query: Hate group only practices peace.

pos: Hate group A hate group is a social group that advocates and practices hatred , hostility , or violence towards members of a race , ethnicity , nation , religion , gender , gender identity , sexual orientation or any other designated sector of society . According to the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , a hate group 's `` primary purpose is to promote animosity , hostility , and malice against persons belonging to a race , religion , disability , sexual orientation , or ethnicity/national origin which differs from that of the members of the organization . '' Scholars find it difficult to define the term hate group and `` whether a particular group is to be classified as a hate group is sometimes in the eye of the beholder . ''   In the US , two private organizations that monitor intolerance and hate groups are the Anti-Defamation League ( ADL ) and the Southern Poverty Law Center ( SPLC ) . They maintain lists of what they deem to be hate groups , supremacist groups and anti-Semitic , anti-government or extremist groups that have committed hate crimes . The SPLC 's definition of a `` hate group '' includes any group with beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people -- particularly when the characteristics being maligned are immutable . However , at least for the SPLC , inclusion of a group in the list `` does not imply a group advocates or engages in violence or other criminal activity . '' According to the SPLC , from 2000 to 2008 , hate group activity saw a 50 percent increase in the US , with a total of 926 active groups . Recently the term alt-right , short for `` alternative right , '' has come into usage . This broad term includes a range of people who reject mainstream conservatism in favor of forms of conservatism that embrace implicit or explicit racism or white supremacy . The alt-right is described as `` a weird mix of old-school neo-Nazis , conspiracy theorists , anti-globalists , and young right-wing internet trolls -- all united in the belief that white male identity is under attack by multicultural , `` politically correct '' forces . ''   The FBI does not publish a list of hate groups , and '' -LSB- I -RSB- nvestigations are conducted only when a threat or advocacy of force is made ; when the group has the apparent ability to carry out the proclaimed act ; and when the act would constitute a potential violation of federal law . The FBI maintains statistics on hate crimes .

neg: Brotherhood and unity Brotherhood and unity was a popular slogan of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia that was coined during the Yugoslav People 's Liberation War ( 1941 -- 45 ) , and which evolved into a guiding principle of Yugoslavia 's post-war inter-ethnic policy . In Slovenia , the slogan `` Brotherhood and Peace '' ( bratstvo i mir ) was used in the beginning .   After the invasion of Yugoslavia by Axis forces in April 1941 , the occupying powers and their helpers sought to systematically incite hatred among the many national , ethnic and religious groups of Yugoslavia . The Yugoslav Communist Party successfully publicized the brotherhood and unity of Yugoslavia 's nations ( narodi ) and national minorities ( nacionalne manjine , later renamed to narodnosti ) in their struggle against the fascist enemy and domestic collaborators . The decision of the second session of AVNOJ on the federalization of Yugoslavia in 1943 was regarded as the recognition of this Brotherhood and Unity principle .   After the war , the slogan designated the official policy of inter-ethnic relations in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , as embodied in its federal constitutions of 1963 and of 1974 . The policy prescribed that Yugoslavia 's nations ( Serbs , Macedonians , Croats , Slovenes , Montenegrins , Muslims ) and national minorities ( Albanians , Hungarians , Romanians , Bulgarians , Jews , Italians , and others ) are equal groups that coexist peacefully in the federation , promoting their similarities and interdependence in order to overcome national conflicts and hatred . Every individual was entitled to the expression of their own culture , while the ethnic groups had an oath to one another to maintain peaceful relations . Citizens were also encouraged and allowed to declare their nationality as Yugoslav , which usually polled at 10 % . The policy also led to the adoption of national quota systems in all public institutions , including economic organizations , in which national groups were represented by their republic 's or province 's national composition .   Throughout Yugoslavia many factories , schools , public venues , folklore ensembles and sporting teams used to be named `` Brotherhood and unity '' , as well as the Ljubljana-Zagreb-Beograd-Skopje highway ( Highway `` Brotherhood and Unity '' ) . The country had a decoration called the Order of the Brotherhood and Unity .   Several prominent persons from former Yugoslavia were convicted for activities deemed to threaten the brotherhood and unity , such as acts of chauvinist propaganda , separatism and irredentism . Among the convicts were the former presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Alija Izetbegović ) and Croatia ( Franjo Tuđman and Stjepan Mesić ) , Croatian army general of Albanian descent Rahim Ademi and many others . One Kosovo Albanian , Adem Demaçi , was imprisoned for almost 30 years for allegations of espionage and irredentism .

