query: Liberty bonds were sold in World War I to support the allied cause.

pos: Liberty bond A Liberty bond ( or liberty loan ) was a war bond that was sold in the United States to support the allied cause in World War I. Subscribing to the bonds became a symbol of patriotic duty in the United States and introduced the idea of financial securities to many citizens for the first time . The Act of Congress which authorized the Liberty Bonds is still used today as the authority under which all U.S. Treasury bonds are issued .   Securities , also known as Liberty Bonds , were issued in the aftermath of the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks to finance the rebuilding of the areas affected .

neg: New Guinea campaign The New Guinea campaign of the Pacific War lasted from January 1942 until the end of the war in August 1945 . During the initial phase in early 1942 , the Empire of Japan invaded the Australian-administered territories of the New Guinea Mandate ( 23 January ) and Papua ( 8 March ) and overran western New Guinea ( beginning 29/30 March ) , which was a part of the Netherlands East Indies . During the second phase , lasting from late 1942 until the Japanese surrender , the Allies -- consisting primarily of Australian and US forces -- cleared the Japanese first from Papua , then the Mandate and finally from the Dutch colony .   The campaign resulted in a crushing defeat and very heavy losses for Empire of Japan . As in most Pacific War campaigns , disease and starvation claimed more Japanese lives than enemy action . Most Japanese troops never even came into contact with Allied forces , and were instead simply cut off and subjected to an effective blockade by the US Navy . Garrisons were effectively besieged and denied shipments of food and medical supplies , and as a result , some claim that 97 % of Japanese deaths in this campaign were from non-combat causes .   According to John Laffin , the campaign '' ... was arguably the most arduous fought by any Allied troops during World War II '' .

neg: Navy Commendation Star The Navy Commendation Star or Navy Letter of Commendation Star was a Department of the Navy personal military decoration issued as ribbon device which was authorized in 1918 to be `` placed '' on the World War I Victory Medal . A inch silver star was issued to any service member of the Navy and Marine Corps who had been cited and commended by the Secretary of the Navy for performance of duty . Among the recipients of the Commendation Star was future Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz .   The Navy Commendation Star was placed on the suspension and service ribbon of the World War I Victory Medal , above all battle clasps . When the star was worn on the medal 's service ribbon , the star was placed before all bronze service stars . The Navy Commendation Star was identical to the United States Army Citation Star which also was a inch silver star worn on the World War I Victory Medal to denote a soldier ( or a Marine or Navy corpsman attached to the Second Division ) , was cited for gallantry in action and awarded a citation . Unlike the Citation Star , however , the Navy Commendation Star could not be converted to the Silver Star Medal ( 1932 ) .   At the start of the Second World War , the Navy Commendation Star was declared obsolete and none were issued between 1941 and 1945 . In the 1950s , the Department of the Navy began accepting applications from eligible World War I veterans authorized a Navy Commendation Star for conversion to the Navy Commendation Ribbon with Metal Pendant , and in 1960 , to the Navy Commendation Medal . In 1994 , an authorized Navy Commendation Star could be exchanged for the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal .

neg: Pax Britannica Pax Britannica ( Latin for `` British Peace '' , modelled after Pax Romana ) was the period of relative peace in Europe ( 1815 -- 1914 ) during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force .   Between 1815 and 1914 , a period referred to as Britain 's `` imperial century , '' around 10,000,000 sqmi of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire . Victory over Napoleonic France left the British without any serious international rival , other than perhaps Russia in central Asia . When Russia tried expanding its influence in the Balkans , the British and French defeated it in the Crimean War ( 1854 -- 56 ) , thereby protecting the by-then feeble Ottoman Empire .   Britain 's Royal Navy controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power . Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies , Britain 's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled access to many regions , such as Asia and Latin America . British merchants , shippers and bankers had such an overwhelming advantage over everyone else that in addition to its colonies it had an `` informal empire '' .

neg: 1914–1918 Inter-Allied Victory medal (France) The 1914 -- 1918 Inter-Allied Victory medal ( `` Médaille Interalliée de la Victoire 1914 -- 1918 '' ) was a French commemorative medal established 20 July 1922 . It was awarded to all soldiers who served three months , consecutive or not , between 2 August 1914 and 11 November 1918 in the war zone . It was also awarded to civilian nurses , aliens ( civilian or military ) who served directly under French command , Marshals and generals who had a command for at least three months , prisoners of war from Alsace and Lorraine ( region ) . Article 10 of the establishing law states : `` The award of the medal is also acquired by military members who were killed by the enemy or died from wounds of war and those who died of disease or injury incurred in service . ''

neg: G.I. (military) G.I. is a noun used to describe the soldiers of the United States Army and airmen of the United States Army Air Forces -- and for U.S. Marines and sailors -- and also for general items of their equipment . The term G.I. has been used as an initialism of `` Government Issue '' or `` General Issue '' , but it originally referred to `` galvanized iron '' , as used by the logistics services of the United States Armed Forces . The letters `` G.I. '' were used to denote equipment made from galvanized iron , such as metal trash cans , in U.S. Army inventories and supply records .   During World War I , American soldiers sardonically referred to incoming German artillery shells as `` G.I. cans '' . Also during that war , `` G.I. '' started being interpreted as `` Government Issue '' or `` General Issue '' for the general items of equipment of soldiers and airmen . The term `` G.I. '' came into widespread use in the United States with the start of the Selective Service System ( `` the draft '' ) in 1940 , extending into 1941 . Next , the use of `` G.I. '' expanded from 1942 through 1945 . The American Five-star General Dwight D. Eisenhower said in 1945 that `` the truly heroic figure of this war -LSB- is -RSB- G.I. Joe and his counterpart in the air , the navy , and the Merchant Marine of every one of the United Nations . ''   `` G.I. '' was also used as an adjective for anything having to do with the Army or Army Air Force .

neg: Art and World War II War is a common theme in art and has inspired great works of art . Throughout history , most representations of war depict military achievements and often show significant battle scenes . However , in the 19th century a `` turn '' in the visual representation of war became noticeable . Artists started to show the disastrous aspects of war instead of its glorified events and protagonists . Such a perspective is best exemplified by Goya 's series , The Disasters of War ( 1810-1820 , first published in 1863 ) , and Otto Dix 's portfolio , Der Krieg ( published in 1924 ) . During World War II , both traditions are present . For instance , Paul Nash 's Battle of Britain ( 1941 ) represents a scene of aerial combat between British and German fighters over the English Channel . On the other hand , André Fougeron 's Street of Paris ( 1943 ) focuses on the impact of war and occupation on civilians .   In connection to World War II , the relations between art and war can be articulated around two main issues . First , art ( and , more generally , culture ) found itself at the centre of an ideological war . Second , during World War II , many artists found themselves in the most difficult conditions ( in an occupied country , in internment camps , in death camps ) and their works are a testimony to a powerful `` urge to create '' . Such creative impulse can be interpreted as the expression of self-preservation , a survival instinct in critical times .

neg: Military production during World War II Military production during World War II includes the arms , ammunitions , personnel and financing which were mobilized for the war . Military production , in this article , means everything produced by the belligerents from the occupation of Austria in early 1938 to the surrender and occupation of Japan in late 1945 .   The mobilization of funds , people , natural resources and matériel for the production and supply of military equipment and military forces during World War II was a critical component of the war effort . During the conflict , the Allies outpaced the Axis powers in most production categories . Access to the funding and industrial resources necessary to sustain the war effort was linked to their respective economic and political alliances . As formerly neutral powers ( such as the United States ) joined the escalating conflict , territory changed hands , combatants were defeated , the balance of power shifted in favour of the Allies ( as did the means to sustain the military production required to win the war ) .

