci calculus ; however , it is often used in applications in physics that do not distinguish between tangent and cotangent spaces . It was introduced to physics by Albert Einstein in 1916 .


query: Nicole Scherzinger's first album was released in 2011.

pos: Nicole Scherzinger Nicole Scherzinger ( -LSB- niˈkoʊl_ˈʃɜːzɪŋər -RSB- born Nicole Prascovia Elikolani Valiente ; June 29 , 1978 ) is an American recording artist , actress and television personality born in Honolulu , Hawaii and raised in Louisville , Kentucky . She performed initially in high school plays , and studied at Wright State University before dropping out to pursue a musical career alongside the American rock band Days of the New and later auditioned for Popstars , becoming a member of the short-lived girl group Eden 's Crush . She rose to fame as the lead singer of the burlesque troupe-turned-recording act the Pussycat Dolls , who became one of the world 's best-selling girl groups . During their hiatus , Scherzinger planned to embark on her solo career with Her Name is Nicole , but it was later shelved after four singles failed to impact the charts significantly .   Following the group 's disbandment , Scherzinger ventured into television winning the tenth season of Dancing with the Stars and became a judge on The Sing-Off and on US and UK versions of The X Factor . Her debut studio album Killer Love ( 2011 ) was released to moderate success and was preceded by the number-one single `` Do n't Hold Your Breath '' . In 2014 , Scherzinger released her second album Big Fat Lie to commercial disappointment and starred on the West End revival of the musical Cats for which she received a Laurence Olivier Award nomination Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical .   Throughout her career , she has had a total of three UK number one singles , two of which coming from recording group The Pussycat Dolls and one as a solo artist . She has sold over 60 million records worldwide , as a solo artist and as the lead singer of the Pussycat Dolls . In accordance with multiple sources , Scherzinger has sold at least 37 million singles and has had in excess of 15 million total album sales . Since her first chart entry in 2005 , she has scored 20 top-20 hits on the UK Singles Chart . Outside her work in the entertainment industry , Scherzinger has advertised brands including Herbal Essences and Müller , and helped to create the clothing brand Missguided . She is also an ambassador for UNICEF and a global ambassador for the Special Olympics and is involved in charitable activities .

neg: Adalita Adalita is the debut studio album by Australian musician Adalita . It was released by Liberation Music in March 2011 . It received the Australian Independent Record ( AIR ) Award for ` Best Independent Album ' in 2011 .

neg: A Song in My Heart A Song in My Heart is the first studio album from Welsh tenor , Wynne Evans and was released on 21 March 2011 . Evans has signed a six-album deal with Warner Music . The album went to number one in the classical albums chart in Wales in its first week of release .

neg: Dead to Me (Girls Names album) Dead to Me is the debut album by Northern Irish band Girls Names . It was released on 25 April 2011 by Tough Love in Europe and Slumberland Records in the USA .

neg: Fino all'estasi `` Fino all ` estasi '' ( ` Hasta el éxtasis ' ) is a song by Italian singer-songwriter Eros Ramazzotti featuring American recording artist Nicole Scherzinger , released on November 13 , 2012 as the second single from the album Noi . A Spanish-language version of the single , titled `` Hasta el éxtasis '' , was also released to launch the Hispanic edition of the album , Somos . The song was written by Ramazzotti , Luca Chiaravalli , Anthony Preston , Carlo Rizoli , Mila Ortiz Martin and Saverio Grandi .

neg: Buttons (song) `` Buttons '' is a song by American girl group the Pussycat Dolls from their debut studio album PCD ( 2005 ) . It was written by Sean Garrett , Jamal Jones , Jason Perry and Nicole Scherzinger and produced by the former two alongside Ron Fair , Tal Herzberg and Young Smoke . It was remixed with additional vocals from American rapper Snoop Dogg and was released as a digital download on April 11 , 2006 as the album 's fourth single . `` Buttons '' contains elements of Middle Eastern music , while the song 's lyrics speaks of a woman 's desire to be undressed .   Critics were divided on `` Buttons '' with some complimenting the song 's production , however , others criticized it followed the same formula of their previous singles . The song reached the top-five in countries such as Australia , Germany , and the United Kingdom . The song reached number one in Austria and in New Zealand , where it became their fourth consecutive number one single on the chart . It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and sold over two million copies in the United States , making The Pussycat Dolls the first female group in digital history to have three singles pass the two million mark in digital sales .   The sepia-toned music video directed by Francis Lawrence features The Pussycat Dolls in various dance sequences . Other scenes include Scherzinger by herself singing the verses . Since its release , `` Buttons '' has become a staple in Scherzinger 's live performances . It was part of the set lists of the group 's two major tours , PCD World Tour ( 2006 -- 07 ) , Doll Domination Tour ( 2009 ) and Scherzinger 's own Killer Love Tour ( 2012 ) . It was nominated for two awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Dance Video and Best Choreography ; it won the former award .