neg: Jewish Underground The Jewish Underground ( המחתרת היהודית HaMakhteret HaYehudit ) , or in abbreviated form , simply makhteret , was a Jewish terrorist organization formed by prominent members of the Israeli political movement Gush Emunim that existed from 1979 to 1984 . Two issues catalyzed the establishment of the underground : One was the signing of the Camp David Accords , which led to the Egypt -- Israel Peace Treaty in 1979 , and which the movement , opposed to the peace process , wished to block , viewing it as the first step in the establishment of a Palestinian state in what Jewish settlers call `` Judea and Samaria '' . A second element was the settlement project , which , in bringing two distinct ethnic communities into closer proximity , led to an uptick in hostilities that brought about a growing emphasis on the existential threat in both communities . The Jewish underground developed two operational objectives : One consisted of a plot to blow up the Dome of the Rock , while the other branch concentrated on both avenging acts of Palestinian violence against settlers and of establishing a punitive deterrence . Some understood the terrorist acts as a means of inducing Palestinians to flee their homeland , and parallels are made with it to the Terror Against Terror movement , which had a similar aim . Robert Friedman stated that the Makhteret was `` the most violent anti-Arab terrorist organization since the birth of Israel '' .   Members of the Jewish Underground were eventually rounded up and brought to trial on charges that included violating the 1948 Prevention of Terrorism Decree . The charge of membership of a terrorist organization was dropped against 10 out of the 27 in a plea bargain . Most served short terms , and the ringleaders were pardoned and released in 1990 .

neg: Sabra and Shatila massacre The Sabra and Shatila massacre was the killing of between 762 and 3,500 civilians , mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites , by a militia close to the Kataeb Party , also called Phalange , a predominantly Christian Lebanese right-wing party in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp in Beirut , Lebanon . From approximately 18:00 on 16 September to 08:00 on 18 September 1982 , a widespread massacre was carried out by the militia virtually under the eyes of their Israeli allies . The Phalanges , allies to the Israeli Defence Forces ( IDF ) , were ordered by the IDF to clear out Sabra and Shatila from Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) fighters , as part of the IDF maneuvering into West Beirut . The IDF received reports of some of the Phalanges atrocities in Sabra and Shatila but failed to stop them .   The massacre was presented as retaliation for the assassination of newly elected Lebanese president Bachir Gemayel , the leader of the Lebanese Kataeb Party . It was wrongly assumed that Palestinian militants had carried out the assassination . In June 1982 , the Israel Defense Forces had invaded Lebanon with the intention of rooting out the PLO . By mid-1982 , under the supervision of the Multinational Force , the PLO withdrew from Lebanon following weeks of battles in West Beirut and shortly before the massacre took place . Various forces -- Israeli , Phalangists and possibly also the South Lebanon Army ( SLA ) -- were in the vicinity of Sabra and Shatila at the time of the slaughter , taking advantage of the fact that the Multinational Force had removed barracks and mines that had encircled Beirut 's predominantly Muslim neighborhoods and kept the Israelis at bay during the Beirut siege . The Israeli advance over West Beirut in the wake of the PLO withdrawal , which enabled the Phalangist raid , was considered a violation of the ceasefire agreement between the various forces . The Israeli Army surrounded Sabra and Shatila and stationed troops at the exits of the area to prevent camp residents from leaving and , at the Phalangists ' request , fired illuminating flares at night .   According to Alain Menargues , the direct perpetrators of the killings were the `` Young Men '' , a gang recruited by Elie Hobeika , a prominent figure in the Phalanges , the Lebanese Forces intelligence chief and liaison officer with Mossad , from men who had been expelled from the Lebanese Forces for insubordination or criminal activities . The killings are widely believed to have taken place under Hobeika 's direct orders . Hobeika 's family and fiancée had been murdered by Palestinian militiamen , and their Lebanese allies , at the Damour massacre of 1976 , itself a response to the 1976 Karantina massacre of Palestinians and Lebanese Muslims at the hands of Christian militants . Hobeika later became a long-serving Member of the Parliament of Lebanon and served in several ministerial roles . Other Phalangist commanders involved were Joseph Edde from South Lebanon , Dib Anasta , head of the Phalangist Military Police , Michael Zouein , and Maroun Mischalani from East Beirut . In all 300 -- 400 militiamen were involved , including some from Sa'ad Haddad 's South Lebanon Army .   In 1983 , a commission chaired by Seán MacBride , the assistant to the UN Secretary General and President of United Nations General Assembly at the time , concluded that Israel , as the camp 's occupying power , bore responsibility for the violence . The commission also concluded that the massacre was a form of genocide .   In 1983 , the Israeli Kahan Commission , appointed to investigate the incident , found that Israeli military personnel , aware that a massacre was in progress , had failed to take serious steps to stop it . The commission deemed Israel indirectly responsible , and Ariel Sharon , then Defense Minister , bore personal responsibility `` for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge '' , forcing him to resign .