neg: Lost Battalion (World War I) The Lost Battalion is the name given to nine companies of the United States 77th Division , roughly 554 men , isolated by German forces during World War I after an American attack in the Argonne Forest in October 1918 . Roughly 197 were killed in action and approximately 150 missing or taken prisoner before 194 remaining men were rescued . They were led by Major Charles White Whittlesey . On 2 October , the division quickly advanced into the Argonne , under the belief that French forces were supporting the left flank and two American units including the 92nd Division were supporting the right flank . Unknown to Whittlesey 's unit , the French advance had been stalled . Without this knowledge , the Americans had moved beyond the rest of the Allied line and found themselves completely cut off and surrounded by German forces . For the next six days , suffering heavy losses , the men of the division were forced to fight off several attacks by the Germans .   The battalion suffered many hardships . Food was short , and water was available only by crawling under fire to a nearby stream . Ammunition ran low . Communications were also a problem , and at times they would be bombarded by shells from their own artillery . As every runner dispatched by Whittlesey either became lost or ran into German patrols , carrier pigeons became the only method of communicating with headquarters . In an infamous incident on 4 October , inaccurate coordinates were delivered by one of the pigeons and the unit was subjected to `` friendly fire '' . The unit was saved by another pigeon , Cher Ami , delivering the following message :   WE ARE ALONG THE ROAD 276.4 . OUR ARTILLERY IS DROPPING A BARRAGE DIRECTLY ON US . FOR HEAVENS SAKE STOP IT .   Despite this , they held their ground and caused enough of a distraction for other Allied units to break through the German lines , which forced the Germans to retreat .

neg: French colonial empire The French colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies , protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward . A distinction is generally made between the `` first colonial empire '' , that existed until 1814 , by which time most of it had been lost , and the `` second colonial empire '' , which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830 . The second empire came to an end after the loss of bitter wars in Vietnam ( 1955 ) and Algeria ( 1962 ) , and peaceful decolonization elsewhere after 1960 .   Competing with Spain , Portugal , the United Provinces , and later Britain , France began to establish colonies in North America , the Caribbean , and India in the 17th century . A series of wars with Great Britain and other European major powers during the 18th century and early 19th century resulted in France losing nearly all of its conquests . France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850 , concentrating chiefly in Africa , as well as Indochina and the South Pacific . Republicans , at first hostile to empire , only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire . As it developed the new empire took on roles of trade with France , especially supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items , as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language , and the Catholic religion . It also provided manpower in the World Wars .   It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture . In 1884 the leading proponent of colonialism , Jules Ferry declared ; `` The higher races have a right over the lower races , they have a duty to civilize the inferior races . '' Full citizenship rights -- assimilation -- were offered , although in reality `` assimilation was always receding -LSB- and -RSB- the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens . '' France sent small numbers of settlers to its empire , contrary to Great Britain , and previously Spain and Portugal , with the only notable exception of Algeria , where the French settlers nonetheless always remained a small minority .   At its apex , it was one of the largest empires in history . Including metropolitan France , the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11500000 km2 in 1920 , with a population of 110 million people in 1939 . In World War II , Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the overseas colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France . Historian Tony Chafer argues : `` In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation , France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War . '' However , after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority . The French constitution of October 27 , 1946 ( Fourth Republic ) , established the French Union which endured until 1958 . Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as overseas departments and territories within the French Republic . These now total altogether 119,394 km ² ( 46,098 sq. miles ) , which amounts to only 1 % of the pre-1939 French colonial empire 's area , with 2.7 million people living in them in 2013 . By the 1970s , says Robert Aldrich , the last `` vestiges of empire held little interest for the French . '' He argues , `` Except for the traumatic decolonization of Algeria , however , what is remarkable is how few long-lasting effects on France the giving up of empire entailed . ''

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles Article 231 , often known as the War Guilt Clause , was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles , which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers . The article did not use the word `` guilt '' but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations for the war .   Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty . It specified :  `` The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies . ''   Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation , forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war . German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy , while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty . The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction ; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany . The article , with the signatory 's name changed , was also included in the treaties signed by Germany 's allies who did not view the clause with the same disdain as the Germans did . American diplomat John Foster Dulles -- one of the two authors of the article -- later regretted the wording used , believing it further aggravated the German people .   The historical consensus is that responsibility or guilt for the war was not attached to the article . Rather , the clause was a prerequisite to allow a legal basis to be laid out for the reparation payments that were to be made . Historians have also highlighted the unintended damage created by the clause , which caused anger and resentment amongst the German population .

neg: The Army Hour The Army Hour was a radio news program in the United States , broadcast on NBC April 5 , 1942-Nov . 11 , 1945 .   Planning for The Army Hour , with Col. Edward M. Kirby in charge , began soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . Sponsored by the War Department and the U.S. Army , the program brought `` on-the-spot stories and demonstrations from Army bases and fields of battle '' to listeners back home in America . The program was `` an attempt to bring the reality of the war home to the American people through the power and immediacy of radio . ''  One reviewer wrote in a newspaper that the secretary of war had compared The Army Hour broadcasts to `` full-scale military operations ... as far as communications are concerned , '' and the writer agreed . NBC 's investment was significant , also . In 1957 , CBS executive Lou Cowan ( who helped to develop The Army Hour while working with the Office of War Information ) said that the program was `` presented at an annual cost of a half-million dollars to the network -LSB- NBC -RSB- with no financial return . ''   Radio historian John Dunning wrote that the program `` gave Americans their first in-depth look at the war and how it was being fought , '' and a 1942 article in the trade publication Billboard described it as `` a weekly official message and a source of authoritative information from the Army to the civilian population of the country ... '' In 1943 , another article in Billboard commented about Army Hour : `` excellent substitute for first-hand knowledge of war ; genuine picture of what loved ones are living thru ; calm and objective presentation of facts of war . ''

neg: High Seas Fleet The High Seas Fleet ( Hochseeflotte ) was the battle fleet of the German Imperial Navy and saw action during the First World War . The formation was created in February 1907 , when the Home Fleet ( Heimatflotte ) was renamed as the High Seas Fleet . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was the architect of the fleet ; he envisioned a force powerful enough to challenge the Royal Navy 's predominance . Kaiser Wilhelm II , the German Emperor , championed the fleet as the instrument by which he would seize overseas possessions and make Germany a global power . By concentrating a powerful battle fleet in the North Sea while the Royal Navy was required to disperse its forces around the British Empire , Tirpitz believed Germany could achieve a balance of force that could seriously damage British naval hegemony . This was the heart of Tirpitz 's `` Risk Theory , '' which held that Britain would not challenge Germany if the latter 's fleet posed such a significant threat to its own .   The primary component of the Fleet was its battleships , typically organized in eight-ship squadrons , though it also contained various other formations , including the I Scouting Group . At its creation in 1907 , the High Seas Fleet consisted of two squadrons of battleships , and by 1914 , a third squadron had been added . The dreadnought revolution in 1906 greatly affected the composition of the fleet ; the twenty-four pre-dreadnoughts in the fleet were rendered obsolete and required replacement . Enough dreadnoughts for two full squadrons were completed by the outbreak of war in mid 1914 ; the eight most modern pre-dreadnoughts were used to constitute a third squadron . Two additional squadrons of older vessels were mobilized at the onset of hostilities , though by the end of the conflict , these formations were disbanded .   The fleet conducted a series of sorties into the North Sea during the war designed to lure out an isolated portion of the numerically superior British Grand Fleet . These operations frequently used the fast battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group to raid the British coast as the bait for the Royal Navy . These operations culminated in the Battle of Jutland , on 31 May -- 1 June 1916 , where the High Seas Fleet confronted the whole of the Grand Fleet . The battle was inconclusive , but the British won strategically , as it convinced Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the German fleet commander , that even a highly favorable outcome to a fleet action would not secure German victory in the war . Scheer and other leading admirals therefore advised the Kaiser to order a resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign . The primary responsibility of the High Seas Fleet in 1917 and 1918 was to secure the German naval bases in the North Sea for U-boat operations . Nevertheless , the fleet continued to conduct sorties into the North Sea and detached units for special operations in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Baltic Fleet . Following the German defeat in November 1918 , the Allies interned the bulk of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow , where it was ultimately scuttled by its crews in June 1919 , days before the belligerents signed the Treaty of Versailles .

