query: Seth Rogen was cast.

pos: Seth Rogen Seth Aaron Rogen ( -LSB- ˈroʊɡən -RSB- born April 15 , 1982 ) is a Canadian-American actor , filmmaker , and comedian . He began his career performing stand-up comedy during his teenage years , winning the Vancouver Amateur Comedy Contest in 1998 . While still living in his native Vancouver , he landed a supporting role in the series Freaks and Geeks . Shortly after he moved to Portland , Oregon for his role , Freaks and Geeks was officially cancelled after one season due to low viewership . Rogen later got a part on sitcom Undeclared , which also hired him as a staff writer .   After landing his job as a staff writer on the final season of Da Ali G Show , for which he and the other writers received an Emmy Award nomination , he was guided by Judd Apatow toward a film career . Rogen made his first movie appearance in Donnie Darko with a minor role as a rebellious student in Donnie 's high school classes in 2001 . Rogen was cast in a major supporting role and credited as a co-producer in Apatow 's directorial debut , The 40-Year-Old Virgin . After Rogen received critical praise for his performance , Universal Pictures agreed to cast him as the lead in Apatow 's films Knocked Up and Funny People . Rogen co-starred as Steve Wozniak in Universal 's Steve Jobs biopic in 2015 . In 2016 , he developed the AMC television series Preacher with his writing partner Evan Goldberg and Sam Catlin . He also serves as a writer and executive producer , and directed the first two episodes of the series with Goldberg .   Rogen and Goldberg co-wrote the films Superbad , Pineapple Express , The Green Hornet , This Is the End , and directed both This Is the End and The Interview ; all of which Rogen starred in . He has also done voice work for the films Horton Hears a Who ! , the Kung Fu Panda film series , The Spiderwick Chronicles , Monsters vs. Aliens , Paul , and Sausage Party .

neg: The Comedy Festival The Comedy Festival , formerly known as the US Comedy Arts Festival , was a comedy festival that ran from 1995 to 2008 . The festival included stand-up comedy performances , appearances by the casts of television shows , and has a film component called the Film Discovery Program .   The first 13 editions of the US Comedy Arts Festival were held annually at the Wheeler Opera House and other venues in Aspen , Colorado . Comedian Joe Rogan says the festival 's location at the time was for the `` Executives to ski '' . The primary sponsor of the festival was HBO , with co-sponsorship by Caesars Palace ( the primary venue ) , TBS , GEICO Insurance , Twix candy bars and Smirnoff Vodka . In-between , HBO had started a spin-off version simply named The Comedy Festival , which was held in Las Vegas , Nevada , since 2006 in collaboration with the Anschutz Entertainment Group . The Aspen event folded in 2007 once HBO exited the festival business , considering the expenditures too high . TBS picked up the Las Vegas event in 2008 , and organized a follow-up edition that year , also arranging for other comedy festivals in collaboration with Just For Laughs . In turn , Aspen replaced the festival with similar events , the Aspen RooftopComedy Festival and the Aspen Laff Festival .

neg: Ring of Honor Ring of Honor ( ROH ) is an American professional wrestling promotion , founded in 2002 by RF Video owner Rob Feinstein . From 2004 to 2011 , the promotion was under the ownership of Cary Silkin before being sold to the Sinclair Broadcast Group ( SBG ) , an American telecommunications company that operates the largest number of local television stations in the United States .   ROH holds TV tapings , pay-per-view events , live events , and Internet pay-per-view events throughout the United States and Canada . It has also held shows in the United Kingdom and Japan . Annual shows include the Anniversary Show , Supercard of Honor ( held annually during WrestleMania weekend ) , Best in the World , Global Wars , Death Before Dishonor , Glory By Honor , and Final Battle ( the last show of the calendar year and ROH 's marquee event ) .   ROH records all of its shows and sells them on DVD through mail order via its online store , and the DVDs have developed a fanbase for the promotion in the United States and beyond . In 2009 , ROH signed a television deal with HDNet , which aired shows every week until 2011 . As of September 2011 , ROH 's flagship broadcast Ring of Honor Wrestling has been syndicated by parent company Sinclair Broadcasting , and airs on Sinclair owned stations across the country . ROH is also broadcast on Samurai TV in Japan , and is the third-largest professional wrestling promotion in the United States , behind WWE and after Impact Wrestling .   On June 22 , 2014 , ROH had its first live pay-per-view broadcast , Best in the World , from Nashville , Tennessee . It was followed-up on December 7 with their biggest show of the year Final Battle , from Terminal 5 in New York City . Their next pay-per-view aired March 1 , 2015 , which was their 13th Anniversary Show , from Las Vegas , Nevada .

neg: Into the West (miniseries) Into the West is a 2005 miniseries produced by Steven Spielberg and DreamWorks , with six two-hour episodes ( including commercials ) . The series was first broadcast in the U.S. on Turner Network Television ( TNT ) on six Fridays starting on June 10 , 2005 . It was also shown in the UK on BBC2 and BBC HD from November 4 , 2006 , and in Canada on CBC Television . The series also aired in the U.S. on AMC during the summer ( June/July ) and fall ( autumn , September/October ) of 2012 .   The miniseries begins in the 1820s and is told mainly through the third person narration of Jacob Wheeler ( Matthew Settle ) and Loved By the Buffalo ( Joseph M. Marshall III ) , although episodes outside the direct observation of both protagonists are also shown . The plot follows the story of two families , one white American , one Native American , as their lives become mingled through the momentous events of American expansion . The story intertwines real and fictional characters and events spanning the period of expansion of the United States in the American West , from 1825 to 1890 .   The show has a large cast , with about 250 speaking parts . The series features well known performers including Josh Brolin , Gary Busey , Michael Spears , Tonantzin Carmelo , Skeet Ulrich , Garrett Wang , Steve Reevis , Rachael Leigh Cook , Wes Studi , Irene Bedard , Alan Tudyk , Christian Kane , Russell Means , Jay Tavare , David Midthunder , Keri Russell , Graham Greene , Zahn McClarnon , Tom Berenger , Gil Birmingham , David Paymer , Raoul Trujillo , Eric Schweig , Lance Henriksen , Simon R. Baker , Tyler Christopher , Tatanka Means , Tokala Clifford , Gordon Tootoosis , Sheila Tousey , and Will Patton .   It was filmed in Drumheller , Alberta and Santa Fe , New Mexico .

neg: This Is the End This Is the End is a 2013 American disaster comedy film directed by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg and stars Rogen , James Franco , Jonah Hill , Jay Baruchel , Danny McBride , Craig Robinson , Michael Cera and Emma Watson . The story features real life actors playing fictionalized versions of themselves in the aftermath of a global biblical apocalypse . The film premiered at the Fox Village Theater on June 3 , 2013 and was released in the United States on June 14 , 2013 by Columbia Pictures , before being re-released on September 6 , 2013 . The film grossed $ 126 million on a $ 32 million budget . The film makes references to the past movies of the cast , including Spider-Man , Million Dollar Baby , Forrest Gump , Superbad , Pineapple Express , Moneyball , Your Highness , The Green Hornet , 127 Hours and the Harry Potter film series .

neg: Ronald Rand Ronald Rand is an American stage and film actor , educator , director , playwright , producer , and newspaper publisher . A U.S. Cultural Goodwill Ambassador , Rand has performed his one-man show , `` Let It Be Art ! '' as Harold Clurman since 2001 in 23 countries and 20 states.Founder and Publisher of the newspaper , The Soul of the American Actor , he is also the author of Acting Teachers of America .

neg: The CBS Late Movie The CBS Late Movie is a CBS television series ( later known as CBS Late Night ) during the 1970s and 1980s . The program ran in most American television markets from 11:30 p.m. ( EST ) until 2:30 a.m. or later , on weeknights . A single announcer ( in the early years , CBS staff announcer Norm Stevens ) voiced the introduction and commercial bumpers for each program , but there was no host per se , or closing credits besides those of the night 's presentation . ( The bumpers announcing the stars of the movie notably rotated names , two or three at a time , so more of the players would be mentioned . )   The program was launched following the cancellation of The Merv Griffin Show , CBS 's late-night talk show from 1969 to 1972 . The show went on to have a long run in first-run syndication following CBS 's cancellation .   The CBS Late Movie theme music was `` So Old , So Young '' by Morton Stevens , which also served as the theme music for CBS 's prime-time movies until 1978 .   A memorable aspect to the show 's commercial breaks was the frequent appearance of public service announcements , from the Ad Council and other organizations , that often dealt with `` mature '' topics such as venereal disease , sexual and violent crimes , and abuse of hard drugs . Announcements also ran in much greater proportion than during prime time , with commercial breaks lasting longer ; it was not uncommon for the second portion of the show to start at 12:05 AM or 12:40 AM .   The CBS Late Night block , however , was not always cleared by every affiliate of the network ; in several markets , the block was either delayed by one hour from its regularly-scheduled time ( most notably in the Central and Mountain time zones ) , picked up by a local independent station ( including those that later affiliated with the Fox television network ) , or not seen at all in certain cities . Those stations that did not carry CBS Late Night instead broadcast movies from their own libraries and/or their own lineup of off-network syndicated sitcoms , drama reruns and first-run syndication products . A large factor in the programming decisions of many CBS affiliates electing not to clear CBS Late Night ( or delaying it ) was due to head-to-head competition with NBC 's The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , and later entering the 1980s , ABC News ' Nightline . It was not until 1993 , when the Late Show with David Letterman debuted , that CBS ' late night programming ( excluding Nightwatch/Up to the Minute ) was cleared across the entire network .