neg: David Wayne Hull David Wayne Hull is a leader of the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan , which is considered the most militant as well as the most violent Ku Klux Klan in history .   Hull was indicted in March 2003 for , witness tampering , and instructing persons on procedures for creating destructive devices . Hull threatened minorities and workers and patients at abortion clinics . He had built and detonated improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) during KKK events , and was recorded instructing individuals on how to place IEDs to cause maximum damage . A jury in western Pennsylvania convicted Hull on seven counts of a ten-count indictment . On February 25 , 2005 , he was sentenced to 12 years in prison , followed by three years of probation .   Hull 's criminal record dates back to 1994 . He was arrested by the Pittsburgh Joint Terrorism Task Force , which consists of federal , state and local law enforcement agencies . According to the Southern Poverty Law Center , Hull published a newsletter in which he urged readers to write Timothy McVeigh `` to tell this great man goodbye . ''   The Anti-Defamation League , wrote that , in July 2002 , Hull attended the neo-Nazi `` Aryan Nations World Congress '' and he is a follower of Christian Identity , `` a racist and anti-Semitic sect whose adherents believe that white people are God 's chosen people , descended from the lost tribes of ancient Israel , and that minorities are soulless `` mud peoples . '' '' In 2003 , during an FBI `` sting operation '' Hull said he wanted grenades to be used to `` blow up '' abortion clinics . He was subsequently arrested .   Hull 's conviction was reversed in part when the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit ruled possession of a pipe bomb in and of itself did not constitute a federal `` crime of violence '' .   Hull was released from federal prison in 2012 .

neg: Schrecklichkeit Schrecklichkeit ( German `` terror '' or `` frightfulness '' ) is a word used by English speakers to describe an assumed military policy of the German Army towards civilians in World War I.  It was the basis of German actions during their march through Belgium in 1914 . Similar policies were followed later in France , the Russian-held area of Poland , and in Russia .   Under the traditional `` laws of war '' in Europe , military activity was to be confined to the regular , uniformed armies of each side . Civilians were to take no part in fighting , neither attacking or being attacked . Thus , when the uniformed army troops in a nation or region were all defeated , resistance was supposed to end . In practice , informal resistance by `` partisans '' , `` guerrillas '' , or `` francs-tireurs '' often continued after the `` regular '' troops had given up or withdrawn . These fighters , never officially enrolled in an army , and not wearing uniforms to identify them as combatants , attacked occupying troops by ambushes , surprises , and sniping . Conducting such operations out of uniform was considered perfidy , and those involved could be executed .   Occupying armies sometimes responded to such attacks by reprisals against the local population : execution of local inhabitants , whether known to be guerrillas or not , or destruction ( usually by burning ) of homes and other structures .   German army doctrine in force at the time called for such reprisals to be performed immediately and severely in any case of civilian resistance . It was argued that such schrecklichkeit would end resistance quickly with relatively little bloodshed , whereas restraint would encourage resistance , leading to greater destruction and death .   When Germany invaded Belgium in 1914 , the German high command expected to sweep through the country with negligible opposition . The German army was many times larger and stronger than the Belgian army , and the Germans therefore thought that any resistance by Belgium would be futile . German leaders had even suggested to the Belgian government that in the event of war , the Belgians should just line up along the roads and watch the Germans march through . Belgium 's refusal to accept these German presumptions and its resistance to the German advance came as a surprise , and disrupted the German timetable for advancing into France .   This frustration was communicated to the German troops in Belgium . Anything which delayed the German advance was to be crushed mercilessly . The Belgians were viewed as irrational and even treacherous for their opposition .   This led to exaggerated suspicions among German commanders of Belgian civilian resistance . It is possible that some Belgian civilians engaged in resistance , though none is documented . It is certain that on several occasions , German commanders declared ( probably in unconscious error ) that such acts had occurred when they had not .   The Germans responded to these perceived acts of resistance with harsh measures . In several villages and towns , hundreds of civilians were executed . Many buildings were put to the torch . Priests thought guilty of encouraging the resistance were killed . Violence by German soldiers against Belgians , such as rape , was ignored or not seriously punished . The Belgian city of Leuven was largely destroyed . One German officer later wrote about the town , `` We shall wipe it out ... Not one stone will stand upon another . We will teach them to respect Germany . For generations people will come here and see what we have done '' .   These actions , taken in a period of near-panic as the German forces desperately tried to carry out their flanking march before Allied forces could respond , proved to be a propaganda disaster for Germany . The reports of them caused a wave of indignation which aided the Allied cause .