neg: Welcome to the Freakshow (Hinder album) Welcome to the Freakshow is the fourth studio album by American rock band Hinder . Released on December 4 , 2012 by Republic Records , it is the band 's successor to All American Nightmare , released in 2010 . It is the final studio album to feature founding vocalist Austin Winkler .   The album debuted at No. 65 on Billboard 200 , with 12,000 copies sold . It has sold 60,000 copies in the US as of May 2015 .

neg: Tropic Electric Tropic Electric is the second studio album by the Canadian/Jamaican singer Kreesha Turner . It was released on November 15 , 2011 , digitally and physically . Kreesha decided to release it as a double disc , one side Tropic , and the other ` Electric ' . The ` Tropic ' side was recorded in Jamaica , to capture a new type of genre , a mix of reggae and pop music . The ` Electric ' side of the album is dedicated to fans who enjoyed the vibe on her previous album , Passion .  The album received mostly positive reviews , praising its Jamaican sound , but criticizing tracks ' I Feel My Darling ' , and ` Come My Way ' .   The iTunes track listing was mislabeled , the track reading ` Killer In The Club ' is actually ' 8 A.M. ' , and vice versa .

neg: Amber (song) `` Amber '' is the third single from the band 311 's 2001 album From Chaos . Focusing more on their reggae roots , the song is about Nick Hexum 's then fiancee and then Eden 's Crush member Nicole Scherzinger . Scherzinger appears briefly in the music video , playing in the ocean with Hexum . Although it is not one of the highest charting singles from 311 since it hit number 13 on the Modern Rock chart , it had more attention and popularity than any of their Top 10 singles on the chart , remains their longest lasting song on the Alternative Rock chart , and is their most popular single from the band due to its media usage and it is the only single by 311 to have a certification by the RIAA , achieving Gold status seeing this as the band 's signature song .   The song 's intro was remixed on Greatest Hits ' 93 - ' 03 .

neg: Fear and the Nervous System (album) Fear and the Nervous System is the eponymous debut album by Fear and the Nervous System , released on September 18 , 2012 .

neg: On Fire (Peter Furler album) On Fire is the first studio album released by Australian Christian musician Peter Furler . It marks Furler 's solo debut after his departure from Newsboys in 2009 . After some date changes , the album was finally released 21 June 2011 .

neg: Megalithic Symphony Megalithic Symphony is the debut studio album by American alternative rock band Awolnation , released on March 15 , 2011 through Red Bull Records . The album is the band 's first full-length release , following the release of the extended play Back from Earth ( 2010 ) . Megalithic Symphony has since peaked at number 84 on the United States Billboard 200 and at number 57 on the Austrian Albums Chart . As of March 2015 , the album sold 581,000 copies in the United States .   On February 29 , 2016 , the RIAA certified Megalithic Symphony platinum .

neg: Glee: The Music, Volume 7 Glee : The Music , Volume 7 is the eleventh soundtrack album by the cast of the American musical television series Glee . It was released by Columbia Records on December 6 , 2011 .

neg: The Pussycat Dolls discography The discography of American girl group The Pussycat Dolls consists of two studio albums , one extended play , two live albums , 14 singles , two promotional singles and 13 music videos . To date , the group has sold 15 million albums and 40 million singles worldwide .   In 2003 , Robin Antin struck a joint venture with Interscope Records to develop the Pussycat Dolls into a recording group . In 2004 , the group made their musical debut by releasing a cover of `` Sway '' , for the soundtrack to the film , Shall We Dance ? .   Their self-titled debut album was released in September 2005 and it peaked at number five on the Billboard 200 . It earned double platinum certification in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and 3 × platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and 4 × platinum the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . The album 's lead single , `` Do n't Cha '' , peaked atop the charts in 15 countries and reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA . Its follow-up singles , `` Stickwitu '' and `` Buttons '' were also a commercial success peaking in the top five on charts worldwide . After the success of their debut album , The Pussycat Dolls released their first video album , Pussycat Dolls : Live from London in 2006 to coincide with the group 's headlining world tour . As of 2008 , PCD has sold 3 million copies in the United States .   After a three-year hiatus in hopes to further Scherzinger 's own solo career , the group reunited to record their second and final studio album , Doll Domination in September 2008 . Scherzinger began to receive a larger input in the recording process as co-writer and co-producer of the album . Doll Domination garnered a higher peak position than PCD of number four on Billboard 200 , but failed to match its predecessor 's commercial success . Its lead single `` When I Grow Up '' became another top ten single for the group . `` I Hate This Part '' was released as the second single and managed to attain similar success . In early 2009 , Doll Domination was re-released as two compilation albums . The lead single from Doll Domination 2.0 was `` Jai Ho ! ( You Are My Destiny ) '' which reached number one in 17 countries and follow-up single `` Hush Hush ; Hush Hush '' reached the top 20 worldwide . In 2010 , the original recording group line-up disbanded .