neg: Council on Books in Wartime The Council on Books in Wartime ( 1942 -- 1946 ) was an American non-profit organization founded by booksellers , publishers , librarians , authors , and others , in the spring of 1942 to channel the use of books as `` weapons in the war of ideas '' ( the Council 's motto ) . Its primary aim was the promotion of books to influence the thinking of the American people regarding World War II , to build and maintain the will to win , to expose the true nature of the enemy , to disseminate technical information , to provide relaxation and inspiration , and to clarify war aims and problems of peace . The Council co-operated with the Office of War Information ( OWI ) and other Government agencies , but was itself a voluntary , unpaid , non-Governmental organization .   The Council attempted to achieve its goals by acting as a clearinghouse for book-related ideas , by being an intermediary between the book-trade industry and government agencies , by offering advice to publishers , and by handling all forms of public relations including distribution of reading lists and pamphlets , lectures , radio programs , newsreels , and book promotion and publication .   In 1942 , the Council created a War Book Panel to choose titles officially recommended by the Council . These titles were republished by Council member publishers with a seal of approval , a large `` I '' on the front cover meaning an `` Imperative '' book . 6 `` Imperative '' books were published between 1942 and 1945 ( see War Book Panel ) .   In the spring of 1943 , the Council launched the effort for which it would become best known , the Armed Services Editions . By the time the program ended in 1947 , it had printed 122,951,031 books , selling them to the government at an average cost of just over six cents a volume . The Armed Services Editions brought high-end books to a mass audience , and helped popularize the emerging paperback format . One of the most popular ASE books was A Tree Grows in Brooklyn ( 1943 ) by Betty Smith , and the ASE 's distribution of F. Scott Fitzgerald 's novel The Great Gatsby helped revive interest in the book . In 1944 , the Council launched Oversees Editions , Inc , a subsidiary aimed at distributing American books to civilian populations abroad , to promote a positive view of American culture .   With the end of World War II , the Council on Books in Wartime ceased active operations on Jan 31 , 1946 but maintained its corporate entities to deal with the dispersal of remaining funds and the safekeeping of records .   Some of those involved on the Council include : W. W. Norton of W. W. Norton & Company , Bennett Cerf of Random House , George A. Hecht of Doubleday & Co. , and Mark Van Doren .

neg: Banknotes of the British Armed Forces The British Armed Forces issued their own banknotes between 1946 and 1972 .  Since 2003 , they have issued their own small change tokens nicknamed pogs by the Squaddies , after the children 's game popular in the early 1990s .   At the end of the war in Europe in 1945 , France , Britain , United States and Russia agreed at the Potsdam Conference to split Germany into four occupation zones . The British area was occupied by the 21st Army Group that was collectively known as the British Army of the Rhine ( BAOR ) . The Allies ' job was challenging . They had to disband and disarm the German fighting machine , reassemble the country 's basic infrastructure , and cope with population on the brink of starvation . To this end the BAOR operated as a country within a country , requiring a monetary system that functioned to serve the needs of the occupying forces . However , a problem soon emerged ; goods intended for the troops were being sold to a thriving black market among the local population at highly inflated prices . Millions of pounds sterling were being lost by the taxpayers of Britain . A series of stopgap measures slowed , but did not stop the problem . It was decided in March 1946 that special military voucher system was needed .   Historically , soldiers serving overseas had been paid in local currency rather than in their `` home '' currency , most cash drawn by soldiers would go directly into the local economy , and in a damaged economy the effects of a hard currency such as the # circulating freely alongside weaker local currencies could be severely problematic , risking severe inflation . There were other problems as well ; once # were circulating in a combat region , the opposing side could freely use its own stocks of # as currency , or acquire stocks for use elsewhere to support their war effort . The high purchasing power of the # and its easy transference back to Britain also posed a significant incentive to the black marketers .   However , whilst the use of local currencies was effective where they were provided in cooperation with the local authorities , it was impractical in combat zones where the government might be either hostile , deliberately ambivalent , or simply non-existent . In these cases , the military authorities issued special `` military currency '' , which was paid out to soldiers at a fixed rate of exchange and simply declared legal tender in occupied areas by local commanders .   After a remarkably brief period of preparation , the first series of 52,400,000 British Armed Forces Special Vouchers ( BAFSV ) , valued at just over 10 million pounds sterling were printed by Thomas De La Rue and officially issued on August 1 , 1946 . In due course the ingenuity of the local population and the troops largely circumvented the intention of the first issue BAFSV 's to slow black market activities .  By mid 1947 it was decided , under a cloak of secrecy , to prepare a new issue to replace the first , then immediately demonetize the first to limit the conversion of illicitly-gained first series vouchers . This scheme was carried out on January 6 , 1948 , when the second issue was released .   The third series was printed in 1948 by J. Waddington Ltd , but were not issued until 1956 for use during the Suez Canal Crisis . This situation was quickly resolved over a two-month period and those notes withdrawn .   The fourth issue was originally discussed in 1952 but were not ordered until the heating up of the cold war and the lack of a backup series prompted the British War Office in 1962 to design not only a fourth , but also a fifth series .   A new printer , Bradbury Wilkinson , was chosen for the job of producing these next two series : The fourth series was printed , but never issued , and according to all records , the fifth series was never printed . The sixth series , together with the 1 and 5 pound notes of the second series , were used in Berlin up to December 31 , 1979 , when they were finally withdrawn . On February 14 , 1991 , The Ministry of Defence auctioned off their stock of 17 million uncirculated vouchers from the 2nd , 3rd , 4th and 6th series to a consortium of dealers .

neg: The Link (UK organization) The Link was established in July 1937 as an ` independent non-party organisation to promote Anglo-German friendship ' . It generally operated as a cultural organisation , although its journal , the Anglo-German Review , reflected the pro-Nazi views of Admiral Sir Barry Domvile , and particularly in London it attracted a number of anti-semites and pro-Nazis . At its height the membership numbered around 4,300 .   The Link was opposed to war between Britain and Germany , and because of this attracted the support of some British pacifists . When The Link and the Anglo-German Review were included among a number of peace organisations across the political spectrum in the Peace Service Handbook ( a publication put out by the Peace Pledge Union ) the Daily Telegraph and The News Chronicle published articles accusing the PPU of supporting Nazism . In response , PPU member Stuart Morris wrote to the papers stating there was no connection between the PPU and The Link , and that the former organisation did not support the German demand for colonies or peace at the expense of smaller nations . The PPU also sent a letter to its group leaders dissociating The Link from the PPU , and ceased publishing the Peace Service Handbook .   The organisation was investigated by Maxwell Knight , head of counter-subversion in MI5 and future role model for James Bond 's boss M . The organisation closed shortly after the start of World War II in 1939 .   Admiral Sir Barry Domvile was interned in 1940 as someone who might `` endanger the safety of the realm '' .   According to Anthony Masters , the Link was allegedly resurrected in 1940 by Ian Fleming , then working in the Department of Naval Intelligence , in order to successfully lure Rudolf Hess ( deputy party leader and third in leadership of Germany , after Adolf Hitler and Hermann Göring ) to Britain in May 1941 .