neg: Slovak Brotherhood The Slovak Brotherhood or Slovenská pospolitosť is a civil society group in Slovakia . ` Slovenská ' means `` Slovak '' ; ` pospolitosť ' is a rather archaic word meaning `` solidarity '' or `` community '' or `` togetherness '' . The group has been characterised as `` extremist . ''   Slovenská pospolitosť was formed in 1996 to bring together sections of the local far right population and place them under the leadership of more astute ideologues . The group has links to the International Third Position and has posted details of its activities on their websites . The movement has come under increasing pressure from the government of Slovakia in 2005 , to the extent where the leading member Ján Kopunek has claimed that the Slovak police have been ordered to crush the group entirely . Since then , Marian Kotleba has been charged with hate crimes in absentia . Later , Kotleba was charged for finishing one of his speeches with `` Na stráž ! '' the phrase used in the fascist Hlinka Guard . After that the charges were dropped as it `` could n't be proven that the phrase itself constitutes the promotion of fascism '' . However the American embassy in Bratislava characterised the groups activities as `` commemorating the wartime fascist state and to spread messages of intolerance against ethnic and religious minorities . ''   In 2006 , Kotleba tried to transform the group into a political party ( Slovak Togetherness - National Party ) . The party was dissolved by the Supreme Court because of its non-compliance with the Constitution ( restriction of universal suffrage , replacement of the party system by the state of estates ) as the first and yet only dissolved political party in the modern history of Slovakia . The group then continued to exist as a civil society . Also in this form it was temporarily banned by the Interior Ministry for `` activities that incite hatred and national , racial , religious as well as political intolerance '' , but the Slovak Supreme Court reinstated the group , claiming that `` the legal conditions for disbanding Slovenská Pospolitosť had not been met . '' The group resumes operation unhindered .   In August 2009 the group led a march in protest at the local Roma community during which members threw rocks and bottles at police , resulting in over 30 arrests and seven injuries .   They have been associated with the European National Front and support their ideas of European nationalist unity . They hosted a meeting for some affiliated groups in 2004 .