neg: Josh Radnor Joshua Radnor ( born July 29 , 1974 ) is an American actor , director , producer , and screenwriter . He is best known for portraying Ted Mosby on the popular Emmy Award-winning CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother . He made his writing and directorial debut with the 2010 comedy drama film Happythankyoumoreplease , for which he won the Sundance Film Festival Audience Award and was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize .   In 2012 , he wrote , directed and starred in his second film , Liberal Arts , which premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival . In 2014 , Radnor portrayed Isaac in the Broadway play Disgraced , which earned a Tony Award for Best Play nomination . He then starred as Dr. Jedediah Foster on the PBS American Civil War drama series Mercy Street .

neg: Clayton Rohner Clayton Rohner ( born August 5 , 1957 ) is an American actor .   Rohner was born in Palo Alto , California . He is known for his role as Rick Morehouse in the 1985 comedy movie Just One of the Guys . He also starred in the 1986 film Modern Girls as Clifford and Bruno X . He is a main character in the 1994 film Caroline at Midnight . Other credits include the films April Fool 's Day , Destroyer , The Relic , and The Human Centipede 3 ( Final Sequence ) . Clayton starred in the short-lived science fiction series E.A.R.T.H. Force and G vs E . He starred in the 2005 film role in Formosa .   Rohner starred on the TV series Murder One as Detective Vince Biggio from 1996 to 1997 . His television guest appearances include Miami Vice , Star Trek : The Next Generation as Admiral Mark Jameson in the season 1 episode `` Too Short a Season '' , Beverly Hills , 90210 , Charmed , Crossing Jordan , Angel , and Weeds . He also appeared in the award-winning series Into the West and The X-Files ( season 6 , episode 8 ) . He also appeared in the TV role of Jared Pryor in the short-lived ABC midseason replacement Day Break .   Rohner was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity at Whitman College .

neg: The Hero (1966 TV series) The Hero is an American television sitcom that aired on NBC on Thursday Night at 9:30 pm from September 8 , 1966 to January 5 , 1967 . It was the first TV series for Richard Mulligan , who a decade later would star in the far-more-successful Soap .

neg: List of Saturday Night Live episodes Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) is a late-night sketch comedy and variety show created by Lorne Michaels . It premiered on NBC , a terrestrial television network , on October 11 , 1975 under the title NBC 's Saturday Night . The show often satirizes contemporary American popular culture and politics . Saturday Night Live features a two-tiered cast : the repertory members , also known as the `` Not Ready for Prime-Time Players , '' and newer cast members , known as `` Featured Players . '' Each week , the show features a host , often a well-known celebrity , who delivers an opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast . A musical guest is also invited to perform several sets ( usually two , and occasionally more ) . Every so often a host or musical guest will fill both roles , such as was the case with Britney Spears in 2000 and 2002 , Jennifer Lopez in 2001 and 2010 , Justin Timberlake in 2003 , 2006 and 2013 , Taylor Swift in 2009 , Bruno Mars in 2012 , Lady Gaga in 2013 , Miley Cyrus in 2013 and 2015 , Drake in 2014 and 2016 , Blake Shelton in 2015 , and Ariana Grande in 2016 . With the exception of Season 7 and several other rare cases , the show has begun with a cold open that ends with someone breaking character and proclaiming `` Live from New York , it 's Saturday Night ! ''   Saturday Night Live is one of the longest running network programs in American television history , with over 800 episodes broadcast over the span of 42 seasons . A number of the show 's sketches have been developed into feature films , including The Blues Brothers , Wayne 's World , A Night at the Roxbury , Superstar , Coneheads , and MacGruber .   Seasons 1 through 5 are available on DVD in Region 1 . Various Saturday Night Live sketches are available in several new media formats , including streaming on Hulu and Netflix . Selected sketches and segments are also available for purchase at the iTunes Store to download and playback on home computers and certain iPod and iPhone models .

neg: List of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. characters Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is an American television series created for ABC by Joss Whedon , Jed Whedon , and Maurissa Tancharoen , based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. ( Strategic Homeland Intervention , Enforcement and Logistics Division ) , a fictional peacekeeping and spy agency in a world of superheroes . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the feature and short films of the franchise .   The series stars Clark Gregg , reprising his role of Phil Coulson from the films , as well as Ming-Na Wen , Brett Dalton , Chloe Bennet , Iain De Caestecker , and Elizabeth Henstridge . Nick Blood and Adrianne Palicki joined the cast for the second and third seasons , while Henry Simmons and Luke Mitchell had recurring roles in the second season before being promoted to the main cast for the third . John Hannah , who recurred in the third season , joined the main cast in the fourth . Additionally , several other characters from Marvel Cinematic Universe films and Marvel One-Shots also appear throughout the series , along with other characters based on various Marvel Comics properties . Several characters from the series also appear in the supplemental digital series Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. : Slingshot .   This list includes the series ' main cast , all guest stars deemed to have had recurring roles throughout the series , and any other guest who is otherwise notable .

neg: Rysher Entertainment Rysher Entertainment was the owner of television and film programming content , primarily distributed around the world by CBS Television Distribution and Paramount Pictures . Select rights are also distributed by Warner Bros. , Universal , Lionsgate , Fox , Columbia Pictures , MGM and other entertainment distribution companies worldwide .   The company has its roots in Bing Crosby Productions ( `` BCP '' ) . Its namesake , actor-singer Bing Crosby , founded BCP in 1949 , and was best known for producing the sitcom Hogan 's Heroes and the medical drama Ben Casey -- in succeeding years , BCP was acquired by Cox Broadcasting .   In 1993 , Cox acquired Rysher Entertainment . Rysher , founded in April 1991 by Keith Samples , had been established as an independently owned company whose original sole product had been the distribution of NBC 's series Saved By The Bell . In 1993 , and later distribution of another NBC series California Dreams in 1994 , Rysher merged with Al Masini 's Television Program Enterprises to form Rysher TPE , its alternate name used from 1993 to 1995 . Through Rysher TPE , they produced and distributed shows such as Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous ( renamed Lifestyles with Robin Leach and Shari Belafonte for its final season ) and Star Search . Later , they produced and distributed George & Alana , which ran for one season in 1995 .  The company was shut down in 1999 and the library was acquired by Viacom who folded it into both the film and television division of Paramount .   Rysher 's library , today distributed by CBS Television Distribution ( CTD ) and Paramount Pictures ( for TV series and films , respectively ) , includes television and feature film classics such as Hogan 's Heroes ( whose partial rights are held by CBS ) , Ben Casey , and Walking Tall , as well as more recent programs and films including Nash Bridges ( 1999 -- 2001 episodes are produced by Paramount Network Television ) , Highlander : The Series , The Opposite of Sex ( with Sony Pictures Classics ) , Kingpin and Big Night .   Rysher also distributes internationally through CTD several of HBO 's award-winning titles including Arli $ $ , Oz and Sex and the City .   Rysher also produced House Arrest and Zeus and Roxanne , both of which were released by MGM and distributed by HBO Home Video for home release .

neg: Freaks and Geeks Freaks and Geeks is an American teen comedy-drama television series , created by Paul Feig , with Judd Apatow as executive producer , that aired on NBC during the 1999 -- 2000 television season . Eighteen episodes were completed , but the series was canceled after only 12 had aired .   A fan-led campaign persuaded NBC to broadcast three more episodes in July 2000 ; the three remaining unaired episodes , for a total of 18 , aired that September on the cable network Fox Family Channel .   The series appeared on Time magazine 's 2007 `` 100 Greatest Shows of All Time '' list , and placed third on the magazine 's list of greatest television shows of the 2000s ( decade ) . In 2007 , Freaks and Geeks ranked # 21 on TV Guides Top Cult Shows Ever . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly ranked it the 13th-best series of the past 25 years . The same year , AOL TV named it the Best School Show of All Time . In 2013 TV Guide included it in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time , and ranked it # 1 on their list of 60 shows that were `` Cancelled Too Soon '' . It launched several of its young actors into successful television and film careers .

neg: Whole World Theatre The Whole World Theatre is an improvisational theatre located in Atlanta , Georgia .   Whole World Theatre ( WWT ) is a non-profit theatre company that began in Atlanta , Georgia in late 1993 , when David Webster began teaching a group of student actors whom he would train to become the hottest improv company in town . Jennifer Horne and David Webster were co-founding members .   The original students of Whole World Theatre performed their first show in front of 25 people in September 1994 . Specializing in experiential improv and unconventional scripted works , and using a unique approach to improv , which put more emphasis on acting , character and atmosphere than on cheap laughs , Webster wrote and directed original ground breaking pieces such as , Blood Bath Bingo and Pimps , Queens , and Dope Fiends . Webster also produced scripted works included , Balm in Gillead , Bitches , Women Behind Bars , Four Dogs and a Bone and The House of Yes , among many others .   In June 1995 , Jennifer Horne and David Webster spent their honeymoon money to open Whole World Theatre at their current location at 1214 Spring Street in mid-town Atlanta . As their popularity grew , the cast of Whole World Theatre were given the opportunity to produce their live improv comedy show for television when Webster sold the show to television . `` Whole World Comedy '' - Whole World 's premier TV show - helped to launch the southern based Turner South Network .   David Webster taught every actor at Whole World Theater until 2001 . He wrote , directed and emceed every show for over 1000 shows . He won several awards including an Emmy award for writing .   In 2003 Managing Director , Emily Reily Russell , created a youth summer camp program and an improvisational acting program for teens and young adults at Whole World Theatre that still exists to this day . Many of the graduates of this program have entered the `` Performance Ready Group '' that hosts a more family oriented show the first Saturday of every month November through May . The Performance Ready Group is directed and mentored by Assistant Artistic Director , Eric Goins . Russell , in conjunction with Callanwolde Fine Arts Center and The Starlight Starbright Foundation has also created `` Improv in Dialysis . '' Providing monthly improvisational acting workshops to patients and their families at Egleston Children 's Hospital in Atlanta .   Lance Krall , one of Webster 's original students , eventually moved to Hollywood and went on to produce his own television show , The Lance Krall Show , which aired Spike TV , and Free Radio , which aired on Vh1 . Lance has hired several alumni from Whole World Theatre to guest star in his projects .   In 2004 , Webster moved on to write and direct independent movies and Jennifer Horne moved on to begin her own improv troupe in Charlottesville , Va. . That same year , a complete change in management occurred at Whole World Theatre .   In 2004 , Chip Powell became Artistic Director of Whole World Theatre . The Company continues to perform improv shows and remains one of Atlanta 's most successful theater companies . Under Powell 's leadership the company has produced Improv in the Park : an annual free improv show in Atlanta 's Piedmont Park and Central Park at Atlantic Station . Improv in the Park was voted `` Best Outdoor Event '' by Creative Loafing . Powell also went on to launch Whole World 's 3rd Space Theatre by Producing and Directing scripted works such as Sordid Lives and Southern Baptist Sissies by Del Shores .   In 2005 , the theatre started a television show for a network called MAV TV and is currently broadcast in over 200,000 homes across the U.S. . The show features Whole World 's Improv Comedy and is geared towards a more mature audience .  Official Website   Category : Theatres in Atlanta