neg: Airpower Airpower or air power comprises the application of military strategy and strategic theory to the realm of aerial warfare . Airpower began with the advent of powered flight early in the 20th century . Airpower represents a `` complex operating environment that has been subjected to considerable debate '' . British doctrine defines airpower as `` the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events . ''   Airpower is a function of air supremacy and numbers . Roughly speaking , a combatant side that has 100 % or near 100 % control of the skies has air supremacy ; an advantage of some 70 -- 90 % would indicate air superiority . A 50/50 split is air parity ; lower than this , one side may be said to be air denied or air incapable . Because aeroplanes generally take off from designed airfields on missions typically involving some hours of cruising , the precise state of air superiority is fluid and less defined vis-a-vis land or sea warfare . For example , a contested airspace directly above a battlespace bristling with anti-aircraft weapons may be denied to the air forces of both sides . Further , the completely different situations of a technologically advanced airforce with one flight of high-tech planes ( air supremacy but low capacity ) or a low-tech force of massive numbers of low-tech planes ( e.g. , An-2 ) resulting in high capacity but low long-term survivability demonstrate that ` air power ' is multi-faceted and complex .   Significant contributors to theorizing about air power have been Giulio Douhet , Billy Mitchell , John Boyd and John A. Warden III .   At the start of World War I , opinions differed on the national air forces and the value of airships .  Some early strategists/visionaries after World War I imagined that airpower alone would suffice to bring nations to their knees . The Bombing of Guernica was an early trial that revealed both capabilities and limitations . But yet another maxim , `` no war was ever won solely by airpower '' was challenged by the NATO victory in Kosovo . Airpower has been used to conduct lightning strategic strikes , to complement land offensives , to instill fear and lower morale similarly to a fleet in being , and to create broad-based destruction behind enemy lines . With airpower , supplies can be transported by cargo planes , providing a decisive edge in mobility .   Military and civilian aircraft interact in a number of complex ways , including shootdowns of civilian planes , whether mistaken or not ; military escorts of civilian planes ; civilian planes being used for military transport , espionage , or other purposes ; and/or no-fly zones being enforced to punish or sanction a target nation . Airpower also relates to space power , although militarization of space remains regulated by international treaty .   Developed nations have enjoyed a consistent advantage in airpower since the beginning of mechanized flight . Airpower has been wielded mostly decisively in the last hundred years by Nazi Germany , the United Kingdom , the United States , the Soviet Union , Japan , Italy , and France , with many client nations using aircraft developed by one or more of these nations . A mass technological base is considered necessary for the development of airpower .

neg: 1910s The 1910s ( pronounced `` nineteen-tens '' , also abbreviated as the `` teens '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1910 , and ended on December 31 , 1919 . The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the second half of the 19th century . The conservative lifestyles during the first half of the decade , as well as the legacy of military alliances , was forever changed by the assassination , on June 28 , 1914 , of Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne . The murder triggered a chain of events in which , within 33 days , World War I broke out in Europe on August 1 , 1914 . The conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11 , 1918 , leading to the controversial , one-sided Treaty of Versailles , which was signed on June 28 , 1919 .   The war 's end triggered the abdication of various monarchies and the collapse of five of the last modern empires of Russia , Germany , China , Ottoman Turkey and Austria-Hungary , with the latter splintered into Austria , Hungary , southern Poland ( who acquired most of their land in a war with Soviet Russia ) , Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia , as well as the unification of Romania with Transylvania and Moldavia . However , each of these states ( with the possible exception of Yugoslavia ) had large German and Hungarian minorities , there creating some unexpected problems that would be brought to light in the next two decades . ( See Dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire : Successor States for better description of composition of names of successor countries/states following the splinter . )   The decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries . The Mexican Revolution spearheaded the trend in November 1910 , which led to the ousting of dictator Porfirio Diaz , developing into a violent civil war that dragged on until mid-1920 , not long after a new Mexican Constitution was signed and ratified . Russia also had a similar fate , since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos . This atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism , which was later renamed as communism . Like the Mexican Revolution , the Russian Revolution of 1917 , known as the October Revolution , immediately turned to Russian Civil War that dragged until approximately late 1922 .   Much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed . Many of the fashionable restaurants were equipped with dance floors . Prohibition in the United States began January 16 , 1919 , with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution .

neg: The National Fund The National Fund is a British charity whose purpose is to pay off the final amount of the United Kingdom national debt .   The fund was set up in 1928 with a # 500,000 anonymous donation . It has been suggested that the donor pledged the money as a response to a 1919 Financial Times editorial by then-Financial Secretary to the Treasury Stanley Baldwin , which suggested patriotic rich citizens to voluntarily contribute towards paying the national debt accumulated from World War I.   The fund , which is managed by Barclays , is worth # 351.4 m as of February 2013 . As of February 2012 , it was the United Kingdom 's 29th richest charity .   Since 2009 , Barclays has been trying to release the funds . The donor stipulated that part of the funds to be released if `` in -LSB- the trustees -RSB- opinion at any time or times national exigencies -LSB- should -RSB- require '' .

neg: 18th century The 18th century lasted from January 1 , 1701 to December 31 , 1800 in the Gregorian calendar . During the 18th century , the Enlightenment culminated in the French and American revolutions . Philosophy and science increased in prominence . Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age . This dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789 - , though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror ( 1793-1794 ) under Maximilien Robespierre . At first , many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals , but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power and formed broad coalitions for the counter-revolution . The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion , taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768 . As a consequence the empire did not share in Europe 's military improvements during the Seven Years ' War ( 1756-1763 ) , causing its military to fall behind and suffer defeats against Russia in the second half of the century .   The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state . The once-powerful and vast kingdom , which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies , collapsed under numerous invasions . Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring monarchies of the Kingdom of Prussia , the Russian Empire and the Archduchy of Austria which divided the Commonwealth territories between themselves , changing the landscape of Central European politics for the next hundred years .   European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued . Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s and the conquest of large parts of India . However , Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution , which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America . The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the improved steam engine . Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century , steam-powered machinery would radically change human society and the environment .   Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work . For example , the `` short '' 18th century may be defined as 1715 -- 1789 , denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution , with an emphasis on directly interconnected events . To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements , the `` long '' 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later .

neg: North West Europe Campaign The North West Europe Campaign was the name given by the British Commonwealth armed forces to the two land campaigns they fought on the Western Front during World War II .   In Commonwealth military history , `` North-West Europe '' refers to land , air and sea campaigns and operations in , over or near Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Luxembourg , Netherlands , Norway and the United Kingdom during World War II . It includes many more specific campaigns and/or battle honours .   The North-West Europe Campaign of 1940 , was part of the Battle of France , and was restricted to the Belgium and the French Channel ports . During this campaign , the French Army was responsible for the rest of the Western Front from Luxembourg to Switzerland , much of which was defended by the Maginot Line . The first campaign ended for the British forces with the defeat of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) and its evacuation from the beaches of Dunkirk .   Between 1940 and 1944 , the Allied armies conducted coastal raids in German-Occupied Europe , the largest of which was the Dieppe raid of 1942 .   British Commonwealth air force units who served over Occupied Europe , between the fall of France and D-Day were awarded the battle honour `` Fortress Europe 1940 -- 1944 . ''   The North-West Europe Campaign of 1944 -- 1945 , was fought by the British Second Army and First Canadian Army  as elements of the British 21st Army Group . The campaign started with the landings in Normandy and ended on 4 May 1945 with Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery taking the German military surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands , north west Germany and Denmark on Lüneburg Heath , ( situated between the cities of Hamburg , Hanover and Bremen ) . As with the first campaign the British Commonwealth forces were on the northern flank of the Western Front . The Twelfth United States Army Group , was to their immediate south , further south still was the Sixth United States Army Group , ( that was also known as the Southern Group of Armies as the French First Army was a constituent part )


query: Kristen Bell was in a movie.

pos: Kristen Bell Kristen Anne Bell ( born July 18 , 1980 ) is an American actress and singer . She began her acting career starring in stage productions and attended the Tisch School of Arts in New York . In 2001 , she made her Broadway debut as Becky Thatcher in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and starred in the Broadway revival of The Crucible the following year . In 2004 , she had a supporting role in the film Spartan and received praise for her first leading performance in Gracie 's Choice .   Bell gained critical acclaim for her first major role as the title character in the teen noir drama television series Veronica Mars ( 2004 -- 07 ) . For her performance she was awarded a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television . She reprised the eponymous role in the 2014 film continuation of the series . During her time on Veronica Mars , Bell appeared as Mary Lane in the film Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical ( 2005 ) , a reprise of the role she had played in the New York musical upon which the film was based . In 2007 , Bell joined the cast of the sci-fi series Heroes , playing the character Elle Bishop , for which she was nominated for a Saturn Award .   In 2008 , she had her breakout film role as the title character in Forgetting Sarah Marshall . She has since appeared in a number of comedy films , such as Couples Retreat ( 2009 ) , When in Rome ( 2010 ) , You Again ( 2010 ) , and The Boss ( 2016 ) . Bell garnered further recognition for voicing Princess Anna in the Disney film Frozen ( 2013 ) , the short film Frozen Fever ( 2015 ) , and the upcoming Frozen 2 . She also starred as the female lead on the Showtime series House of Lies . Since 2016 , she has starred in the main role of Eleanor Shellstrop on the NBC comedy series The Good Place .   Bell married actor Dax Shepard in 2013 , with whom she has two daughters .