neg: Israeli–Palestinian conflict The Israeli -- Palestinian conflict ( -LSB- Ha'Sikhsukh Ha'Yisraeli - Falestini ; -LSB- al-Niza ' a al ` Filastini al ` Israili ) is the ongoing struggle between Israelis and Palestinians that began in the mid-20th century . The conflict is wide-ranging , and the term is sometimes also used in reference to the earlier sectarian conflict in Mandatory Palestine , between the Jewish yishuv and the Arab population under British rule . It has been referred to as the world 's `` most intractable conflict '' , with the ongoing Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip reaching years .   Despite a long-term peace process and the general reconciliation of Israel with Egypt and Jordan , Israelis and Palestinians have failed to reach a final peace agreement . The key issues are : mutual recognition , borders , security , water rights , control of Jerusalem , Israeli settlements , Palestinian freedom of movement , and Palestinian right of return . The violence of the conflict , in a region rich in sites of historic , cultural and religious interest worldwide , has been the object of numerous international conferences dealing with historic rights , security issues and human rights , and has been a factor hampering tourism in and general access to areas that are hotly contested .   Many attempts have been made to broker a two-state solution , involving the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside the State of Israel ( after Israel 's establishment in 1948 ) . In 2007 , the majority of both Israelis and Palestinians , according to a number of polls , preferred the two-state solution over any other solution as a means of resolving the conflict . Moreover , a majority of Jews see the Palestinians ' demand for an independent state as just , and thinks Israel can agree to the establishment of such a state . The majority of Palestinians and Israelis in the West Bank and Gaza Strip have expressed a preference for a two-state solution . Mutual distrust and significant disagreements are deep over basic issues , as is the reciprocal scepticism about the other side 's commitment to upholding obligations in an eventual agreement .   Within Israeli and Palestinian society , the conflict generates a wide variety of views and opinions . This highlights the deep divisions which exist not only between Israelis and Palestinians , but also within each society . A hallmark of the conflict has been the level of violence witnessed for virtually its entire duration . Fighting has been conducted by regular armies , paramilitary groups , terror cells , and individuals . Casualties have not been restricted to the military , with a large number of fatalities in civilian population on both sides . There are prominent international actors involved in the conflict .   The two parties engaged in direct negotiation are the Israeli government , currently led by Benjamin Netanyahu , and the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) , currently headed by Mahmoud Abbas . The official negotiations are mediated by an international contingent known as the Quartet on the Middle East ( the Quartet ) represented by a special envoy , that consists of the United States , Russia , the European Union , and the United Nations . The Arab League is another important actor , which has proposed an alternative peace plan . Egypt , a founding member of the Arab League , has historically been a key participant .   Since 2006 , the Palestinian side has been fractured by conflict between the two major factions : Fatah , the traditionally dominant party , and its later electoral challenger , Hamas . After Hamas 's electoral victory in 2006 , the Quartet conditioned future foreign assistance to the Palestinian National Authority ( PA ) on the future government 's commitment to non-violence , recognition of the State of Israel , and acceptance of previous agreements . Hamas rejected these demands , which resulted in the Quartet 's suspension of its foreign assistance program , and the imposition of economic sanctions by the Israelis . A year later , following Hamas 's seizure of power in the Gaza Strip in June 2007 , the territory officially recognized as the PA was split between Fatah in the West Bank , and Hamas in the Gaza Strip . The division of governance between the parties had effectively resulted in the collapse of bipartisan governance of the PA. . However , in 2014 , a Palestinian Unity Government , composed of both Fatah and Hamas , was formed . The latest round of peace negotiations began in July 2013 and was suspended in 2014 .

neg: Prairie Fire Organizing Committee The Prairie Fire Organizing Committee is an activist group whose members advocate the overthrow of the current capitalist system as the only solution to racism , sexism , homophobia , classism and imperialism . It regards American imperialism as the main enemy of the world 's people , a position that it initially took in contradiction to the Communist Party of China 's critique of Soviet imperialism . It claims a long history of fighting for rights of all people . It opposes white supremacy in all its forms , and believe it persists through practices such as racial profiling . It calls attention to prisoners it deems political and states , `` We know that close to 100 women and men are in U.S. prisons because they have dared to struggle for the liberation of oppressed peoples '' . The group 's members are typically activists fighting U.S. imperialism . Their work proceeds from the premise that , while the U.S. remains in the global position that it currently occupies , there will be no freedom or peace for anyone .

neg: 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt On 15 July 2016 , an alleged coup d'état was attempted in Turkey against state institutions , including , but not limited to the government and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan . The attempt was carried out by a faction within the Turkish Armed Forces that organized themselves as the Peace at Home Council . They attempted to seize control of several key places in Ankara , Istanbul , and elsewhere , but failed to do so after forces loyal to the state defeated them . The Council cited an erosion of secularism , elimination of democratic rule , disregard for human rights , and Turkey 's loss of credibility in the international arena as reasons for the coup . The government accused the coup leaders of being linked to the Gülen movement , which is designated as a terrorist organization by the Republic of Turkey and led by Fethullah Gülen , a Turkish businessman and cleric who lives in Pennsylvania . Erdoğan accuses Gülen of being behind the coup -- a claim that Gülen denies -- and accused the United States of harboring him . Gülen has suggested the coup was in fact a `` self-coup '' carried out by Erdogan to consolidate his grip on power , a belief shared among some analysts and many Turks . Events surrounding the coup attempt and the purges in its aftermath reflect a complex power struggle between Islamist elites in Turkey .   During the coup , over 300 people were killed and more than 2,100 were injured . Many government buildings , including the Turkish Parliament and the Presidential Palace , were bombed from the air . Mass arrests followed , with at least 40,000 detained , including at least 10,000 soldiers and , for reasons that remain unclear , 2,745 judges . 15,000 education staff were also suspended and the licenses of 21,000 teachers working at private institutions were revoked as well after the government alleged they were loyal to Gülen . More than 100,000 people have been arrested or fired from their jobs , on accusations of connections to Gülen .   Reactions to the event were largely against the coup attempt , both domestically and internationally . The main opposition parties in Turkey condemned the attempt , while several international leaders -- such as those from the United States , NATO , the European Union , and other neighboring countries -- called for `` respect of the democratic institutions in Turkey and its elected officials . '' International organizations expressed themselves against the coup as well . The United Nations Security Council , however , did not denounce the coup after disagreements over the phrasing of a statement .   President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan accused the head of United States Central Command , chief General Joseph Votel of `` siding with coup plotters '' , after Votel accused the Turkish government of arresting the Pentagon 's contacts in Turkey .   In March 2017 , Germany 's intelligence chief said Germany was unconvinced by Erdoğan 's claim that Fethullah Gulen was behind the failed coup . Also in March , the British Parliament 's Foreign Affairs Committee said some Gulenists were involved in coup d'état attempt but found no hard evidence that Fethullah Gülen masterminded the failed coup and found no evidence to justify the UK designating the Gülen movement as a `` terrorist organization '' .