neg: Zaz (album) Zaz is the debut studio album by French singer Zaz , released on 10 May 2010 under the label Play On . It produced two hit singles : `` Je veux '' and `` Le long de la route '' which achieved success in Belgium ( Wallonia ) . The album itself was a commercial success , reaching the top of the charts in the francophone countries .

neg: Ronan Parke (album) Ronan Parke is the debut studio album by English singer Ronan Parke . It was released in the UK on 24 October 2011 . The album consisted mostly of cover songs .

neg: Anna Calvi (album) Anna Calvi is the debut album of British singer-songwriter Anna Calvi , released on 14 January 2011 , by Domino Records . In Autumn , 2010 , Calvi entered Black Box studio in France with producer Rob Ellis and , using vintage analogue equipment , created `` a velvet Wall of Sound that justified the hype in the buildup to its 2011 release . '' The album peaked at No. 40 in the UK Album Charts reached No. 17 in France , and entered several European charts . The album has been nominated for the 2011 Barclaycard Mercury Prize .

neg: Good News (Lena album) Good News is the second studio album released by German singer and songwriter Lena Meyer-Landrut . It was released in Germany on 8 February 2011 through Universal Music following Meyer-Landrut 's win of the Eurovision Song Contest in 2010 . The album includes the songs performed by Lena during the televised preselection process for the song she would perform at the 2011 contest to defend her title . The album debuted at number one in the German albums chart and has been certified platinum in Germany indicating sales of over 200,000 .

neg: MTV Unplugged (Alanis Morissette album) MTV Unplugged is the first live album by Canadian singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette , released by Maverick Records in the United States on November 9 , 1999 ( see 1999 in music ) . It comprises songs performed by Morissette on the television program MTV Unplugged . Twelve tracks were included on the album , but Morissette performed several others , including `` Baba '' , `` Thank U '' ( both from 1998 's Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie ) and `` Your House '' ( the hidden track on 1995 's Jagged Little Pill ) , during her Unplugged concert . These were later released as B-sides on the `` King of Pain '' single release . The first single , `` That I Would Be Good '' , was moderately successful , and two other tracks , `` King of Pain '' ( a cover of the song by The Police ) and `` You Learn '' were released as singles outside North America . As of March 2012 , the album has sold 673,000 copies in the U.S.   In addition to material from Morissette 's first two U.S. albums , MTV Unplugged featured performances of `` No Pressure over Cappuccino '' and `` Princes Familiar '' , two previously unreleased songs from her tours , and `` These R the Thoughts '' , a previously released b-side . Morissette has stated that `` Princes Familiar '' in particular is one of her favorite and most vocally challenging songs . She performed it on her 2005 Diamond Wink Tour , where she dedicated it to `` all of the dads in the audience . '' The ballad `` No Pressure over Cappuccino '' , one of the first songs she wrote following the release of Jagged Little Pill , `` was inspired by -LSB- her -RSB- twin brother , '' Wade .   Featuring cleaner vocals , slower arrangements and a few drastic reinventions ( particularly in the case of `` You Oughta Know '' ) , MTV Unplugged foreshadowed much of Morissette 's later , softer work , particularly 2005 's Jagged Little Pill Acoustic and the accompanying Diamond Wink Tour .

neg: MTV Unplugged (Thirty Seconds to Mars EP) MTV Unplugged is an extended play ( EP ) and live album by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , released in the United States on August 19 , 2011 by Virgin Records . It features an acoustic performance taped at Sony Music Studios in New York City on May 13 of that year for the television series MTV Unplugged . The show 's purpose is to present name artists , and feature them stripped of studio equipment . The performance was accompanied by musicians from the Vitamin String Quartet , a gospel choir and included the contribution of the band 's fans .   The extended play includes rearranged versions of three songs extracted from Thirty Seconds to Mars ' third studio album , This Is War ( 2009 ) , and a cover version of a song by U2 . Upon release , MTV Unplugged received universal acclaim from music critics , many of whom complimented the band 's musicianship and the album 's production . Commercially , it debuted at number 76 on the Billboard 200 and experienced moderate success in some international markets .


query: The Invention of Lying is a book.

pos: The Invention of Lying The Invention of Lying is a 2009 American fantasy romantic comedy film written and directed by Ricky Gervais and Matthew Robinson ( in their directorial debuts ) . The film stars Gervais as the first human with the ability to lie in a world where people can only tell the truth . The supporting cast features Jennifer Garner , Jonah Hill , Louis C.K. , Rob Lowe and Tina Fey . The film was released in the United States on October 2 , 2009 .