neg: Seinfeld: A XXX Parody Seinfeld : A XXX Parody is a 2009 American pornographic situation comedy film that parodies the American television sitcom Seinfeld which ran from 1989 until 1998 . Like other porn parodies , it has the same characters , settings and other production elements of the original show but adds an explicitly sexual element that was not present in the series . Written by A.J. Slater and directed by Lee Roy Myers , the plot is based on the episode `` The Soup Nazi '' . The film stars James Deen , Kristina Rose , Eric John , Steve Pomerantz , Evan Stone , Ashlynn Brooke , London Keyes , Natalie Horton , Tony Disergio , Sasha Grey , Sadie West and Cassandra Calogera . Released to DVD on June 29 , 2009 , the movie received positive reviews from critics , who enjoyed the acting , casting , sexual content and comedy . In addition to the positive reception , it also earned ten nominations at the 27th AVN Awards .

neg: Roger Corman Presents Roger Corman Presents was a series of films made for Showtime by movie producer Roger Corman .

neg: Sears Radio Theater Sears Radio Theater was a radio drama anthology series which ran weeknights on CBS Radio in 1979 , sponsored by the Sears chain . Often paired with The CBS Radio Mystery Theater during its first season , the program offered a different genre of drama for each day 's broadcast .   In January 1980 , the program moved to the Mutual Broadcasting System and became the Mutual Radio Theater . The Mutual series broadcast repeats from the CBS run until September 1980 , when a short season of new dramas was presented . Sears continued as a sponsor during the Mutual run .   Monday was `` Western Night '' and was hosted by Lorne Greene . Tuesday was `` Comedy Night '' , hosted by Andy Griffith . Wednesday was `` Mystery Night '' with Vincent Price as host . Thursday was `` Love and Hate Night '' with Cicely Tyson doing honors as host . Finally , Friday brought `` Adventure Night '' , first hosted by Richard Widmark and later by Howard Duff and then by Leonard Nimoy .   Actors heard on the series included Jim Jordan , Henry Morgan , Daws Butler , June Foray , Parley Baer , Mary Jane Croft , Howard Culver , John Dehner , Virginia Gregg , Janet Waldo , Vic Perrin , Hans Conried , Marvin Miller , Elliott Lewis , Jeff Corey , Lesley Woods , Robert Rockwell , Lurene Tuttle , Eve Arden , Keith Andes , Harriet Nelson , Alan Young , Tom Bosley , Marion Ross , Lloyd Bochner , Rick Jason , Frank Campanella , Toni Tennille , Arthur Hill , Dan O'Herlihy , Jesse White and Frank Nelson . Actress Peggy Webber was heard on 52 episodes .   It was produced and directed by Fletcher Markle and Elliott Lewis . The theme was composed and conducted by Nelson Riddle .   Though less long-lived than NPR 's Earplay or the CBS Radio Mystery Theater , it was an ambitious attempt to reinvigorate a neglected field . Like Earplay , it was broadcast in stereo .

neg: ER (TV series) ER is an American medical drama television series created by novelist and medical doctor Michael Crichton that aired on NBC from September 19 , 1994 , to April 2 , 2009 , with a total of 331 episodes spanning over 15 seasons . It was produced by Constant c Productions and Amblin Television , in association with Warner Bros. . Television . ER follows the inner life of the emergency room ( ER ) of fictional County General Hospital in Chicago , Illinois , and various critical issues faced by the room 's physicians and staff . The show became the longest-running primetime medical drama in American television history . It won 23 Primetime Emmy Awards , including the 1996 Outstanding Drama Series award , and received 124 Emmy nominations , which makes it the most nominated drama program in history . ER won 116 awards in total , including the Peabody Award , while the cast earned four Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Ensemble Performance in a Drama Series .

neg: Seth Margolis Seth Margolis is an author of fiction who has written five books over the past two decades . In 1995 , one of his books was made into a feature film called Losing Isaiah , starring Jessica Lange and Halle Berry . In 2006 he released Closing Costs , a story about the New York City real estate market . He has also written a number of New York Times articles about travel and entertainment .

neg: Joshua Gomez Joshua Eli Gomez ( born November 20 , 1975 ) is an American actor best known for his role as Morgan Grimes on Chuck . He is the younger brother of actor Rick Gomez .   Gomez appeared in a recurring role in the CBS series Without a Trace as computer tech James Mackeroy . He appeared in a series of IBM commercials , a series of Wendy 's commercials ( Ranch Tooth ) , and a commercial for Garmin . He also made a cameo on Freddy 's Nightmares . He played Sammy Stinger in Bring It On Again , 2004 .   As a voice actor , Gomez played Baralai in the video game Final Fantasy X-2 , opposite his brother Rick 's character , Gippal , and as Parker in Turok . He also had a small part at the beginning of BioShock as Johnny .   In September 2007 , he began starring in the NBC series Chuck as the title character 's friend , Morgan Grimes . Gomez is friends with Chuck co-star , Zachary Levi , in real life .   Joshua was nominated for Outstanding Male Performance in the Comedy Television Series at the 2008 ALMA Awards .


query: Elementary is a series.

pos: Elementary (TV series) Elementary is an American procedural drama series that presents a contemporary update of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's character Sherlock Holmes . The series was created by Robert Doherty and stars Jonny Lee Miller as Sherlock Holmes and Lucy Liu as Dr. Joan Watson . The series premiered on CBS on September 27 , 2012 . The series is set and filmed primarily in New York City .   The show follows Holmes , a recovering drug addict and former consultant to Scotland Yard , as he assists the New York City Police Department in solving crimes . His indifference to police procedure often leads to conflict with Captain Thomas Gregson ( Aidan Quinn ) , although the two still remain mutually respectful of one another . He is accompanied by Dr. Joan Watson ( Lucy Liu ) , who initially acts as his sober companion . She is a former surgeon and was hired by Sherlock 's father to help him in his rehabilitation . They eventually begin to work together on his cases , and she becomes Holmes ' apprentice . The series also features Holmes ' ongoing conflict with his nemesis Jamie Moriarty ( Natalie Dormer ) . Other supporting roles include Jon Michael Hill as Detective Marcus Bell , Rhys Ifans as Sherlock 's brother , Mycroft Holmes , and John Noble as Sherlock 's father , Morland Holmes .   Before the series premiered , it was met with some criticism given it followed closely on the heels of the BBC 's modern adaptation Sherlock . After the premiere , it was picked up for a full season and later an extra two episodes . The season two premiere was partly filmed on location in London . The series has since been well received by critics , who have praised the performances , writing , and novel approach to the source material . On March 25 , 2016 , CBS renewed the series for a fifth season , which premiered on October 2 , 2016 . On May 13 , 2017 , CBS renewed the series for a sixth season .

neg: Polynomial expansion In mathematics , an expansion of a product of sums expresses it as a sum of products by using the fact that multiplication distributes over addition . Expansion of a polynomial expression can be obtained by repeatedly replacing subexpressions that multiply two other subexpressions , at least one of which is an addition , by the equivalent sum of products , continuing until the expression becomes a sum of ( repeated ) products . During the expansion , simplifications such as grouping of like terms or cancellations of terms may also be applied . Instead of multiplications , the expansion steps could also involve replacing powers of a sum of terms by the equivalent expression obtained from the binomial formula ; this is a shortened form of what would happen if the power were treated as a repeated multiplication , and expanded repeatedly . It is customary to reintroduce powers in the final result when terms involve products of identical symbols .   Simple examples of polynomial expansions are the well known rules   when used from left to right . A more general single-step expansion will introduce all products of a term of one of the sums being multiplied with a term of the other :   An expansion which involves multiple nested rewrite steps is that of working out a Horner scheme to the ( expanded ) polynomial it defines , for instance  .   The opposite process of trying to write an expanded polynomial as a product is called polynomial factorization .