neg: This Is the End This Is the End is a 2013 American disaster comedy film directed by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg and stars Rogen , James Franco , Jonah Hill , Jay Baruchel , Danny McBride , Craig Robinson , Michael Cera and Emma Watson . The story features real life actors playing fictionalized versions of themselves in the aftermath of a global biblical apocalypse . The film premiered at the Fox Village Theater on June 3 , 2013 and was released in the United States on June 14 , 2013 by Columbia Pictures , before being re-released on September 6 , 2013 . The film grossed $ 126 million on a $ 32 million budget . The film makes references to the past movies of the cast , including Spider-Man , Million Dollar Baby , Forrest Gump , Superbad , Pineapple Express , Moneyball , Your Highness , The Green Hornet , 127 Hours and the Harry Potter film series .

neg: Brawl in Cell Block 99 Brawl in Cell Block 99 is an upcoming American action thriller film written and directed by S. Craig Zahler . The film stars Vince Vaughn , Jennifer Carpenter and Don Johnson .

neg: Silver Linings Playbook Silver Linings Playbook is a 2012 American romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by David O. Russell . It was adapted from the novel The Silver Linings Playbook , by Matthew Quick . The film stars Bradley Cooper and Jennifer Lawrence , with Robert De Niro , Jacki Weaver , Chris Tucker , Anupam Kher , and Julia Stiles in supporting roles .   Cooper plays Patrick `` Pat '' Solitano , Jr. , a man with bipolar disorder who is released from a psychiatric hospital and moves back in with his parents , played by Robert De Niro and Jacki Weaver . Determined to win back his estranged wife , Pat meets recently widowed Tiffany Maxwell , portrayed by Jennifer Lawrence , who offers to help him get his wife back if he enters a dance competition with her . The two become closer as they train and Pat , his father , and Tiffany examine their relationships with each other as they cope with their problems .   Silver Linings Playbook premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8 , 2012 , and was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The film opened to major critical success and earned numerous accolades . It received eight Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Adapted Screenplay . It became the first film since 1981 's Reds to be Oscar-nominated for the four acting categories and the first since 2004 's Million Dollar Baby to be nominated for the Big Five Oscars , with Lawrence winning the Academy Award for Best Actress . It also achieved four Golden Globe Award nominations , with Lawrence winning Best Actress ; three BAFTA nominations , with Russell winning for Best Adapted Screenplay ; four Screen Actors Guild nominations ; and five Independent Spirit Award nominations , winning in four categories , including Best Film . The film was a success at the box office , grossing over $ 236 million worldwide , more than eleven times its budget .

neg: Worst Friends (2014 film) Worst Friends is an American comedy film , written , produced and directed by Ralph Arend . The film stars Richard Tanne , Noah Barrow , Kristen Connolly , and Cody Horn , with Larry Fessenden , Geoffrey Arend , and Kathryn Erbe and was released on November 4 , 2014 .

neg: Masterminds (2016 film) Masterminds is a 2016 American comedy film based on the 1997 Loomis Fargo Robbery in North Carolina . Directed by Jared Hess and written by Chris Bowman , Hubbel Palmer and Emily Spivey , the film stars Zach Galifianakis , Kate McKinnon , Owen Wilson , Kristen Wiig , Jason Sudeikis and Leslie Jones .   It premiered in Los Angeles on September 26 , 2016 , and was theatrically released in the United States on September 30 , 2016 , by Relativity Media . The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $ 29 million .

neg: The Apparition The Apparition is a 2012 American supernatural horror film , written and directed by Todd Lincoln , making his directorial debut , and starring Ashley Greene , Sebastian Stan , Tom Felton , Julianna Guill and Rick Gomez . The plot follows three college students who , after the death of their friend , must battle a supernatural force they summoned themselves . The film was loosely inspired by the Philip experiment conducted in 1972 . The film was a box office bomb and was cited by critics as one of the worst horror movies of 2012 . It was also the last Warner Bros. . Pictures horror film to be released under its own label before resorting to New Line Cinema to release all future horror movies made by Warner Bros. .

neg: Chokeslam (film) Chokeslam is a 2016 wrestling/comedy film directed by Robert Cuffley and starring Chris Marquette , Amanda Crew , Niall Matter , Michael Eklund and Mick Foley . It premiered at the Calgary International Film Festival in October 2016 .

neg: I'm Reed Fish I 'm Reed Fish is an American romantic comedy film based on a story by Reed Fish , and released theatrically on June 1 , 2007 . The film was directed by Zackary Adler and stars Alexis Bledel , Jay Baruchel , and Schuyler Fisk . Jay Baruchel won the Best Actor award at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in 2007 for his role of Reed Fish . The film was released to DVD on September 4 , 2007

neg: Good Kids Good Kids is an American comedy film written and directed by Chris McCoy , the project McCoy 's first feature-length film . The film stars Nicholas Braun , Zoey Deutch , Mateo Arias , Dayo Okeniyi , Julia Garner , and Ashley Judd . The film was released in a limited release and through video on demand on October 21 , 2016 , by Vertical Entertainment .

neg: Garden State (film) Garden State is a 2004 American romantic comedy-drama film , written and directed by Zach Braff and starring Braff , Natalie Portman , Peter Sarsgaard , and Ian Holm . The film centers on Andrew Largeman ( Braff ) , a 26-year-old actor/waiter who returns to his hometown in New Jersey after his mother dies . Braff based the film on his real life experiences . It was filmed in April and May 2003 and released on July 28 , 2004 . New Jersey was the main setting and primary shooting location . Garden State received positive reviews upon its release and has garnered a cult following . It was an official selection of the Sundance Film Festival . The film also spawned a soundtrack for which Braff , who picked the music himself , won a Grammy Award .

neg: A. Dean Bell A. Dean Bell is an American filmmaker . He is best known for the feature film drama What Alice Found , a Sundance Award-winner and New York Times `` Critic 's Pick . ''

neg: A Deadly Adoption A Deadly Adoption is a 2015 American made for television dramatic-thriller film directed by Rachel Lee Goldenberg and written by Andrew Steele . The film aired on the Lifetime Network on June 20 , 2015 . It stars Will Ferrell , Kristen Wiig and Jessica Lowndes .

neg: The Diving Bell and the Butterfly (film) The Diving Bell and the Butterfly ( Le Scaphandre et le Papillon ) is a 2007 biographical drama film directed by Julian Schnabel and written by Ronald Harwood . Based on Jean-Dominique Bauby 's memoir of the same name , the film depicts Bauby 's life after suffering a massive stroke that left him with a condition known as locked-in syndrome . Bauby is played by Mathieu Amalric .   The Diving Bell and the Butterfly won awards at the Cannes Film Festival , the Golden Globes , the BAFTAs , and the César Awards , and received four Academy Award nominations . Several critics later listed it as one of the best films of its decade .

neg: Goats (film) Goats is a 2012 comedy-drama film directed by Christopher Neil and written by Mark Poirier based on his 2000 novel Goats . The film stars David Duchovny , Vera Farmiga , Graham Phillips , Keri Russell , Justin Kirk , and Ty Burrell . The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 24 , 2012 , and was given a limited release in the United States on August 10 , 2012 by Image Entertainment .

neg: Bondage (2006 film) Bondage is a 2006 film written and directed by Eric Allen Bell ( creator of Global One TV ) . The film had limited release in January 2006 .

neg: Stay Alive Stay Alive is a 2006 American slasher film directed by William Brent Bell , who co-wrote it with Matthew Peterman . It was produced by McG , and was released on March 24 , 2006 in the US . It was the first film in five years released by Hollywood Pictures . It was also Disney 's only slasher film .