neg: The Fable of the Bees The Fable of The Bees : or , Private Vices , Public Benefits is a book by Bernard Mandeville , consisting of the poem The Grumbling Hive : or , Knaves turn 'd Honest , along with prose discussion of the poem . The poem was published in 1705 , and the book first appeared in 1714 . The poem suggests many key principles of economic thought , including division of labor and the `` invisible hand '' , seventy years before these concepts were more thoroughly elucidated by Adam Smith . Two centuries later , the noted economist John Maynard Keynes cited Mandeville to show that it was `` no new thing ... to ascribe the evils of unemployment to ... the insufficiency of the propensity to consume '' , a condition also known as the paradox of thrift , which was central to his own theory of effective demand .   At the time , however , it was considered scandalous . Keynes noted that it was `` convicted as a nuisance by the grand jury of Middlesex in 1723 , which stands out in the history of the moral sciences for its scandalous reputation . Only one man is recorded as having spoken a good word for it , namely Dr. Johnson , who declared that it did not puzzle him , but ` opened his eyes into real life very much ' . ''   It was also reported that :  Mandeville gave great offense by this book , in which a cynical system of morality was made attractive by ingenious paradoxes . ... His doctrine that prosperity was increased by expenditure rather than by saving fell in with many current economic fallacies not yet extinct . Assuming with the ascetics that human desires were essentially evil and therefore produced `` private vices '' and assuming with the common view that wealth was a `` public benefit '' , he easily showed that all civilization implied the development of vicious propensities ...  -- Leslie Stephen , in Dictionary of National Biography , quoted by , pp. 359 -- 560 .

neg: Race and intelligence The connection between race and intelligence has been a subject of debate in both popular science and academic research since the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century . The debate concerns the interpretation of research findings that test takers identifying as White tend on average to score higher than test takers of African ancestry on IQ tests , and subsequent findings that test takers of East Asian background tend to score higher than whites .   The first test showing differences in IQ test results between different population groups in the US was the tests of United States Army recruits in World War I . In the 1920s groups of eugenics lobbyists argued that this demonstrated that African-Americans and certain immigrant groups were of inferior intellect to Anglo-Saxon whites due to innate biological differences , using this as an argument for policies of racial segregation . Soon , other studies appeared , contesting these conclusions and arguing instead that the Army tests had not adequately controlled for the environmental factors such as socio-economic and educational inequality between African-Americans and Whites . The debate reemerged again in 1969 , when Arthur Jensen championed the view that for genetic reasons Africans were less intelligent than whites and that compensatory education for African-American children was therefore doomed to be ineffective . In 1994 , the book The Bell Curve argued that social inequality in the United States could largely be explained as a result of IQ differences between races and individuals rather than being their cause , and rekindled the public and scholarly debate with renewed force . During the debates following the book 's publication the American Anthropological Association and the American Psychological Association ( APA ) published official statements regarding the issue , both highly skeptical of some of the book 's claims , although the APA report called for more empirical research on the issue .   In subsequent decades much research has been published about the relationships between hereditary influences on IQ , group differences in intelligence , race , environmental influences on IQ . Particularly contentious in the ongoing debate has been the definition of both the concept `` race '' and the concept `` intelligence '' , and especially whether they can in fact be objectively defined and operationalized .

neg: An Experiment in Criticism An Experiment in Criticism is a 1961 book by C. S. Lewis in which he proposes that the quality of books should be measured not by how they are written , but by how they are read . To do this , the author describes two kinds of readers . One is what he calls the `` unliterary '' , and the other the `` literary '' . He proceeds to outline some of the differences between these two types of readers . For example , one characterization of an unliterary reader is that the argument `` I 've read it before '' is a conclusive reason not to read a book . In contrast , literary readers reread books many times , savoring certain passages , and attempting to glean more from subsequent readings .   Lewis also argued that judging books by whether they are `` lowbrow '' or `` highbrow '' is not necessarily fruitful ; many `` lowbrow '' books prove to be valuable to a literary reader willing to approach without prejudgment . He noted that books classified as `` lowbrow '' , such as science fiction , are also capable of inducing a passion to re-read and imparting experience which changes reader 's worldview . Lewis suggests that books which are capable of doing this may prove to have enduring merit regardless of their genre of origin . He suggested that attempting to judge the literary merit of books based on traditional criteria may not prove fruitful .   Thus , Lewis suggests that a quality book is one that someone , anyone will re-read . A highbrow view that such a book is poor quality has failed to appreciate whatever qualities merit re-reading by someone .

neg: Ponzi scheme A Ponzi scheme ( -LSB- ˈpɒn.zi -RSB- also a Ponzi game ) is a fraudulent investment operation where the operator , an individual or organization , pays returns to its investors from new capital paid to the operators by new investors , rather than from profit earned through legitimate investments or business activities . Operators of Ponzi schemes usually entice new investors by offering higher returns than other investments , in the form of short-term returns that are either abnormally high or unusually consistent .   Ponzi schemes occasionally begin as legitimate businesses , until the business fails to achieve the returns expected . The business becomes a Ponzi scheme if it then continues to operate under fraudulent terms . Whatever the initial situation , the perpetuation of the high returns requires an ever-increasing flow of money from new investors to sustain the scheme .   The scheme is named after Charles Ponzi , who became notorious for using the technique in the 1920s . The idea , present in novels ( for example , Charles Dickens ' 1844 novel Martin Chuzzlewit and 1857 novel Little Dorrit each described such a scheme ) , was actually performed in real life by Ponzi with his operation which took in so much money that it was the first to become known throughout the United States . Ponzi 's original scheme was based on the arbitrage of international reply coupons for postage stamps ; however , he soon diverted investors ' money to make payments to earlier investors and himself .