neg: War against Islam War against Islam , also called the War on Islam or Attack on Islam , is a conspiracy theory narrative in Islamist discourse to describe an alleged conspiracy to harm , weaken or annihilate the societal system of Islam , using military , economic , social and cultural means . The perpetrators of the conspiracy are alleged to be non-Muslims ( kuffār ) , particularly the Western world and `` false Muslims '' , allegedly in collusion with political actors in the Western world . While the contemporary conspiracy theory narrative of the `` War against Islam '' mostly covers general issues of societal transformations in modernization and secularization as well as general issues of international power politics among modern states , the crusades are often narrated as its alleged starting point .   The phrase or similar phrases have been used by Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb , Ayatollah Khomeini , Anwar al-Awlaki , Osama bin Laden , Chechen militant Dokka Umarov , cleric Anjem Choudary , and Fort Hood murderer Nidal Malik Hasan . The English-language political neologism of `` War on Islam '' was coined in Islamist discourse in the 1990s and popularized as a conspiracy theory only after 2001 .   Jonathan Schanzer has argued that the historical Muslim indifference to the West turned to `` alarmed dislike '' with the beginning of Western military superiority in the 17th century . However , with the end of the era of Western colonialism , Islamist rage against non-Muslims and the governments of Muslim-majority countries stems not from alleged non-Muslim aggression and enmity , but from frustration over the unrelenting encroachment of western culture , technology , economies , and from a yearning for a `` return to the glorious days when Islam reigned supreme . ''

neg: Political violence Political violence is a broad term used to describe violence perpetrated by either persons or governments to achieve political goals . Many groups and individuals believe that their political systems will never respond to their demands . As a result , they believe that violence is not only justified but also necessary in order to achieve their political objectives . Similarly , many governments around the world believe they need to use violence in order to intimidate their populace into acquiescence . At other times , governments use force in order to defend their country from outside invasion or other threats of force and to coerce other governments or conquer territory . Political violence can take a number of forms including but not limited to those listed below . Non-action on the part of the government can also be characterized as a form of political violence .

neg: Jews for Israeli–Palestinian Peace Jews for Israeli -- Palestinian Peace ( Judar för israelisk-palestinsk fred ) , abbreviated as JIPF , is a group founded by Swedish Jews in 1982 in Stockholm , Sweden , after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon .   JIPF states that they want to work for a `` fair and lasting peace '' in the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians , based on national self-determination and independence for the both peoples . Its political programme include demands for a creation of a Palestinian state , Israel 's withdrawal from all territories occupied in 1967 , the dismantlement of Israeli settlements and that the Palestinian refugee question must be based on the principle of the right of return or economic compensation .   Dror Feiler is the chairman of the organization . Other members includes Izzy Young , the journalist Annika Thor and the pediatrician Henry Ascher .