neg: Locations in Veronica Mars Veronica Mars is an American television series created by Rob Thomas . The series premiered on September 22 , 2004 , during UPN 's last two years , and ended on May 22 , 2007 , after a season on UPN 's successor , The CW Television Network . Set in the fictional town of Neptune , the series starred Kristen Bell as the title character , a student who progressed from high school to college during the series while moonlighting as a private investigator under the wing of her detective father .

neg: Aloha (film) Aloha is a 2015 American romantic comedy-drama film written , produced and directed by Cameron Crowe . The film , starring Bradley Cooper , Emma Stone , Rachel McAdams , Bill Murray , John Krasinski , Danny McBride , and Alec Baldwin , was released on May 29 , 2015 . The film received negative reviews from critics , and has grossed only $ 26 million against a budget of $ 37 million , making the film a box office bomb .

neg: A Good Marriage (film) A Good Marriage is a 2014 American psychological thriller film based on the novella of the same name by Stephen King , from the 2010 collection Full Dark , No Stars . It stars Joan Allen , Anthony LaPaglia , Kristen Connolly and Stephen Lang . It was released on October 3 , 2014 .

neg: Sophie and the Rising Sun (film) Sophie and the Rising Sun is a 2016 American drama film written and directed by Maggie Greenwald . It is based on the 2001 novel Sophie and the Rising Sun by Augusta Trobaugh . The film stars Julianne Nicholson , Takashi Yamaguchi , Margo Martindale , Diane Ladd , Lorraine Toussaint and Karen Wheeling Reynolds . The film was released in theaters on January 25 , 2017 by Monterey Media .


query: Bill Gates is a Canadian.

pos: Bill Gates William Henry Gates III ( born October 28 , 1955 ) is the co-founder of Microsoft and is an American business magnate , investor , author and philanthropist .   In 1975 , Gates and Paul Allen co-founded Microsoft , which became the world 's largest PC software company . During his career at Microsoft , Gates held the positions of chairman , CEO and chief software architect , while also being the largest individual shareholder until May 2014 . Gates stepped down as chief executive officer of Microsoft in January 2000 , but he remained as chairman and created the position of chief software architect for himself . In June 2006 , Gates announced that he would be transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to part-time work and full-time work at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation . He gradually transferred his duties to Ray Ozzie and Craig Mundie . He stepped down as chairman of Microsoft in February 2014 , taking on a new post as technology adviser to support the then newly appointed CEO Satya Nadella .   Gates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the personal computer revolution . He has been criticized for his business tactics , which have been considered anti-competitive , an opinion that has in some cases been upheld by numerous court rulings . Later in his career , Gates pursued a number of philanthropic endeavors , donating large amounts of money to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , established in 2000 .   Since 1987 , Gates has been included in the Forbes list of the world 's wealthiest people . Gates is the richest person in the world , with an estimated net worth of US$ 88.5 billion . In 2009 , Gates and Warren Buffett founded The Giving Pledge , whereby they and other billionaires pledge to give at least half of their wealth to philanthropy .

neg: Canadian ten-dollar note The Canadian ten-dollar note is one of the most common banknotes of the Canadian dollar .   The current ten-dollar note is dominantly purple in colour . The front features a portrait of Canada 's first Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald , and a metallic image of the Library of Parliament . The reverse side shows Via Rail 's train , the Canadian , with the Canadian Rockies in the background ; this is accompanied by a Via Rail route map . Yellow dots representing the EURion constellation can be found on both sides . As well as textured printing , this design includes Braille dots for the blind indicating the denomination as a new tactile feature .   An updated version of the note began circulation on May 18 , 2005 , with new security features . On the front , these include a holographic stripe along the left side , depicting the number 10 alternated with maple leaves ; a watermark of Macdonald 's portrait ; and a broken-up number 10 , which resolves itself when backlit ( the latter two which replaced the shiny-leaf feature ) . On the back , it has an interleaved metallic strip , reading '10 CAN ' repeatedly along its length .   The version of the note issued in 1971 depicted the operations of Polymer Corporation on its back .   Less-visible security features include ultraviolet-detected threads in the paper , as well as an ink imprint of the coat of arms .   As with all modern Canadian banknotes , all text is in both English and French .   A new ten-dollar note made with polymer , as part of the `` Frontier Series '' , was released on November 7 , 2013 . The new note features a new portrait of Sir John A. Macdonald and hologram of the Library of Parliament on the front and the Canadian ( Via Rail train pulled using F40PH-2 locomotive ) in the Rockies on the back . After mistakenly identifying Mount Edith Cavell and Mount Marmot as appearing in the background , the Bank of Canada later corrected them as Lectern Peak , Aquila Mountain , Mount Zengel and other mountains .   On December 8 , 2016 , Viola Desmond was chosen as the first Canadian woman to appear on the ten-dollar note after being on a shortlist of five . The note will be issued in 2018 . For 2017 , the Bank of Canada has issued a special commemorative design , celebrating the 150th anniversary of the confederation of Canada .

neg: C. D. Howe Building The C.D. Howe Building ( French : Édifice C.D.-Howe ) is an office tower in Ottawa , Ontario , Canada , that is the home of Innovation , Science and Economic Development Canada , the Office of the Auditor General and other smaller tenants . It was built by Olympia and York . The federal government sold the land to O&Y for a dollar and signed an agreement to lease the final building for a set rate until 2012 . The eleven-story building was opened in 1978 .   It was named after C. D. Howe , a noted federal minister in the 1930s , 1940s and 1950s . It is located at the prominent intersection of Bank Street and Sparks Street . The lower levels of the building contain a shopping mall named 240 Sparks . The mall covers 3 floors with 50 stores including a Holt Renfrew store ( closed 2015 ) .   The most notable element of the building 's interior is the amount of greenery and the large waterfall . Public Works and Government Services greened the rooftop to address environmental concerns including energy conservation , storm water management , biodiversity , and air quality , and to provide the occupants a landscaped tranquil outdoor space . More than 30 % of the roof is landscaped and grows indigenous flowers , grasses and shrubs . Another 30 % of the rooftop uses green roof technology . The C.D. Howe Building was included amongst other architecturally interesting and historically significant buildings in Doors Open Ottawa in both 2012 and 2014 .   The two elevator banks contain two storey tall cars that rise in a large atrium that stretches the entire height of the building .   The C.D. Howe Building was recognized by the Building Owners and Managers Association ( BOMA ) as the `` Government Office Building of the Year - Canada '' in 1997/98 for excellence in management . The award was presented to the Property Manager , Ronald Vadeboncoeur RPA , FMA , CPM in Halifax , Nova Scotia . He accepted on behalf of his team , including key members : Sue Baxter , Barry O'Regan , Paul Anderson , Celine Maisonneuve , Pierre Boucher and Frank Donovan .

neg: Bill Smith (Canadian musician) William Ernest Smith ( usually called Bill Smith ) ( born 12 May 1938 ) is a Canadian writer , editor , record producer , saxophonist , and clarinetist of English birth . He has served as the editor of CODA magazine since 1976 and is a co-founder of Sackville Records , a Canadian record label that specializes  in jazz .

neg: Provinces and territories of Canada Canada 's geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance . When Canada was formed in 1867 , three provinces of British North America -- New Brunswick , Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada ( which , on the formation of Canada , was divided into Ontario and Quebec ) -- were united to form a federated colony , which eventually became a sovereign nation in the next century . Over its history , Canada 's international borders have changed several times , and the country has grown from the original four provinces to the current ten provinces and three territories . The ten provinces are Alberta , British Columbia , Manitoba , New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Ontario , Prince Edward Island , Quebec , and Saskatchewan . Several of the provinces were former British colonies , and Quebec was originally a French colony , while others were added as Canada grew . The three territories are Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon , which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America . Together , the provinces and territories make up the world 's second-largest country by area .   The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act , 1867 ( formerly called the British North America Act , 1867 ) , whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada . The powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively . A change to the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces requires a constitutional amendment , whereas a similar change affecting the territories can be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada or government .   In modern Canadian constitutional theory , the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions and each province has its own `` Crown '' represented by the lieutenant governor . The territories are not sovereign , but simply part of the federal realm , and have a commissioner who represents the federal government .   __ TOC __

neg: Canadian (train) The Canadian ( Le Canadien ) is a transcontinental passenger train operated by Via Rail Canada with service between Union Station in Toronto , Ontario , and Pacific Central Station in Vancouver , British Columbia .   Before 1955 the Canadian was a Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) train between Toronto and Chicago . In 1955 , CPR renamed its transcontinental route between Montreal/Toronto and Vancouver the Canadian , with new streamlined trains . Via Rail took over in 1978 , and in 1990 reduced the Canadian to Toronto - Vancouver service primarily along Canadian National tracks .