neg: Aesopian language Aesopian language is communications that convey an innocent meaning to outsiders but hold a concealed meaning to informed members of a conspiracy or underground movement . For instance , if Person X is known for exposing secrets in an organization , the organization leaders announce that `` any members who have dirty talking habits will be dealt with '' to warn Person X . It refers to the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop .   The term `` Aesopian language '' was first used by the nineteenth-century Russian writer Mikhail Saltykov-Schedrin to describe the writing technique he began using late in his career , which he compared to Aesop 's Fables . His purpose was to satirize the social ills of the time but evade the harsh censorship of late Tsarist Russia of which he was a particular target .   The Soviet-era writer Lev Loseff noted that the use of Aesopian language remained a favorite technique of writers ( including himself ) under Soviet censorship . Maliheh Tyrell defines the term in the Soviet context and observes that the use of Aesopian language extended to other national literatures under Soviet rule :  `` In short , this form of literature , like Aesop 's animal fables , veils itself in allegorical suggestions , hints , and euphemisms so as to elude political censorship . ` Aesopian language ' or literature is a technical term used by Sovietologists to define allegorical language used by Russian or nationality -LSB- that is : non-Russian -RSB- nonconformist publicists to conceal antiregime sentiments . Under Soviet rule , this ` Aesopian ' literature intended to confuse the Soviet authorities , yet illuminate the truth for native readers . ''  According to one critic , `` Censorship ... had a positive , formative impact upon the Aesopian writers ' style by obliging them to sharpen their thoughts . ''   The German-American philosopher Herbert Marcuse uses the term in his book One-Dimensional Man somewhat interchangeably with Orwellian language . In that context , `` Aesopian Language '' refers to the idea that certain usages of language work to ` suppress certain concepts or keep them out of the general discourse within society ' . An example of such a technique is the use of abbreviations to possibly prevent undesirable questions from arising : `` AFL-CIO entombs the radical political differences which once separated the two organizations . ''   Within the context of politics , a term with a very similar meaning is called dog-whistle politics , which describes the use of coded language to address voters ' interests . Certain sections of the electorate will react strongly to controversial content if spoken of overtly but may not be so attuned that they notice statements that appear neutral to outsiders .

neg: Age fabrication Age fabrication occurs when a person deliberately misrepresents their true age . This is usually done with the intent to garner privileges or status that would not otherwise be available to the person . It may be done through the use of oral or written statements or through the altering , doctoring or forging of vital records .   On some occasions , age is increased so as to make cut-offs for minimum legal or employable age in showbusiness or professional sports . Sometimes it is not the people themselves who lower their public age , but others around them such as publicists , parents , and other handlers . Most cases involve taking or adding one or two years to their age . However , in more extreme cases such as with Al Lewis and Charo , a decade has been added or subtracted . Official state documents ( such as birth , marriage and death certificates , the census , and other identity documents ) typically provide the correct date .   Although uncommon in modern Western society , it is still possible for a person not to know their exact date of birth . Such a person may arbitrarily choose a date of birth which after later research is found to be false . This situation should not be considered age fabrication as there is no obvious intent to deceive on the part of the individual .   Subtracting time from one 's age is often known in English as `` shaving '' , while adding time to one 's age may be referred to as `` padding '' .

neg: Terminological inexactitude Terminological inexactitude is a phrase introduced in 1906 by British politician ( later Prime Minister ) Winston Churchill . Today , it is used as a euphemism or circumlocution meaning a lie or untruth .   Churchill first used the phrase during the 1906 election . Following the election , speaking in the House of Commons on 22 February 1906 as Under-Secretary of the Colonial Office , he had occasion to repeat what he had said during the campaign . When asked that day whether the Government was condoning slavery of Chinese labourers in the Transvaal , Churchill replied :   It seems this first usage was strictly literal , merely a roundabout way of referring to inexact or inaccurate terminology . But it was soon interpreted or taken up as a euphemism for an outright lie . To accuse another member in the House of Commons of lying is unparliamentary , so a way of implying that without saying it was very useful .

neg: John Lie (professor) John Lie ( -LSB- pronliː -RSB- ) is professor of sociology at the University of California , Berkeley . His principal academic interests are social theory , political economy , social identity , and East Asia .