neg: Atomic orbital In quantum mechanics , an atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom . This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom 's nucleus . The term , atomic orbital , may also refer to the physical region or space where the electron can be calculated to be present , as defined by the particular mathematical form of the orbital .   Each orbital in an atom is characterized by a unique set of values of the three quantum numbers , , and , which respectively correspond to the electron 's energy , angular momentum , and an angular momentum vector component ( the magnetic quantum number ) . Each such orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons , each with its own spin quantum number . The simple names s orbital , p orbital , d orbital and f orbital refer to orbitals with angular momentum quantum number and respectively . These names , together with the value of , are used to describe the electron configurations of atoms . They are derived from the description by early spectroscopists of certain series of alkali metal spectroscopic lines as sharp , principal , diffuse , and fundamental . Orbitals for > 3 continue alphabetically , omitting j ( g , h , i , k , ... ) because some languages do not distinguish between the letters `` i '' and `` j '' .   Atomic orbitals are the basic building blocks of the atomic orbital model ( alternatively known as the electron cloud or wave mechanics model ) , a modern framework for visualizing the submicroscopic behavior of electrons in matter . In this model the electron cloud of a multi-electron atom may be seen as being built up ( in approximation ) in an electron configuration that is a product of simpler hydrogen-like atomic orbitals . The repeating periodicity of the blocks of 2 , 6 , 10 , and 14 elements within sections of the periodic table arises naturally from the total number of electrons that occupy a complete set of s , p , d and f atomic orbitals , respectively , although for higher values of the quantum number , particularly when the atom in question bears a positive charge , the energies of certain sub-shells become very similar and so the order in which they are said to be populated by electrons ( e.g. Cr = -LSB- Ar -RSB- 4s13d5 and Cr2 + = -LSB- Ar -RSB- 3d4 ) can only be rationalized somewhat arbitrarily .

neg: Actual infinity Actual infinity is the idea that numbers , or some other type of mathematical object , can form an actual , completed totality ; namely , a set . Hence , in the philosophy of mathematics , the abstraction of actual infinity involves the acceptance of infinite entities , such as the set of all natural numbers or an infinite sequence of rational numbers , as given objects . This is contrasted with potential infinity , in which a non-terminating process ( such as `` add 1 to the previous number '' ) produces an unending `` infinite '' sequence of results , but each individual result is finite and is achieved in a finite number of steps .

neg: Category (mathematics) In mathematics , a category is an algebraic structure that comprises `` objects '' that are linked by `` arrows '' . A category has two basic properties : the ability to compose the arrows associatively and the existence of an identity arrow for each object . A simple example is the category of sets , whose objects are sets and whose arrows are functions . On the other hand , any monoid can be understood as a special sort of category ( with a single object whose self-morphisms are represented by the elements of the monoid ) , and so can any preorder . In general , the objects and arrows may be abstract entities of any kind , and the notion of category provides a fundamental and abstract way to describe mathematical entities and their relationships . This is the central idea of category theory , a branch of mathematics which seeks to generalize all of mathematics in terms of objects and arrows , independent of what the objects and arrows represent . Virtually every branch of modern mathematics can be described in terms of categories , and doing so often reveals deep insights and similarities between seemingly different areas of mathematics . For more extensive motivational background and historical notes , see category theory and the list of category theory topics .   Two categories are the same if they have the same collection of objects , the same collection of arrows , and the same associative method of composing any pair of arrows . Two categories may also be considered `` equivalent '' for purposes of category theory , even if they are not precisely the same .   Well-known categories are denoted by a short capitalized word or abbreviation in bold or italics : examples include Set , the category of sets and set functions ; Ring , the category of rings and ring homomorphisms ; and Top , the category of topological spaces and continuous maps . All of the preceding categories have the identity map as identity arrow and composition as the associative operation on arrows .   The classic and still much used text on category theory is Categories for the Working Mathematician by Saunders Mac Lane . Other references are given in the References below . The basic definitions in this article are contained within the first few chapters of any of these books .

neg: Mass formula A mass formula is an equation or set of equations in physics which attempts to predict the mass or mass ratios of the subatomic particles .   An important step in high energy physics was the discovery of the Gell-Mann -- Okubo mass formula predicting relationships between masses of the members of SU ( 3 ) multiplets .   The development of an accurate mass formula is one of several fundamental aspects to developing a working theory of everything , which is expected to overcome the incompatibilities between current classical and quantum physics theories .   There are currently no universal mass formulae which are generally accepted as correct by the mainstream physics community , however several versions of potential mass formulae have been presented and are currently being explored by some ( largely amateur ) physics theorists .

neg: Algebra Project The Algebra Project is a national U.S. mathematics literacy effort aimed at helping low-income students and students of color successfully achieve mathematical skills that are a prerequisite for a college preparatory mathematics sequence in high school . The Project 's mission states , `` The Algebra Project , Inc. is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) national , nonprofit organization that uses mathematics as an organizing tool to ensure quality public school education for every child in America . We believe that every child has a right to a quality education to succeed in this technology-based society and to exercise full citizenship . We achieve this by using best educational research and practices , and building coalitions to create systemic changes . '' ( `` Algebra Project '' ) Founded by Civil Rights activist and Math educator Robert Parris Moses in the 1980s , the Algebra Project has developed curricular materials , trained teachers and teacher-trainers , and provided ongoing professional development support and community involvement activities to schools seeking to achieve a systemic change in mathematics education .   The Algebra Project reaches approximately 10,000 students and approximately 300 teachers per year in 28 local sites across 10 states .

neg: Automorphic number In mathematics an automorphic number ( sometimes referred to as a circular number ) is a number whose square `` ends '' in the same digits as the number itself . For example , 52 = 25 , 62 = 36 , 762 = 5776 , 3762 = 141376 , and 8906252 = 793212890625 , so 5 , 6 , 76 and 890625 are all automorphic numbers .  The only automorphic Kaprekar number is 1 , because the square of a Kaprekar number can not start with zero .   The sequence of automorphic numbers begins 1 , 5 , 6 , 25 , 76 , 376 , 625 , 9376 , ... .   Given a k-digit automorphic number n > 1 , an automorphic number n ′ with at most 2k-digits can be found with the formula :   For k greater than 1 , there are at most two automorphic numbers with k digits , one ending in 5 and one ending in 6 . One of them has the form :   and the other has the form :   The sum of the two numbers is 10k + 1 . The smaller of these two numbers may be less than 10k − 1 ; for example with k = 4 the two numbers are 9376 and 625 . In this case there is only one k digit automorphic number ; the smaller number could only form a k-digit automorphic number if a leading 0 were added to its digits .   The following digit sequence can be used to find the two k-digit automorphic numbers , where k ≤ 1000 .   12781 25400 13369 00860 34889 08436 40238 75765 93682 19796  26181 91783 35204 92704 19932 48752 37825 86714 82789 05344  89744 01426 12317 03569 95484 19499 44461 06081 46207 25403  65599 98271 58835 60350 49327 79554 07419 61849 28095 20937  53026 85239 09375 62839 14857 16123 67351 97060 92242 42398  77700 75749 55787 27155 97674 13458 99753 76955 15862 71888  79415 16307 56966 88163 52155 04889 82717 04378 50802 84340  84412 64412 68218 48514 15772 99160 34497 01789 23357 96684  99144 73895 66001 93254 58276 78000 61832 98544 26232 82725  75561 10733 16069 70158 64984 22229 12554 85729 87933 71478  66323 17240 55157 56102 35254 39949 99345 60808 38011 90741  53006 00560 55744 81870 96927 85099 77591 80500 75416 42852  77081 62011 35024 68060 58163 27617 16767 65260 93752 80568  44214 48619 39604 99834 47280 67219 06670 41724 00942 34466  19781 24266 90787 53594 46166 98508 06463 61371 66384 04902  92193 41881 90958 16595 24477 86184 61409 12878 29843 84317  03248 17342 88865 72737 66314 65191 04988 02944 79608 14673  76050 39571 96893 71467 18013 75619 05546 29968 14764 26390  39530 07319 10816 98029 38509 89006 21665 09580 86381 10005  57423 42323 08961 09004 10661 99773 92256 25991 82128 90625   One automorphic number is found by taking the last k digits of this sequence ; the second is found by subtracting the first number from 10 + 1 .

neg: Elementary operations Elementary operations can refer to :  the operations in elementary arithmetic : addition , subtraction , multiplication , division .  elementary row operations or elementary column operations .

neg: Infinite compositions of analytic functions In mathematics , infinite compositions of analytic functions ( ICAF ) offer alternative formulations of analytic continued fractions , series , products and other infinite expansions , and the theory evolving from such compositions may shed light on the convergence/divergence of these expansions . Some functions can actually be expanded directly as infinite compositions . In addition , it is possible to use ICAF to evaluate solutions of fixed point equations involving infinite expansions . Complex dynamics offers another venue for iteration of systems of functions rather than a single function . For infinite compositions of a single function see Iterated function . For compositions of a finite number of functions , useful in fractal theory , see Iterated function system . Although the title of this article specifies analytic functions , there are results for more general functions of a complex variable as well .

neg: Harmonic progression (mathematics) In mathematics , a harmonic progression ( or harmonic sequence ) is a progression formed by taking the reciprocals of an arithmetic progression . In other words , it is a sequence of the form   where − a/d is not a natural number and k is a natural number .   ( Terms in the form can be expressed as , we can let and . )   Equivalently , a sequence is a harmonic progression when each term is the harmonic mean of the neighboring terms .   It is not possible for a harmonic progression ( other than the trivial case where a = 1 and k = 0 ) to sum to an integer . The reason is that , necessarily , at least one denominator of the progression will be divisible by a prime number that does not divide any other denominator .