neg: Canadian studies Canadian studies is a college-level study of Canadian culture , the spoken languages of Canada , Canadian literature , Quebec , agriculture in Canada , the history of Canada , and Canadian government and politics .   Most universities that offer the discipline recommend that students take a double major ( e.g. Political Science , International Relations ) or French , if not included in the course . Some careers for students who take Canadian studies include the foreign service and working at Canadian embassies or the foreign embassies in Canada .   Scholars known for their work in Canadian studies include Fernand Ouellet , Linda Hutcheon , George Ramsay Cook , William T. R. Fox , Annette Baker Fox , Susan Swan , Christl Verduyn , Sergey Rogov , and George Melnyk . The Governor General 's International Award for Canadian Studies is an award for excellence in the field and was established in 1995 by the International Council for Canadian Studies .

neg: List of elections in the Province of Canada The Province of Canada was the union of Canada West ( formerly Upper Canada and later Ontario ) and Canada East ( formerly Lower Canada and later Quebec ) .   The Province of Canada held 8 unique elections from 1841 to 1863 before Confederation . While party lines were somewhat blurred , there were political parties .   There are many examples of groups of MPs going against the party line , or splitting a party into two . A good example of this is when a number of Liberal MPs supported John A. Macdonald , a Conservative , and his idea for Canadian Confederation , many other Liberal Party members were opposed to Confederation .   After the establishment of the double majority principle , any bill , in order to be passed , needed a majority of MPs from both Canada West and Canada East . This sometimes led to coalitions between Ontario Liberals and Quebec Tories , or vice versa . The elections listed below are divided into `` Left '' or `` Reformer '' camps , and `` Right '' or `` Conservative '' camps .

neg: Copyright Act of Canada The Copyright Act of Canada is the federal statute governing copyright law in Canada . It is jointly administered by the Department of Industry Canada and the Department of Canadian Heritage . The Copyright Act of Canada was first passed in 1921 and substantially amended in 1988 and 1997 . Several attempts were made between 2005 and 2011 to amend the Copyright Act , but each of the bills ( Bill C-60 in 2005 , Bill C-61 in 2008 , and Bill C-32 in 2010 ) failed to pass due to political opposition . In 2011 , with a majority in the House of Commons , the Conservative Party introduced Bill C-11 , titled the Copyright Modernization Act . Bill C-11 was passed and received Royal Assent on June 29 , 2012 .

neg: Philosophy in Canada The study and teaching of philosophy in Canada date from the time of New France . There has since developed no particular `` Canadian '' school of philosophy . Rather , Canadian philosophers have reflected particular views of established European and later American schools of philosophical thought , be it Thomism , Objective Idealism , or Scottish Common Sense Realism . Since the mid-twentieth century the depth and scope of philosophical activity in Canada has increased dramatically . This article focuses on the evolution of epistemology , logic , the philosophy of mind , metaphysics , ethics and metaethics , and continental philosophy in Canada .

neg: Brian Greenspan Brian H. Greenspan , ( born March 14 , 1947 in Niagara Falls , Ontario ) is a Canadian lawyer . He is one of the most prominent and well-regarded defence lawyers in Canada .

neg: Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines The Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines was a project to build a twin pipeline from Bruderheim , Alberta to Kitimat , British Columbia . The eastbound pipeline would import natural gas condensate and the westbound pipeline would export diluted bitumen from the Athabasca oil sands to the marine terminal in Kitimat for transportation to the Asian markets by oil tankers . The project would also include terminal facilities with `` integrated marine infrastructure at tidewater to accommodate loading and unloading of oil and condensate tankers , and marine transportation of oil and condensate . '' The $ CDN 7.9 billion project was proposed in mid-2000s and has been postponed several times . The project would be developed by Enbridge , Inc. , a Canadian crude oil and liquids pipeline and storage company .   When completed , the pipeline and terminal would have provided 104 permanent operating positions created within the company and 113 positions with the associated marine services . First Nations groups , many municipalities , including the Union of BC Municipalities , environmentalists and oil sands opponents , among others , denounced the project because of the environmental , economic , social and cultural risks posed by the pipeline . Proponents argued that the pipeline would have provided aboriginal groups with equity ownership , training , employment , Community Trust and stewardship programs ; along with the large scale infrastructure to keep Canada prosperous . The Federal Court of Appeal has ruled that consultation with First Nations was woefully inadequate , and has overturned the approval .   The proposal has been heavily criticized by native groups . Groups like the Yinka Dene Alliance have been organized to campaign against the project . In December 2010 , 66 First Nations bands in British Columbia , including many along the proposed pipeline route , signed the Save The Fraser Declaration in opposition to the project , and 40 more have signed up in support since that time . The proposal is also opposed by numerous non-governmental organizations ( NGOs ) , citing previous spills and concerns over oil sands expansion and the associated risks in transportation . By 2015 , 26 of 45 have signed up in support of the Northern Gateway .   In June 2014 the Northern Gateway pipeline project was approved by the federal government , subject to 209 conditions . The CBC questioned the silence concerning the Northern Gateway since then and suggested that Enbridge might have quietly shelved the project . Upon taking office in 2015 , new Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau imposed a ban on oil tanker traffic on the North Coast of British Columbia , effectively killing the project . On November 29th , 2016 Justin Trudeau officially rejected plans for the pipeline .

neg: Bill Downe William A. Downe CM , also known as Bill Downe ( born in 1952 in Montreal , Quebec , Canada ) is a Canadian businessman . He is presently serving as president and chief executive officer of Bank of Montreal ( also known as BMO Financial Group ) on March 1 , 2007 .

neg: Royal Bank of Canada The Royal Bank of Canada ( RBC ; Banque Royale du Canada ) is a Canadian multinational financial services company and the largest bank in Canada . The bank serves over 16 million clients and has 80,000 employees worldwide . The company corporate headquarters are located in Toronto , Ontario . The bank was founded in 1864 in Halifax , Nova Scotia . RBC 's Institution Number ( or bank number ) is 003 .   In Canada , the bank 's personal and commercial banking operations are branded as RBC Royal Bank in English and RBC Banque Royale in French and serves approximately ten million clients through its network of 1,209 branches . RBC Bank was the U.S. banking subsidiary with 439 branches across six states in the Southeast , which served more than a million customers . RBC also has 127 branches across seventeen countries in the Caribbean , which serve more than 16 million clients . RBC Capital Markets is RBC 's worldwide investment and corporate banking subsidiary , while the investment brokerage firm is known as RBC Dominion Securities . Investment banking services are also provided through RBC Bank and the focus is on middle market clients .   In 2011 , RBC was the largest Canadian company by revenue and market capitalization . and was ranked at # 50 in the 2013 Forbes Global 2000 listing . The company has operations in Canada , and 40 other countries and had US$ 673.2 billion of assets under management in 2014 .