neg: Antisemitism Antisemitism ( also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-semitism ) is hostility , prejudice , or discrimination directed against Jews as a group . A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite . Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism .   The root word Semite gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people , e.g. , including Arabs . The compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for Judenhass `` Jew-hatred '' , and that has been its common use since then .   Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways , ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs , state police , or even military attacks on entire Jewish communities . Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century , it is now also applied to historic anti-Jewish incidents . Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096 , the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290 , the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391 , the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition , the expulsion from Spain in 1492 , the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657 , various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906 , the 1894 -- 1906 Dreyfus affair in France , the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe , official Soviet anti-Jewish policies , and Arab and Muslim involvement in the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries .

neg: Phineas Priesthood The Phineas Priesthood or Phineas Priests ( also spelled Phinehas ) is a title for self-selected vigilantes who commit violent acts in accordance with the ideology set forth by the 1990 book , Vigilantes of Christendom : The Story of the Phineas Priesthood by Richard Kelly Hoskins .   According to the Anti-Defamation League ( ADL ) , `` Many people mistakenly believe that there is an actual organization called the Phineas Priesthood , probably because there was a group of four men in the 1990s who called themselves Phineas Priests . The men carried out bank robberies and a series of bombings in the Pacific Northwest before being sent to prison . But there is no evidence that their organization was any larger than those four individuals . ''   The ideology set forth in Hoskins ' book includes Christian Identity beliefs opposed to interracial relationships , the mixing of races , homosexuality , and abortion . It is also marked by its anti-Semitism , and anti-multiculturalism .   The Phineas Priesthood is not considered an organization because it is not led by a governing body , there are no gatherings , and there is no membership process . One becomes a Phineas Priest by simply adopting the beliefs of the Priesthood and acting upon those beliefs . Adherents of the Priesthood ideology are considered terrorists for , among other things , various 1996 abortion clinic bombings , the bombing in Spokane of The Spokesman-Review newspaper , bank robberies , and plans to blow up FBI buildings . Four members of this organization were convicted of crimes including bank robbery and bombing , with each sentenced in 1997 and 1998 to life in prison .   The Phineas Priesthood is named for the Israelite Phinehas , grandson of Aaron . According to Numbers 25 , Phineas personally executed an Israelite man and a Midianite woman while they were together in the man 's tent , running a spear through the two and ending a plague sent by God to punish the Israelites for intermingling sexually and religiously with the Midianite Baal-worshipers . Phineas is commended for having stopped Israel 's fall to idolatrous practices brought in by Midianite women , as well as for stopping the desecration of God 's sanctuary . Yahweh commends Phineas through Moses as zealous , gives him a `` covenant of peace , '' and grants him and `` his seed '' an everlasting priesthood . This passage was cited in Hoskins ' book as a justification for using violent means against interracial relationships and other forms of alleged immorality .   On November 28 , 2014 , 49-year-old Larry Steven McQuilliams fired more than 100 rounds at a federal courthouse , a Mexican consulate building ( which he also tried to set on fire ) , and a police station in Austin , Texas , before dying of a gunshot wound . McQuilliams 's shooting rampage was stopped when Austin Police Department Mounted Patrol Sgt. Adam Johnson fired a single , one-handed shot , while holding the reins of the horses he was putting away in the other hand , from 312 feet away , striking McQuilliams in the heart and killing him . A copy of Hoskins ' book was found in McQuilliams ' home . Media reports that McQuilliams was `` affiliated with the group '' were based on misunderstanding of the nature of the Phineas Priesthood , which is not an organized group .

neg: Political Islam The term Political Islam is a recently developed term . It is used to label the wide-scale activities of individuals or organizations heading towards the transformation of the state and entire society according to '' Islamic '' rules . It is based on Islam which is a complex of political persuasion and fundamental Islamic books -- Koran , Sira ( the biography of Mohammed ) , and Hadith ( Mohammed 's traditions ) . The term is often used in connection with the movements which represent the current political powers in the name of Islam , emerging at the end of 20th century . It is also used as a term describing political activities stemming from basic Islamic books aiming predominantly at Non-Muslims .   Political Islam is often confused with Islamism . However , Political Islam is not only a synonym for violent , radical or extreme Islamism . On the contrary , an overwhelming majority of Islamic political activity is carried out by peaceful means and often within a constitutional framework ( e.g. Arbitration Act from 1996 , where Sharia courts became a part of official British Law ) . International activities of extremists including terrorist acts are an exception not the rule if we talk about political activities executed in the name of Islam . Although this term is often used for organized groups , movements or parties , it can also concern a great number of the individuals who share basic goals and background of Political Islam without any direct connection to a party or group .