neg: Wiener series In mathematics , the Wiener series ( or Wiener G-functional expansion ) originates from the 1958 book of Norbert Wiener . It is an orthogonal expansion for nonlinear functionals closely related to the Volterra series and having the same relation to it as an orthogonal Hermite polynomial expansion has to a power series . For this reason it is also known as the Wiener-Hermite expansion . The analogue of the coefficients are referred to as Wiener kernels . The terms of the series are orthogonal ( uncorrelated ) with respect to a statistical input of white noise . This property allows the terms to be identified in applications by the Lee-Schetzen method .   The Wiener series is important in nonlinear system identification . In this context , the series approximates the functional relation of the output to the entire history of system input at any time . The Wiener series has been applied mostly to the identification of biological systems , especially in neuroscience .   The name Wiener series is almost exclusively used in system theory . In the mathematical literature it occurs as the Itô expansion ( 1951 ) which has a different form but is entirely equivalent to it .   The Wiener series should not be confused with the Wiener filter , which is another algorithm developed by Norbert Wiener used in signal processing .

neg: Observational equivalence Observational equivalence is the property of two or more underlying entities being indistinguishable on the basis of their observable implications . Thus , for example , two scientific theories are observationally equivalent if all of their empirically testable predictions are identical , in which case empirical evidence can not be used to distinguish which is closer to being correct ; indeed , it may be that they are actually two different perspectives on one underlying theory .   In econometrics , two parameter values ( or two structures , from among a class of statistical models ) are considered observationally equivalent if they both result in the same probability distribution of observable data . This term often arises in relation to the identification problem .   In the formal semantics of programming languages , two terms M and N are observationally equivalent if and only if , in all contexts C -LSB- ... -RSB- where C -LSB- M -RSB- is a valid term , it is the case that C -LSB- N -RSB- is also a valid term with the same value . Thus it is not possible , within the system , to distinguish between the two terms . This definition can be made precise only with respect to a particular calculus , one that comes with its own specific definitions of term , context , and the value of a term .

neg: Central limit theorem In probability theory , the central limit theorem ( CLT ) establishes that , for the most commonly studied scenarios , when independent random variables are added , their sum tends toward a normal distribution ( commonly known as a bell curve ) even if the original variables themselves are not normally distributed . In more precise terms , given certain conditions , the arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of iterates of independent random variables , each with a well-defined ( finite ) expected value and finite variance , will be approximately normally distributed , regardless of the underlying distribution . The theorem is a key concept in probability theory because it implies that probabilistic and statistical methods that work for normal distributions can be applicable to many problems involving other types of distributions .   To illustrate the meaning of the theorem , suppose that a sample is obtained containing a large number of observations , each observation being randomly generated in a way that does not depend on the values of the other observations , and that the arithmetic average of the observed values is computed . If this procedure is performed many times , the central limit theorem says that the computed values of the average will be distributed according to the normal distribution ( commonly known as a `` bell curve '' ) . A simple example of this is that if one flips a coin many times the probability of getting a given number of heads in a series of flips should follow a normal curve , with mean equal to half the total number of flips in each series .   The central limit theorem has a number of variants . In its common form , the random variables must be identically distributed . In variants , convergence of the mean to the normal distribution also occurs for non-identical distributions or for non-independent observations , given that they comply with certain conditions .   In more general usage , a central limit theorem is any of a set of weak-convergence theorems in probability theory . They all express the fact that a sum of many independent and identically distributed ( i.i.d. ) random variables , or alternatively , random variables with specific types of dependence , will tend to be distributed according to one of a small set of attractor distributions . When the variance of the i.i.d. variables is finite , the attractor distribution is the normal distribution . In contrast , the sum of a number of i.i.d. random variables with power law tail distributions decreasing as where ( and therefore having infinite variance ) will tend to an alpha-stable distribution with stability parameter ( or index of stability ) of as the number of variables grows .

neg: Stirling numbers and exponential generating functions in symbolic combinatorics The use of exponential generating functions ( EGFs ) to study the properties of Stirling numbers is a classical exercise in combinatorial mathematics and possibly the canonical example of how symbolic combinatorics is used . It also illustrates the parallels in the construction of these two types of numbers , lending support to the binomial-style notation that is used for them .   This article uses the coefficient extraction operator for formal power series , as well as the ( labelled ) operators ( for cycles ) and ( for sets ) on combinatorial classes , which are explained on the page for symbolic combinatorics . Given a combinatorial class , the cycle operator creates the class obtained by placing objects from the source class along a cycle of some length , where cyclical symmetries are taken into account , and the set operator creates the class obtained by placing objects from the source class in a set ( symmetries from the symmetric group , i.e. an `` unstructured bag '' . ) The two combinatorial classes ( shown without additional markers ) are  permutations ( for unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind ) :   and  set partitions into non-empty subsets ( for Stirling numbers of the second kind ) :    where is the singleton class .   Warning : The notation used here for the Stirling numbers is not that of the Wikipedia articles on Stirling numbers ; square brackets denote the signed Stirling numbers here .

neg: Remarkable cardinal In mathematics , a remarkable cardinal is a certain kind of large cardinal number .   A cardinal κ is called remarkable if for all regular cardinals θ > κ , there exist π , M , λ , σ , N and ρ such that   π : M → Hθ is an elementary embedding  M is countable and transitive  π = κ  σ : M → N is an elementary embedding with critical point λ  N is countable and transitive  ρ = M ∩ Ord is a regular cardinal in N  σ > ρ  M = HρN , i.e. , M ∈ N and N ⊨ `` M is the set of all sets that are hereditarily smaller than ρ ''   Equivalently , is remarkable if and only if for every there is such that in some forcing extension , there is an elementary embedding . Note that , although the definition is similar to one of the definitions of supercompact cardinals , the elementary embedding here only has to exist in , not in .

neg: Singular trace In mathematics , a singular trace is a trace on a space of linear operators of a separable Hilbert space that vanishes  on operators of finite rank . Singular traces are a feature of infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces such as the space of square-summable sequences and spaces of square-integrable functions . Linear operators on a finite-dimensional Hilbert space have only the zero functional as a singular trace since all operators have finite rank . For example , matrix algebras have no non-trivial singular traces and the matrix trace is the unique trace up to scaling .   American mathematician Gary Weiss and , later , British mathematician Nigel Kalton observed in the infinite-dimensional case that there are non-trivial singular traces on the ideal of trace class operators .  Therefore , in distinction to the finite-dimensional case , in infinite dimensions the canonical operator trace is not the unique trace up to scaling . The operator trace is the continuous extension of the matrix trace from finite rank operators to all trace class operators , and the term singular derives from the fact that a singular trace vanishes where the matrix trace is supported , analogous to a singular measure vanishing where Lebesgue measure is supported .   Singular traces measure the asymptotic spectral behaviour of operators and have found applications in the noncommutative geometry of French mathematician Alain Connes .  In heuristic terms , a singular trace corresponds to a way of summing  numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , ... that is completely orthogonal or ` singular ' with respect to the usual sum a1 + a2 + a3 + ... .  This allows mathematicians to sum sequences like the harmonic sequence ( and operators with similar spectral behaviour ) that are divergent for the usual sum . In similar terms a ( noncommutative ) measure theory or probability theory can be built for distributions like the Cauchy distribution ( and operators with similar spectral behaviour ) that do not have finite expectation in the usual sense .

neg: Enumerative combinatorics Enumerative combinatorics is an area of combinatorics that deals with the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed . Two examples of this type of problem are counting combinations and counting permutations . More generally , given an infinite collection of finite sets Si indexed by the natural numbers , enumerative combinatorics seeks to describe a counting function which counts the number of objects in Sn for each n. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem , many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description . The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations , combinations and partitions .   The simplest such functions are closed formulas , which can be expressed as a composition of elementary functions such as factorials , powers , and so on . For instance , as shown below , the number of different possible orderings of a deck of n cards is f ( n ) = n ! . The problem of finding a closed formula is known as algebraic enumeration , and frequently involves deriving a recurrence relation or generating function and using this to arrive at the desired closed form .   Often , a complicated closed formula yields little insight into the behavior of the counting function as the number of counted objects grows .  In these cases , a simple asymptotic approximation may be preferable . A function is an asymptotic approximation to if as . In this case , we write

neg: Almost periodic function In mathematics , an almost periodic function is , loosely speaking , a function of a real number that is periodic to within any desired level of accuracy , given suitably long , well-distributed `` almost-periods '' . The concept was first studied by Harald Bohr and later generalized by Vyacheslav Stepanov , Hermann Weyl and Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch , amongst others . There is also a notion of almost periodic functions on locally compact abelian groups , first studied by John von Neumann .   Almost periodicity is a property of dynamical systems that appear to retrace their paths through phase space , but not exactly . An example would be a planetary system , with planets in orbits moving with periods that are not commensurable ( i.e. , with a period vector that is not proportional to a vector of integers ) . A theorem of Kronecker from diophantine approximation can be used to show that any particular configuration that occurs once , will recur to within any specified accuracy : if we wait long enough we can observe the planets all return to within a second of arc to the positions they once were in .

neg: Film series A film series ( also referred to as a film franchise ) is a collection of related films in succession that share the same fictional universe , or are marketed as a series .   Sometimes the work is conceived from the beginning as a multiple-film work , for example the Three Colours series , but in most cases the success of the original film inspires further films to be made . Individual sequels are relatively common , but are not always successful enough to spawn further installments .   The Marvel Cinematic Universe is the highest grossing film series in unadjusted US Dollar figures surpassing the Harry Potter , Star Wars , James Bond , and Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings series . However , `` Star Wars '' has the highest when adjusted for inflation .

neg: Infinite arithmetic series In mathematics , an infinite arithmetic series is an infinite series whose terms are in an arithmetic progression . Examples are and . The general form for an infinite arithmetic series is   If a = b = 0 , then the sum of the series is 0 . If either a or b is nonzero while the other is , then the series diverges and has no sum in the usual sense .


query: IBM invented the hard disk drive.