neg: Cocker's Arithmetick Cocker 's Arithmetick , also known by its full title `` Cocker 's Arithmetick : Being a Plain and Familiar Method Suitable to the Meanest Capacity for the Full Understanding of That Incomparable Art , As It Is Now Taught by the Ablest School-Masters in City and Country '' , is a grammar school mathematics textbook written by Edward Cocker ( 1631 -- 1676 ) and published posthumously by John Hawkins in 1677 . Arithmetick along with companion volume , Decimal Arithmetick published in 1684 , were used to teach mathematics in schools in the United Kingdom for more than 150 years .   Some controversy exists over the authorship of the book . Augustus De Morgan claimed the work was written by Hawkins , who merely used Cocker 's name to lend the authority of his reputation to the book . Ruth Wallis , in 1997 , wrote an article in Annals of Science , claiming De Morgan 's analysis was flawed and Cocker was the real author .   The popularity of Arithmetick is unquestioned by its more than 130 editions , and that its place was woven in the fabric of the popular culture of the time is evidenced by its references in the phrase , `` according to Cocker '' , meaning `` absolutely correct '' or `` according to the rules '' . Such noted figures of history as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Simpson are documented as having used the book . Over 100 years after its publication , Samuel Johnson carried a copy of Arithmetick on his tour of Scotland , and mentions it in his letters :  In the afternoon tea was made by a very decent girl in a printed linen ; she engaged me so much , that I made her a present of Cocker 's Arithmetick .   Though popular , like most texts of its time , Arithmetick style is formal , stiff and difficult to follow as illustrated in its explanation of the `` rule of three '' .   As well as the rule of three , Arithmetick contains instructions on alligation and the rule of false position . Following the common practice of textbooks at the time , each rule is illustrated with numerous examples of commercial transactions involving the exchange of wheat , rye and other seeds ; calculation of costs for the erection of houses and other structures ; and the rotation of gears on a shaft . The text contains the earliest known use of the term lowest terms .

neg: The Book of Lies (Moloney novel) The Book of Lies , is the first fantasy novel by Australian novelist James Moloney , who has written more than thirty books , most of them realistic fiction for children . Published in 2004 , the fantasy novel is set in a land known as Elster and tells of the story of the main character , Marcel , after he wakes up in a foundling home with no memory of who he is . His struggle to reclaim his identity , along with close allies Nicola , Bea and Fergus , centres on uncovering the truth from amid a sea of lies , where few people are what they claim to be .   The Book of Lies was listed as notable in the Younger Readers category of the 2005 Children 's Book Council of Australia Awards , and was the winner in its category at the 2005 APA Book Design Awards .   Book two , titled Master of the Books , was released on 1 June 2007 and a third and final novel concluding the series was released on 1 June 2009 , called The Book from Baden Dark .

neg: Cover-up A cover-up is an attempt , whether successful or not , to conceal evidence of wrongdoing , error , incompetence or other embarrassing information . In a passive cover-up , information is simply not provided ; in an active cover-up , deception is used .   The expression is usually applied to people in positions of authority who abuse power to avoid or silence criticism or to deflect guilt of wrongdoing . Perpetrators of a cover-up ( initiators or their allies ) may be responsible for a misdeed , a breach of trust or duty , or a crime .   While the terms are often used interchangeably , cover-up involves withholding incriminatory evidence , while whitewash involves releasing misleading evidence . See also misprision .

neg: False economy In economics , a false economy is an action that saves money at the beginning but which , over a longer period of time , results in more money being spent or wasted than being saved . For example , it may be false economy if a city government decided to purchase the least expensive automobiles for use by city workers , as cheap automobiles have a record of needing more frequent repairs in the long term and the additional repair costs would eradicate any initial savings .   Motivating factors on the part of the party engaging in false economies may be linked to the long-term involvement of this party . For example , a real estate developer who builds a condominium may turn the finished structure over to the ensuing condominium corporation which is run by its members once the last unit is sold and the building has passed a final inspection . Longevity of the components of the structure beyond the final turnover of the facility may not be a major motivating factor for the developer , meaning that the result of the application of false economies may be more detrimental to the end user , as opposed to the developer .   Individuals may also practise false economy in their personal lives . A notable practitioner of false economy was King Frederick William I of Prussia , who was said by Thomas Macaulay to have saved five or six reichsthalers a year feeding his family unwholesome cabbages even though the poor diet sickened his children and the resulting medical care cost him many times what he saved .   The concept is related to planned obsolescence , whereby the lower initial cost of a false economy attracts buyers mostly on the basis of low cost , who may later be at a disadvantage .   Poor people are often forced into false economies when they ca n't afford the better long term option in the short term .