neg: Blue Tory Blue Tories , also known as small ` c ' conservatives , are , in Canadian politics , members of the former federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada , current Conservative Party of Canada and provincial Progressive Conservative parties who are more economically right wing . Prior to the 1960s , these Conservatives were most identified with the Montreal and Toronto commercial elite who took positions of influence within the Progressive Conservative Party . Since the mid-1970s , they have been heavily influenced by the libertarian movement and the more individualist nature of American conservatism . Blue Tories tend to favour libertarian policies such as devolution of federal power to the provincial governments , a reduced role for government in the economy , reduction of taxation and similar mainstream market liberal ideals . The term Blue Tory does not refer to social conservatism .   One example of a Blue Tory administration in Canada was the `` Common Sense Revolution '' provincial Progressive Conservative government of Ontario Premier Mike Harris . The Harris Tories were widely viewed as radical by Canadian standards in their economic policies and style of governance . Harris ' government embarked on a number of initiatives , including cuts to education , welfare and Medicare , privatization of government services and health care , the sale of provincial highways and the forced amalgamation of municipalities . Provincial income taxes were also cut by 30 % and corporate tax rates were nearly cut in half during the Harris mandate .   Most Blue Tories are at least somewhat ideologically aligned close to the economic libertarian positions of the former Canadian Alliance and as such supported the merger between the PCs and the Alliance to form the new federal Conservative Party of Canada ( CPC ) . Some notable Blue Tories include many prominent federal and provincial Progressive Conservatives such as former PC Party Leader and Attorney General Peter MacKay , Conservative Party leadership contender and current Treasury Board President Tony Clement , former Premier of Ontario Mike Harris , and current CPC leader Andrew Scheer .

neg: Canada China Business Council The Canada China Business Council or CCBC ( French : Conseil d'affaires Canada-Chine , Chinese : 加中贸易理事会 ) is a private , non-profit business association founded in 1978 to facilitate and promote business , trade and investment between Canada and People 's Republic of China . CCBC has offices in Toronto , Vancouver , Montreal , Calgary , Beijing , and Shanghai . CCBC is the de facto Canadian chamber of commerce in Beijing . It also has business incubators in Beijing , Shanghai , Montreal , and Calgary to help Canadian companies grow in China , and Chinese investors to succeed in Canada .

neg: Foreign policy of the Stephen Harper government The Conservative Party Government of Canada led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper moved away from the multilateral and internationalist policies of the Liberal Party , and reduced Canada 's emphasis on the United Nations , which was seen as dominated by corrupt dictatorships . In parallel , Harper sought to strengthen cooperation with the US , particularly in the era of mass terrorism and instability . As part of this policy , his government continued and expanded Canada 's participation in the US-led anti-terror campaign in Afghanistan , which began following al Qaida 's mass attacks on September 11 , 2001 , and in the Iraq conflict that began under President George W. Bush in March 2003 . In addition , under the Harper governments and through the actions of Foreign Affairs Ministers Peter MacKay and John Baird , Canada developed a leadership position in developing a principled alternative to the United Nations , involving the participation of the world 's open and democratic countries .

neg: Canadian Pacific Railway The Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) , also known formerly as CP Rail between 1968 and 1996 , is a historic Canadian Class I railroad incorporated in 1881 . The railroad is owned by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited , which began operations as legal owner in a corporate restructuring in 2001 .   Headquartered in Calgary , Alberta , it owns approximately 12500 mi of track all across Canada and into the United States , stretching from Montreal to Vancouver , and as far north as Edmonton . Its rail network also serves Minneapolis-St . Paul , Milwaukee , Detroit , Chicago , and New York City in the United States .   The railway was originally built between Eastern Canada and British Columbia between 1881 and 1885 ( connecting with Ottawa Valley and Georgian Bay area lines built earlier ) , fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered Confederation in 1871 . It was Canada 's first transcontinental railway , but no longer reaches the Atlantic coast . Primarily a freight railway , the CPR was for decades the only practical means of long-distance passenger transport in most regions of Canada , and was instrumental in the settlement and development of Western Canada . The CPR became one of the largest and most powerful companies in Canada , a position it held as late as 1975 . Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1986 , after being assumed by Via Rail Canada in 1978 . A beaver was chosen as the railway 's logo because it is the national symbol of Canada and was seen as representing the hardworking character of the company .   The company acquired two American lines in 2009 : the Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad and the Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad . The trackage of the ICE was at one time part of CP subsidiary Soo Line and predecessor line The Milwaukee Road . The combined DME/ICE system spanned North Dakota , South Dakota , Minnesota , Wisconsin , Nebraska and Iowa , as well as two short stretches into two other states , which included a line to Kansas City , Missouri , and a line to Chicago , Illinois , and regulatory approval to build a line into the Powder River Basin of Wyoming . It is publicly traded on both the Toronto Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker CP . Its U.S. headquarters are in Minneapolis .

neg: Cadillac Fairview Cadillac Fairview Corporation Limited is a Canadian company that invests in , owns , and manages commercial real estate , mainly in Canada and the United States . The name `` Cadillac Fairview '' came into existence in 1974 as a result of the merger between Cadillac Development Corporation Ltd and Fairview Corporation . Cadillac Development Corporation was founded by partners Ephraim Diamond ( d. 2008 ) , Joseph Berman ( 1922-2003 ) , and Jack Kamin in Toronto in 1953 as a developers of high-rise apartment buildings . Fairview Corporation was established in 1958 as the real estate division of Cemp Investments , the holding company of the Bronfman family . Before merging , Cadillac and Fairview already had strong ties since 1968 . Bronfman held Cemp Investments sold Cadillac Fairview in 1986 .   Cadillac Fairview owns , develops and manages property , malls and large office and retail spaces across the Western Hemisphere , mostly in North America . Cadillac Fairview has also developed suburban housing , such as the Erin Mills `` New Town '' . The company was purchased by the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan in March 2000 . In 2006 it expanded its operations to Brazil . As of March 2017 , the company states that its portfolio of 73 properties , encompassing 38 million square feet , is worth over $ 29 billion .   On September 21 , 2015 , Cadillac Fairview rebranded its shopping centre properties , adding the prefix `` CF '' in front of each shopping centre name and phasing out individual mall logos in favour of a standardized logo format and image campaign . According to Cadillac Fairview , this change was intended to `` link the Corporation with a premium shopping experience in the minds of Canadian consumers '' .

neg: Robert Gates Robert Michael `` Bob '' Gates ( born September 25 , 1943 ) is an American statesman , scholar , and university president who served as the 22nd United States Secretary of Defense from 2006 to 2011 . Gates initially began his career serving as an officer in the United States Air Force but was quickly recruited by the CIA . Gates served for 26 years in the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Security Council , and was Director of Central Intelligence under President George H. W. Bush . After leaving the CIA , Gates became president of Texas A&M University and was a member of several corporate boards . Gates served as a member of the Iraq Study Group , the bipartisan commission co-chaired by James A. Baker III and Lee H. Hamilton , that studied the lessons of the Iraq War .   Gates was nominated by Republican President George W. Bush as Secretary of Defense after the 2006 election , replacing Donald Rumsfeld . He was confirmed with bipartisan support . In a 2007 profile written by former National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski , Time named Gates one of the year 's most influential people . In 2008 , Gates was named one of America 's Best Leaders by U.S. News & World Report . He continued to serve as Secretary of Defense in President Barack Obama 's administration . He retired in 2011 . `` He 'll be remembered for making us aware of the danger of over-reliance on military intervention as an instrument of American foreign policy , '' said former Senator David L. Boren . Gates was presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the nation 's highest civilian award , by President Obama during his retirement ceremony . According to a Washington Post book review , he is `` widely considered the best defense secretary of the post-World War II era '' .   Since leaving the Obama Administration , Gates has been elected President of the Boy Scouts of America , served as Chancellor of the College of William & Mary , and served as a member on several corporate boards .

neg: Canada–Latin America relations Canada -- Latin America relations are relations between Canada and Latin America . This includes the bilateral ties between Canada and the individual Latin American states , plurilateral ties between Canada and any group of those states , or multilateral relations through groups like the Organization of American States ( OAS ) .   Canada and Latin America share ties of geography as part of the Western Hemisphere and history through the shared experience of European colonization . Culturally , Canada shares with the other American societies a mixture of European , indigenous American , and immigrant influences . Parts of Canada are majority-French speaking , and since French is a `` Latin '' language , Canada ( or more often Quebec ) is sometimes considered an honorary part of Latin America . However , Latin Americans may also group Canadians with United States citizens as norteamericanos or gringos . For both Canadians and Latin Americans the importance of relations with the United States may overshadow relations with each other . However Canada 's importance in the region has risen since joining the OAS in 1990 .