pos: IBM International Business Machines Corporation ( commonly referred to as IBM ) is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk , New York , United States , with operations in over 170 countries . The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company ( CTR ) and was renamed `` International Business Machines '' in 1924 .   IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware , middleware and software , and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology . IBM is also a major research organization , holding the record for most patents generated by a business ( as of 2017 ) for 24 consecutive years . Inventions by IBM include the automated teller machine ( ATM ) , the PC , the floppy disk , the hard disk drive , the magnetic stripe card , the relational database , the SQL programming language , the UPC barcode , and dynamic random-access memory ( DRAM ) . The IBM mainframe , exemplified by the System/360 , was the dominant computing platform during the 1960s and 1970s .   IBM has continually shifted its business mix by commoditizing markets focusing on higher-value , more profitable markets . This includes spinning off printer manufacturer Lexmark in 1991 and selling off its personal computer ( ThinkPad/ThinkCentre ) and x86-based server businesses to Lenovo ( 2005 and 2014 , respectively ) , and acquiring companies such as PwC Consulting ( 2002 ) , SPSS ( 2009 ) , and The Weather Company ( 2016 ) . Also in 2014 , IBM announced that it would go `` fabless '' , continuing to design semiconductors , but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries .   Nicknamed Big Blue , IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the world 's largest employers , with ( as of 2016 ) nearly 380,000 employees . Known as `` IBMers '' , IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes , six Turing Awards , ten National Medals of Technology and five National Medals of Science .

neg: Tape drive A tape drive is a data storage device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape . Magnetic tape data storage is typically used for offline , archival data storage . Tape media generally has a favorable unit cost and a long archival stability .   A tape drive provides sequential access storage , unlike a hard disk drive , which provides direct access storage . A disk drive can move to any position on the disk in a few milliseconds , but a tape drive must physically wind tape between reels to read any one particular piece of data . As a result , tape drives have very slow average seek times to data . However , tape drives can stream data very quickly off a tape when the required position has been reached . For example , Linear Tape-Open ( LTO ) supported continuous data transfer rates of up to 140 MB/s , comparable to hard disk drives .

neg: Machine Age The Machine Age is an era that includes the early 20th century , sometimes also including the late 19th century . An approximate dating would be about 1880 to 1945 . Considered to be at a peak in the time between the first and second world wars , it forms a late part of the Second Industrial Revolution . By the mid to late 1940s , the atom bomb , the first computers , and the transistor came into being , beginning the contemporary era of Digital Revolution and thus ending the intellectual model of the machine age founded in the mechanical and heralding a new more complex model of high technology . The digital era has been called the Second Machine Age , with its increased focus on machines that do mental tasks .

neg: IBM 519 The IBM 519 Document-Originating Machine , introduced in 1946 , was the last in a series of unit record machines designed for automated preparation of punched cards . It could  reproduce all or parts of the information on a set of cards  `` gangpunch '' - copy information from a master card into the following detail cards  print up to eight digits on the end of a card  compare two decks of cards  summary punch information provided by a connected accounting machine  `` mark sense . '' - marks made with an electrographic pencil in designated locations on a punched card are sensed and then holes corresponding to those marks punched into the card  number cards consecutively ( an optional feature )   It operated at 100 cards per minute . Operations of the 519 were directed by a removable control panel .   The reproducing , gangpunching , summary punching , and comparing features of the IBM 519 are very similar to those of the IBM 513 and IBM 514 .

neg: IBM 729 The IBM 729 Magnetic Tape Unit was IBM 's iconic tape mass storage system from the late 1950s through the mid-1960s . Part of the IBM 7 track family of tape units , it was used on late 700 , most 7000 and many 1400 series computers . Like its predecessor , the IBM 727 and many successors , the 729 used 1/2 inch ( 12.7 mm ) magnetic tape up to 2400 feet ( 730 m ) long wound on reels up to 10 1/2 inch ( 267 mm ) diameter . To allow rapid tape acceleration ( and thus reduced seek/access times ) , long vacuum columns were placed between the tape reels and the read/write heads to absorb sudden increases in tape tension which would otherwise break the tape . Write protection was provided by a removable plastic ring in the back of the tape reel .

neg: UNIVAC Solid State The UNIVAC Solid State was a magnetic drum-based solid-state computer announced by Sperry Rand in December 1958 as a response to the IBM 650 . It was one of the first computers to be ( nearly ) entirely solid-state , using 700 transistors , and 3000 magnetic amplifiers ( FERRACTOR ) for primary logic , and 20 vacuum tubes largely for power control . It came in two versions , the Solid State 80 ( IBM-style 80 column cards ) and the Solid State 90 ( Remington-Rand 90 column cards ) . In addition to the `` 80/90 '' designation , there were two variants of the Solid State -- the SS I 80/90 and the SS II 80/90 . The SS II series included two enhancements -- the addition of 1,280 words of core memory and support for magnetic tape drives . The SS I had only the standard 5,000-word drum memory described in this article and no tape drives .   Both variants included a card reader , a card punch , and the line printer described in this article . The only `` console '' was a 10-key adding machine-type keypad , from which the operator would enter the commands to boot the computer . That keypad was also used by programmers in the debugging process . There was no Operating System as we have come to know them in recent years ; every program was completely self-contained , including the boot loader that initiated execution . All programs were loaded from punched cards ; even on the SS II , with its tape drives , there was no ability to launch programs from those drives .

neg: HP Time-Shared BASIC HP Time-Shared BASIC ( HP TSB ) is an interpreter software system that was sold by the Hewlett-Packard Company in the late 1960s and 1970s , based on their HP 2100 line of minicomputers . The system implements a dialect of the BASIC programming language and a rudimentary user account and program library system . The software was also known by its versioned name , tied to the hardware version on which it ran , such as HP 2000C Time-Shared BASIC and the operating system came in different varieties -- 2000A , 2000B , 2000C , High-Speed 2000C , 2000E , 2000F , and 2000/Access . The system is historically notable as the platform that released the first public versions of the game Star Trek .   Except for the 2000A and 2000E systems , the system is implemented using a dual-processor architecture . One fully configured HP 2100-series processor is used for execution of most of the system code and all of the user code and a second , smaller HP 2100-series processor is used to handle the RS-232 serial lines through which the time-sharing users connected . Depending on the hardware configuration , the system supports up to 16 or up to 32 simultaneous remote users . The usual terminal for a TSB system was a Teletype Model 33 ASR and connected directly to the I/O processor or through a modem or acoustic coupler . Account names are a combination of one alphabetic character , followed by three decimal digits , e.g. , B001 . Privileged accounts started with the letter `` A '' and had some additional command and program storage capabilities . The superuser account is A000 . This scheme allows up to 26,000 user accounts . ( In the offshoot system created by BTI Computer Systems accounts beginning with '' @ '' were superuser accounts . )   During execution , user programs are swapped to fixed-head drum memory . When not executing , user programs are stored on moving-head cartridge - or pack-loaded disk storage . Privileged users can also store programs on the much-faster drum . The hard drive was backed up to magnetic tape .   Program and file names consist of a mix of up to six alphabetic characters ( A-Z ) and numbers ( 0-9 ) . Programs are stored in a tokenized format , using the SAVE command . They can also be stored in a semi-compiled format , using the CSAVE command , which allows them to start quicker . Since the system was closely tied to the use of commonly available teleprinters , line endings in files consisted of the carriage return character ( ASCII CR , 0D hexadecimal ) , followed by the linefeed character ( ASCII LF , 0A hexadecimal ) .   The language is a fairly standard implementation of BASIC , providing an integrated editing and runtime environment . Statements are analyzed for correct syntax as they are entered and then stored in tokenized form . Each BASIC statement has to be on a uniquely numbered line , e.g. , 10 PRINT `` HELLO WORLD '' and can only contain one statement , although multiple variable assignments are allowed , e.g. , 20 LET A = B = C = 42 ( use of the word `` LET '' was optional ) . Line numbers are mandatory and statements are automatically placed in ascending numeric sequence .   In the earliest version ( 2000A ) , the language supported the following features . Later versions added many more features .  Unconditional program flow-control via GOTO statements , and subroutines via the GOSUB and RETURN statements  Conditional flow-control via IF/THEN statement and simple variable-based block loop FOR and NEXT statements  Calculated flow-control via the GOTO/OF and GOSUB/OF statements  In-code data storage via DATA , READ , and RESTORE statements  Input from and output to the user or a disc file via INPUT , READ # , PRINT , PRINT # , and IF END # statements  Numeric variables of the form `` A '' or `` An '' ( where A is a single letter and n a single , optional digit ) stored as 32-bit floating-point numbers  String variables of the form `` A$ '' ( where A is a single letter ) , storing from 0 to 72 characters  One - or two-dimensional matrix ( array ) variables of the form `` A -LSB- x -RSB- '' or `` A -LSB- x , y -RSB- ''  Matrix operations via statements ( MAT READ , MAT INPUT , MAT PRINT , MAT =) and operations ( + , - , * , ZER , CON , IDN , INV , TRN )  Boolean operators ( AND , OR , NOT ) and relational operators ( < , < = , = , # , < > , > = , and > )  Built-in mathematical functions including trigonometric ( SIN , COS , TAN , ATN ) , logarithms ( LOG , EXP ) , square root ( SQR ) , random number generator ( RND ) , others ( ABS , INT , SGN , MIN , MAX ) , and user-defined functions  Punched tape operations using Teletype Model 33 electromechanical teleprinter remote terminals   Substrings within strings are accessed using a substring notation : `` A$ ( L , R ) '' or `` A$ -LSB- L , R -RSB- '' , where the substring begins with the leftmost character specified by the index L and continues to the rightmost character specified by the index R , `` A$ -LSB- L -RSB- '' where the substring starts at the leftmost character specified by the index L and continues to the end of the string . ( TSB accepts or -LSB- -RSB- interchangeably . ) This is in sharp contrast to some later microcomputer BASICs that use functions such as LEFT$ , MID$ , and RIGHT$ to access substrings , although ANSI BASIC continues to use a similar substring syntax to that introduced by Hewlett-Packard . HP 's notation can also be used on the destination side of a LET or INPUT statement to modify part of an existing string value , for example 100 A$ -LSB- 3,5 -RSB- = `` XYZ '' or 120 B$ -LSB- 3 -RSB- = `` CHANGE ALL BUT FIRST TWO CHARS '' , which can not be done with early implementations of LEFT/MID/RIGHT $ .   Array and substring indices start with 1 . Boolean and relational operators can be used in any mathematical expression ( giving 0 for false or 1 for true ) , which was unusual for BASIC languages of that time , but became very popular in languages like C.   Differences from Dartmouth BASIC included the use of square brackets for arrays and # for < > .