neg: A Book of Wisdom and Lies A Book of Wisdom and Lies is a collection of fables and tales written by Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani between 1686 - 1695 .   Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani was 20 -- 25 years old he wrote a collection of fables and tales `` Sibrdzne Sitsruisa '' ( `` A Book of Wisdom and Lies '' ) , which is a fruit of his observation over life . The reader feels how ably , deliberately and naturally the great creator interlaces some idea , intelligence and results of living observations in humans and animals . He knows the human nature , all its strong and weak points well . He describes various sides of human actions ; he gives answers to many questions and you realize that a human should create kindness in his life .   One of the most famous works by the 17th-18th Century Georgian man of letters , containing Sufic and other narratives , tales and anecdotes . `` Racy , clear and humorous -- though the serious parts also read convincingly . '' -- Professor David Lang

neg: Lying Jim Townsend James William Emery Townsend ( 1838-1900 ) , more commonly known as Lying Jim , was the original of Bret Harte 's `` Truthful James , '' the source of Mark Twain 's Jumping Frog story , and much more . Some scholars say Townsend `` was one of the most talented and notorious liars of the Comstock ... '' He was a member of the Sagebrush School of writers .

neg: Illusionism (philosophy) Illusionism is a metaphysical theory first propounded by professor Saul Smilansky of the University of Haifa . It holds that people have illusory beliefs about free will . Furthermore , it holds that it is both of key importance and morally right that people not be disabused of these beliefs , because the illusion has benefits both to individuals and to society . Giving up a belief in hard incompatibilism , argues Smilansky , removes an individual 's basis for a sense of self-worth in his or her own achievements . It is `` extremely damaging to our view of ourselves , to our sense of achievement , worth , and self-respect '' .   Neither compatibilism nor hard determinism are the whole story , according to Smilansky , and there exists an ultimate perspective in which some parts of compatibilism are valid and some parts of hard determinism are valid . However , Smilansky asserts , the nature of what he terms the fundamental dualism between hard determinism and compatibilism is a morally undesirable one , in that both beliefs , in their absolute forms , have adverse consequences . The distinctions between choice and luck made by compatibilism are important , but wholly undermined by hard determinism . But , conversely , hard determinism undermines the morally important notions of justice and respect , leaving them nothing more than `` shallow '' notions .   Smilansky 's thesis is considered a radical one , and other philosophers disagree with it . Professor Derk Pereboom of Cornell University , for example , disagrees that hard incompatibilism necessarily does away with self-worth , because to a large extent that sense of self-worth is n't related to will at all , let alone to free will . Aspects of worthiness such as natural beauty , native physical ability , and intelligence are not voluntary . Professor James Lenman of the University of Glasgow ( at the time ) takes a similar line , arguing that Smilansky 's expression of the problems is overstated . The problems that he presents are less fundamentally metaphysical than simply practical in nature .

neg: Pragmatic theory of truth A pragmatic theory of truth is a theory of truth within the philosophies of pragmatism and pragmaticism . Pragmatic theories of truth were first posited by Charles Sanders Peirce , William James , and John Dewey . The common features of these theories are a reliance on the pragmatic maxim as a means of clarifying the meanings of difficult concepts such as truth ; and an emphasis on the fact that belief , certainty , knowledge , or truth is the result of an inquiry .

neg: Debunker A debunker is a person or organization who attempts to expose or discredit claims believed to be false , exaggerated , or pretentious . The term is often associated with skeptical investigation of controversial topics such as UFOs , claimed paranormal phenomena , cryptids , conspiracy theories , alternative medicine , religion , or exploratory or fringe areas of scientific or pseudoscientific research .   According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary , to `` debunk '' is defined as : `` to expose the sham or falseness of . ''   If debunkers are not careful , their communications may backfire -- increasing an audience 's long-term belief in myths . Backfire effects can occur if a message spends too much time on the negative case , if it is too complex , or if the message is threatening .

neg: The Selling of the President 1968 The Selling of the President 1968 is a non-fiction book written by American author Joe McGinniss and published by Trident Press in October , 1969 .   The book describes the marketing of Richard Nixon during the 1968 presidential campaign . It has been described as `` a classic of political journalism '' and a `` classic of campaign reporting that first introduced many readers to the stage-managed world of political theater . '' It was reprinted in 1988 under the title The Selling of the President .   McGinniss became an overnight success when the book , his first , landed on The New York Times bestseller list . He was 26 years old , making him the youngest living writer with that achievement . The book was on the New York Times non-fiction bestseller list for 31 weeks from October 1969 to May 1970 .   The idea for the book came to McGinniss almost serendipitously :   -LSB- He -RSB- stumbled across his book 's topic while taking a train to New York . A fellow commuter had just landed the Hubert Humphrey account and was boasting that ` in six weeks we 'll have him looking better than Abraham Lincoln . ' McGinniss tried to get access to Humphrey 's campaign first , but they turned him down . So he called up Nixon 's , and they said yes . '' .   The book was very well received by both critics and the public . It `` spent more than six months on best-sellers lists , and McGinniss sold a lot of those books through television , appearing on the titular shows of Merv Griffin , David Frost and Dick Cavett , among others . '' Conservative writer William F. Buckley `` assumed McGinniss had relied on ` an elaborate deception which has brought joy and hope to the Nixon-haters . ' But even Buckley liked the book . ''   In 1972 , the book was adapted into a short-lived Broadway musical .

neg: Life imitating art Anti-mimesis is a philosophical position that holds the direct opposite of Aristotelian mimesis . Its most notable proponent is Oscar Wilde , who opined in his 1889 essay The Decay of Lying that , `` Life imitates Art far more than Art imitates Life '' . In the essay , written as a Platonic dialogue , Wilde holds that anti-mimesis `` results not merely from Life 's imitative instinct , but from the fact that the self-conscious aim of Life is to find expression , and that Art offers it certain beautiful forms through which it may realise that energy . '' .   What is found in life and nature is not what is really there , but is that which artists have taught people to find there , through art . As in an example posited by Wilde , although there has been fog in London for centuries , one notices the beauty and wonder of the fog because `` poets and painters have taught the loveliness of such effects ... They did not exist till Art had invented them . '' .   McGrath places the antimimetic philosophy in a tradition of Irish writing , including Wilde and writers such as Synge and Joyce in a group that `` elevate blarney ( in the form of linguistic idealism ) to aesthetic and philosophical distinction '' , noting that Terry Eagleton observes an even longer tradition that stretches `` as far back in Irish thought as the ninth-century theology of John Scottus Eriugena '' and `` the fantastic hyperbole of the ancient sagas '' . Wilde 's antimimetic idealism , specifically , McGrath describes to be part of the late nineteenth century debate between Romanticism and Realism . Wilde 's antimimetic philosophy has also had influence on later Irish writers , including Brian Friel .   Halliwell asserts that the idea that life imitates art derives from classical notions that can be traced as far back as the writings of Aristophanes of Byzantium , and does not negate mimesis but rather `` displace -LSB- s -RSB- its purpose onto the artlike fashioning of life itself '' . Halliwell draws a parallel between Wilde 's philosophy and Aristophanes ' famous question about the comedies written by Menander : `` O Menander and Life ! Which of you took the other as your model ? '' , noting , however , that Aristophanes was a precursor to Wilde , and not necessarily espousing the positions that Wilde was later to propound .   In George Bernard Shaw 's preface to Three Plays he wrote , `` I have noticed that when a certain type of feature appears in painting and is admired as beautiful , it presently becomes common in nature ; so that the Beatrices and Francescas in the picture galleries of one generation come to life as the parlor-maids and waitresses of the next . '' He stated that he created the aristocratic characters in Cashel Byron 's Profession as unrealistically priggish even without his later understanding that `` the real world does not exist ... men and women are made by their own fancies in the image of the imaginary creatures in my youthful fictions , only much stupider . '' Shaw , however , disagreed with Wilde on some points . He considered most attempts by life to imitate art to be reprehensible , in part because the art that people generally chose to imitate was idealistic and romanticized .   An example of life imitating art is that of singer/actress Miley Cyrus , whose role as the famous fictional popstar Hannah Montana in the Disney Channel sitcom of the same name gave rise to her own singing career . Hannah 's fictional popularity translated into a real-life fan-base for Cyrus as several singles credited to the character charted on the Billboard Hot 100 ( including `` The Best of Both Worlds '' , `` Life 's What You Make It '' , `` He Could Be the One '' , etc , though all of the songs were performed by Cyrus ) and when she embarked on her sold-out Best of Both Worlds Tour in 2007 , where she performed the first set of songs as Hannah Montana and the second set as herself . Cyrus ' song `` The Climb '' was the first song , credited to herself instead of the character , from an official Hannah Montana soundtrack album to become a hit single ( peaking at # 4 on the Billboard charts , making it her `` crossover song '' into mainstream pop , while Hoedown Throwdown ( off the same soundtrack album ) was her first Top 10 . Cyrus also performed several duets on the show while in-character as Hannah with real-life singers such as Sheryl Crow , David Archuleta , The Jonas Brothers , Iyaz and her real-life father Billy Ray Cyrus , as well as an unofficial duet with her real-life godmother country singer Dolly Parton .

neg: The Hoax of the Twentieth Century The Hoax of the Twentieth Century : The Case Against the Presumed Extermination of European Jewry is a book by Northwestern University electrical engineering professor Arthur Butz . First published in 1976 by Historical Review Press , it attempts to refute the idea of the Holocaust that Nazi Germany tried to exterminate millions of Jews using homicidal gas chambers during World War 2 , and is influential in the Holocaust denial movement . The book has been banned in Canada and is X-rated in Germany where it can not be displayed or advertised . It has been described as anti-semitic with Alan Davies calling it an `` antisemitic classic '' .   After carrying it for almost 20 years , Amazon.com on March 7 , 2017 struck the listing of this book on its website , and those of Createspace and Kindle Direct Publishing . In this process , it also removed listings of all used copies for sale by others . The message to its publisher advised that this action was taken because of `` violation of content guidelines . ''