neg: Apple Lisa Apple Lisa is a desktop computer developed by Apple , released on January 19 , 1983 . It was one of the first personal computers to offer a graphical user interface ( GUI ) in a machine aimed at individual business users . Development of the Lisa began in 1978 , and it underwent many changes during the development period before shipping at the very high price of US$ 9,995 with a 5 MB hard drive . The high price , relatively low performance and unreliable `` Twiggy '' floppy disks led to poor sales , with only 100,000 units sold .   In 1982 , after Steve Jobs was forced out of the Lisa project , he joined the Macintosh project , at that time developing a much more limited machine with a task-switching interface . Jobs redirected the Macintosh team to build a cheaper and better Lisa , releasing it in January 1984 and quickly outstripping Lisa sales . Newer versions of the Lisa were introduced that addressed its faults and lowered its price considerably , but it failed to achieve favorable sales compared to the much less expensive Mac . The final revision of the Lisa , the Lisa 2/10 , was modified and sold as the Macintosh XL .   Generally considered a failure , the Lisa nevertheless introduced a number of advanced features that would not re-appear on the Macintosh for a number of years . Among these was an operating system which featured protected memory and preemptive multitasking , and a more document-oriented workflow . The hardware itself was also much more advanced than the Macintosh , with a hard drive and support for up to 2 megabytes ( MB ) of RAM , expansion slots and a larger higher-resolution display . The main exception being that while the Macintosh also used the 68000 processor , the Macintosh initially used a version clocked at 7.89 Mhz , compared to the 5Mhz version used in the Lisa . The complexity of the Lisa operating system and its associated programs overtaxed the slower processor enough that users perceived it to be sluggish , particularly when scrolling in documents .

neg: History of IBM CKD Controllers Beginning with its 1964 System/360 announcement IBM 's mainframes initially accessed CKD ( Count key data ) subsystems via a channel connected to separate Storage Control Units ( SCUs ) with attached Direct Access Storage Devices ( DASD ) , typically a hard disk drive . This practice continued in IBM 's larger mainframes thru System/370 ; however low end systems generally used lower cost integrated attachments where the function of the SCU was combined with that of the channel , typically called an Integrated File Adapter .   The System/360 selector channel was followed by the System/370 block multiplexor channel which could operate as a selector channel to allow attachment of legacy subsystems .   The SCU evolved into a Director and Controller , the latter typically labelled an `` A-unit '' ( or A-Box '' ) with the controller and at least one DASD physically in an A-unit . An Integrated Storage Control ( ISC ) is a Director within the cabinet of an IBM System . A Director could attach from one to four A-units . One or more conventional DASD , now labeled a `` B-unit '' could attach to an A-unit   The following sections list in order of announcement IBM mainframe CKD storage controls , categorized as conventional storage controls , director type storage controls and integrated controls attaching an A-unit .

neg: File system In computing , a file system or filesystem is used to control how data is stored and retrieved . Without a file system , information placed in a storage medium would be one large body of data with no way to tell where one piece of information stops and the next begins . By separating the data into pieces and giving each piece a name , the information is easily isolated and identified . Taking its name from the way paper-based information systems are named , each group of data is called a `` file '' . The structure and logic rules used to manage the groups of information and their names is called a `` file system '' .   There are many different kinds of file systems . Each one has different structure and logic , properties of speed , flexibility , security , size and more . Some file systems have been designed to be used for specific applications . For example , the ISO 9660 file system is designed specifically for optical discs .   File systems can be used on numerous different types of storage devices that use different kinds of media . The most common storage device in use today is a hard disk drive . Other kinds of media that are used include flash memory , magnetic tapes , and optical discs . In some cases , such as with tmpfs , the computer 's main memory ( random-access memory , RAM ) is used to create a temporary file system for short-term use .   Some file systems are used on local data storage devices ; others provide file access via a network protocol ( for example , NFS , SMB , or 9P clients ) . Some file systems are `` virtual '' , meaning that the supplied `` files '' ( called virtual files ) are computed on request ( e.g. procfs ) or are merely a mapping into a different file system used as a backing store . The file system manages access to both the content of files and the metadata about those files . It is responsible for arranging storage space ; reliability , efficiency , and tuning with regard to the physical storage medium are important design considerations .

neg: Technological unemployment Technological unemployment is the loss of jobs caused by technological change . Such change typically includes the introduction of labour-saving `` mechanical-muscle '' machines or more efficient `` mechanical-mind '' processes ( automation ) . Just as horses employed as prime movers were gradually made obsolete by the automobile , humans ' jobs have also been affected throughout modern history . Historical examples include artisan weavers reduced to poverty after the introduction of mechanised looms . During World War II , Alan Turing 's Bombe machine compressed and decoded thousands of man-years worth of encrypted data in a matter of hours . A contemporary example of technological unemployment is the displacement of retail cashiers by self-service tills .   That technological change can cause short-term job losses is widely accepted . The view that it can lead to lasting increases in unemployment has long been controversial . Participants in the technological unemployment debates can be broadly divided into optimists and pessimists . Optimists agree that innovation may be disruptive to jobs in the short term , yet hold that various compensation effects ensure there is never a long-term negative impact on jobs . Whereas pessimists contend that at least in some circumstances , new technologies can lead to a lasting decline in the total number of workers in employment . The phrase `` technological unemployment '' was popularised by John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s . Yet the issue of machines displacing human labour has been discussed since at least Aristotle 's time .   Prior to the 18th century both the elite and common people would generally take the pessimistic view on technological unemployment , at least in cases where the issue arose . Due to generally low unemployment in much of pre-modern history , the topic was rarely a prominent concern . In the 18th century fears over the impact of machinery on jobs intensified with the growth of mass unemployment , especially in Great Britain which was then at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution . Yet some economic thinkers began to argue against these fears , claiming that overall innovation would not have negative effects on jobs . These arguments were formalised in the early 19th century by the classical economists . During the second half of the 19th century , it became increasingly apparent that technological progress was benefiting all sections of society , including the working class . Concerns over the negative impact of innovation diminished . The term `` Luddite fallacy '' was coined to describe the thinking that innovation would have lasting harmful effects on employment .   The view that technology is unlikely to lead to long term unemployment has been repeatedly challenged by a minority of economists . In the early 1800s these included Ricardo himself . There were dozens of economists warning about technological unemployment during brief intensifications of the debate that spiked in the 1930s and 1960s . Especially in Europe , there were further warnings in the closing two decades of the twentieth century , as commentators noted an enduring rise in unemployment suffered by many industrialised nations since the 1970s . Yet a clear majority of both professional economists and the interested general public held the optimistic view through most of the 20th century .   In the second decade of the 21st century , a number of studies have been released suggesting that technological unemployment may be increasing worldwide . Further increases are forecast for the years to come . While many economists and commentators still argue such fears are unfounded , as was widely accepted for most of the previous two centuries , concern over technological unemployment is growing once again . A report in Wired in 2017 quotes knowledgeable people such as economist Gene Sperling and management professor Andrew McAfee on the idea that handling existing and impending job loss to automation is a `` significant issue '' . Regarding a recent claim by a political appointee that automation is not `` going to have any kind of big effect on the economy for the next 50 or 100 years , '' says McAfee , `` I do n't talk to anyone in the field who believes that . '' Innovations like Watson have the potential to render humans obsolete with the professional , white-collar , low-skilled , creative fields , and other `` mental jobs '' .

neg: MD Data MD Data stands for MiniDisc Data , and is a magneto-optical medium for storing computer data . Sony wanted MD Data to replace floppy disks , but the Zip drive from Iomega ended up filling that market need and , later on , the advent of affordable CD writers and very cheap blank CD media , coupled with the availability of memory sticks and cards proved the final straw for MD Data .   The technology provided 140 MB of data storage , but it was slow and expensive . Also , data drives can only read or write audio MDs when set in `` play '' mode , which , however , does not provide computer access to the data .   MD Data appeared in products such as an MD still camera and an MD document scanner . MD Data was also used in the late 1990s in 4 - and 8-track multitrack recording decks . Meant as a step up from the popular 4-track cassette-based studios , these recorders enjoyed a brief prominence before they were replaced by relatively affordable -- and far more flexible -- direct-to-hard drive recording on Windows and Macintosh based computers . The format has always been hampered by the lack of an affordable MD Data drive with which to manipulate and back up data using a PC .   In 1997 , Sony introduced the MD Data2 format , which could hold 650 MB of data ( as opposed to MD Data 's 140 MB ) . However this format was only used by Sony 's DCM-M1 camcorder ( capable of still images and MPEG-2 video ) , and a few multitrack `` portastudio '' - style audio recorders such as Sony 's MDM-X4 and Tascam 's 564 , among others .   The introduction of Hi-MD in 2004 allowed any type of data ( files , music , etc. ) to be stored on a Hi-MD formatted MiniDisc . This allows for storage capacity of around 340MB on a standard MiniDisc and approx . 1GB on a new , higher-density Hi-MD .

neg: WinFS WinFS ( short for Windows Future Storage ) was the code name for a canceled data storage and management system project based on relational databases , developed by Microsoft and first demonstrated in 2003 as an advanced storage subsystem for the Microsoft Windows operating system , designed for persistence and management of structured , semi-structured and unstructured data .   WinFS includes a relational database for storage of information , and allows any type of information to be stored in it , provided there is a well defined schema for the type . Individual data items could then be related together by relationships , which are either inferred by the system based on certain attributes or explicitly stated by the user . As the data has a well defined schema , any application can reuse the data ; and using the relationships , related data can be effectively organized as well as retrieved . Because the system knows the structure and intent of the information , it can be used to make complex queries that enable advanced searching through the data and aggregating various data items by exploiting the relationships between them .   While WinFS and its shared type schema make it possible for an application to recognize the different data types , the application still has to be coded to render the different data types . Consequently , it would not allow development of a single application that can view or edit all data types ; rather what WinFS enables applications to understand is the structure of all data and extract the information that it can use further . When WinFS was introduced at the 2003 Professional Developers Conference , Microsoft also released a video presentation , named IWish , showing mockup interfaces that showed how applications would expose interfaces that take advantage of a unified type system . The concepts shown in the video ranged from applications using the relationships of items to dynamically offer filtering options to applications grouping multiple related data types and rendering them in a unified presentation .   WinFS was billed as one of the pillars of the `` Longhorn '' wave of technologies , and would ship as part of the next version of Windows . It was subsequently decided that WinFS would ship after the release of Windows Vista , but those plans were shelved in June 2006 , with some of its component technologies being integrated into ADO.NET and Microsoft SQL Server .

neg: In-memory database An in-memory database ( IMDB , also main memory database system or MMDB or memory resident database ) is a database management system that primarily relies on main memory for computer data storage . It is contrasted with database management systems that employ a disk storage mechanism . Main memory databases are faster than disk-optimized databases because disk access is slower than memory access , the internal optimization algorithms are simpler and execute fewer CPU instructions . Accessing data in memory eliminates seek time when querying the data , which provides faster and more predictable performance than disk .   Applications where response time is critical , such as those running telecommunications network equipment and mobile advertising networks , often use main-memory databases . IMDBs have gained a lot of traction , especially in the data analytics space , starting in the mid-2000s -- mainly due to multi-core processors that can address large memory and due to less expensive RAM .   A potential technical hurdle with in-memory data storage is the volatility of RAM . Specifically in the event of a power loss , intentional or otherwise , data stored in volatile RAM is lost . With the introduction of non-volatile random access memory technology , in-memory databases will be able to run at full speed and maintain data in the event of power failure .

neg: Western Digital Western Digital Corporation ( commonly referred to as Western Digital and often abbreviated as WDC or WD ) is an American computer data storage company and one of the largest computer hard disk drive manufacturers in the world , along with Seagate Technology .   Western Digital Corporation has a long history in the electronics industry as an integrated circuit maker and a storage products company . Western Digital was founded on April 23 , 1970 , by Alvin B. Phillips , a Motorola employee , as General Digital , initially ( and briefly ) a manufacturer of MOS test equipment . It rapidly became a speciality semiconductor maker , with start-up capital provided by several individual investors and industrial giant Emerson Electric . Around July 1971 , it adopted its current name and soon introduced its first product , the WD1402A UART .

neg: Solid-state storage Solid-state storage ( sometimes abbreviated as SSS ) is a type of non-volatile computer storage that stores and retrieves digital information using only electronic circuits , without any involvement of moving mechanical parts . This differs fundamentally from the traditional electromechanical storage paradigm , which accesses data using rotating or linearly moving media coated with magnetic material .   Solid-state storage devices typically store data using electrically programmable non-volatile flash memory , although some devices use battery-backed volatile random-access memory ( RAM ) . Lacking any moving mechanical parts , solid-state storage operates much faster than traditional electromechanical storage ; as a downside , solid-state storage is significantly more expensive and suffers from the write amplification phenomenon .   To satisfy the requirements of applications in various types of computer systems and appliances , solid-state storage devices come in various types , form factors , storage-space sizes , and interfacing options .

neg: Core International Core International , Inc. commonly known as Core , was a multinational computer and technology corporation headquartered in Boca Raton , Florida , United States .   The company is now part of Sony and no longer exists as stand-alone identity . The company was founded in 1979 by Hal Prewitt as a technology firm to develop , market and support computer related products and services . They were best known for supporting IBM 's first business microcomputers such as the 5100 , 5110 and 5120 . With the introduction of the IBM PC and PC AT , the company provided an extensive line of disk drives , backup and personal computer products . Core became very well known as a leading industry developer of disk array and computer data storage .   Many of Core 's products were the first of their kind , had no direct competition and were widely regarded for their superior performance and reliability . Users and the computer press raved about Core 's products . Infoworld described Core 's ATplus `` is built like a Sherman tank , offering exceptional performance and reliability . '' PC Magazine called them `` Workhorses of Performance Computing '' and `` High-quality construction . . breaks the speed barrier for access times '' and asked `` Will other manufactures follow suit ? ''   Core was known for their advertising and perhaps produced a few of the PC Industry 's greatest promotions . The 1985 and 1986 rebate and recall Ad for IBM PC AT hard disk drives . So successful and controversial , there was a rumor it was a topic at an IBM board of directors meeting . And the time where they gave away a free IBM PC AT when purchasing one of Core 's ATplus 72 MB drives .   Core remained a private company solely owned by Prewitt until 1993 when purchased by Aiwa , which was a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony .

neg: MS-DOS MS-DOS ( -LSB- ˌɛmɛsˈdɒs -RSB- ; acronym for Microsoft Disk Operating System ) is a discontinued operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft . Collectively , MS-DOS , its rebranding as IBM PC DOS , and some operating systems attempting to be compatible with MS-DOS , are sometimes referred to as `` DOS '' ( which is also the generic acronym for disk operating system ) . MS-DOS was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s and the early 1990s , when it was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user interface ( GUI ) , in various generations of the graphical Microsoft Windows operating system .   MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for an operating system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers . Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products , and began work on modifying it to meet IBM 's specification . IBM licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS 1.0 for use in their PCs . Although MS-DOS and PC DOS were initially developed in parallel by Microsoft and IBM , the two products diverged after twelve years , in 1993 , with recognizable differences in compatibility , syntax , and capabilities .   During its life , several competing products were released for the x86 platform , and MS-DOS went through eight versions , until development ceased in 2000 . Initially MS-DOS was targeted at Intel 8086 processors running on computer hardware using floppy disks to store and access not only the operating system , but application software and user data as well . Progressive version releases delivered support for other mass storage media in ever greater sizes and formats , along with added feature support for newer processors and rapidly evolving computer architectures . Ultimately it was the key product in Microsoft 's growth from a programming languages company to a diverse software development firm , providing the company with essential revenue and marketing resources . It was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI . It is a flexible operating system , and consumes negligible installation space .

neg: IBM 711 The IBM 711 was a punched card reader used as a peripheral device for IBM mainframe vacuum tube computers and early transistorized computers . The 711 's read mechanism was based on the IBM 402 's and could read 150 cards per minute ( 250 cards per minute on the IBM 7090 ) . Announced on May 21 , 1952 , it was first sold with the IBM 701 . Later IBM computers that used it were the IBM 704 , the IBM 709 , and the transistorized IBM 7090 and 7094 . Variants of the 711 , the IBM 712 and the IBM 714 were used with the IBM 702 and IBM 705 computers .   The 711 included a control panel that could be wired to transfer any 72 columns out of the 80 on a card into the computer 's memory , though in practice the panel was almost always wired to read the first 72 columns . Cards were read in binary format . Data from each row was read into two 36-bit words , starting with row 9 , for a total of 24 words per card . Computer object code could then be executed directly . Conversion to characters or numbers was done in software . The 72 column restriction influenced early computer languages , such as Fortran and Cobol , which only allowed source code in the first 72 columns of each punched card .   The 711 was relatively slow and magnetic tape was much faster , so it was common for 7000 series installations to include an IBM 1401 , with its high speed peripherals , to do card-to-tape and tape-to-line-printer operations off-line , with the 711 mainly used for initial program load of operating systems and diagnostics .

neg: DOS/360 and successors Disk Operating System/360 , also DOS/360 , or simply DOS , is a discontinued operating system for IBM mainframes . It was announced by IBM on the last day of 1964 , and it was first delivered in June 1966 . In its time , DOS/360 was the most widely used operating system in the world .

neg: Disk swapping Disk swapping refers to the practice of inserting and removing , or swapping , floppy disks in a floppy disk drive-based computer system . In the early days of personal computers , before hard drives became commonplace , most fully outfitted computer systems had 2 floppy drives ( addressed as A : and B : on CP/M and MS-DOS -- other systems had different conventions ) . Disk drives were expensive , however , and having two was seen as a luxury by many computer users who had to make do with a single drive .   The purpose of 2 floppy drives was so that the disk containing the application program could remain in the drive while the data disk containing the user 's files could be accessed in the second drive . In order to use a function of the program not loaded into memory , the user would have to first remove the data disk , then insert the program disk . When the user then wanted to save their file , the reverse operation would have to be performed . On some less than user friendly systems , this could result in data loss when , for example , files were accidentally saved onto the program disk .   Disk swapping was an infamous feature of early Macintosh 128K systems , which were extremely RAM starved .   Category : Floppy disk computer storage