neg: Neo-racism Neo-racism refers to forms of constructive or indirect racism , where acting under the auspices of non-racism or anti-racism , policies are implemented that are ignorant of racial and ethnic minority rights resulting in limiting , prohibiting and reducing rights of freedom of association , commercial activity and freedom of intellectual , political or artistic expression .   Alternatively Balibar describes this racism as having as its dominant theme not biological heredity `` but the insurmountability of cultural differences , a racism which , at first sight , does not postulate the superiority of certain groups or peoples in relation to others but ` only ' the harmfulness of abolishing frontiers , the incompatibility of lifestyles and traditions '' .

neg: Racial violence in Australia Various examples of violence have been attributed to racial factors during the recorded history of Australia since white settlement , and a level of intertribal rivalry and violence among Indigenous Australians pre-dates the arrival of white settlers from Britain in 1788 .   During the period of British colonisation , various incidents of inter-racial tension and competition for land and resources between Europeans and Indigenous peoples involved violence , becoming a factor in the decline of indigenous populations during the 19th century . Incidents of racial violence between settler communities followed the large scale multi-ethnic immigration of the Australian goldrushes of the mid-19th century - notably white miners targeting Chinese miners - which contributed to the development of the White Australia Policy which preferenced British and `` white '' immigration to Australia for some decades . The policy resulted in a largely racially homogenous population by the mid-20th century .   Australia 's large scale , Post-World War Two , multi-ethnic immigration program has seen Australia develop into one of the most ethnically diverse nations , with relatively little racial violence , and in which incitement to racial violence is a crime . Nevertheless , incidents and examples of violence between the various ethnicities of modern Australia have continued to be attributed to racial motivations up to the present time .

neg: Farhud Farhud refers to the pogrom or `` violent dispossession '' carried out against the Jewish population of Baghdad , Iraq , on June 1 -- 2 , 1941 , immediately following the British victory in the Anglo-Iraqi War . The riots occurred in a power vacuum following the collapse of the pro-Nazi government of Rashid Ali , while the city was in a state of instability . The violence came immediately after the rapid defeat by the British of Rashid Ali , whose earlier coup had generated a short period of national euphoria , and was charged by allegations that Iraqi Jews had aided the British . Over 180 Jews were killed and 1,000 injured , and up to 300-400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence . Looting of Jewish property took place and 900 Jewish homes were destroyed .   The Farhud took place during the Jewish holiday of Shavuot . Because of rioters lamenting the losses of the outgoing regime of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani , who was an ally of Hitler 's , it has been referred to as a pogrom which was part of the Holocaust , although such comparison has been disputed . It has also been called `` the beginning of the end of the Jewish community of Iraq '' , propagating the migration of Iraqi Jews out of the country , although a direct connection to the 1951-2 Jewish exodus from Iraq is disputed . as many Jews who left Iraq immediately following the Farhud returned to the country and permanent emigration did not accelerate significantly until 1950-51 . According to Hayyim Cohen , the Farhud `` was the only -LSB- such event -RSB- known to the Jews of Iraq , at least during their last hundred years of life there '' .

neg: List of violent incidents in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, 2007 Timeline of conflict between Israelis and Palestinians in 2007 . It includes would-be attacks that were foiled and thwarted by Israeli security forces .   The shaky six-month cease-fire between Israel and the Palestinians collapsed when the military wing of Hamas , one of the leading Palestinian factions , resumed rocket attacks against Israel on May 15 in an apparent attempt to draw Israel into the ongoing Palestinian factional violence . Hundreds of rockets were fired since then , many of them landing around Sderot , causing several frightened residents to flee and others be treated for wounds and shock .   In the months since November 2006 , smaller Palestinian factions continued to fire rockets at Israel . They included Islamic Jihad , which rejected the cease-fire , and Al-Aksa Martyrs Brigades , which is nominally affiliated with the mainstream Fatah faction headed by the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas . Israel said it was ending its policy of restraint against the rocket fire on May 16 . Since then , the air force has struck mainly at Hamas structures and cells that the army said were involved in terrorist activity .   Representatives from some Palestinian factions have denounced the rocket attacks . A Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine official called it `` stupid '' , and Fatah president Mahmoud Abbas called it `` pointless and needless '' after a meeting with then European Union foreign policy chief Javier Solana . The rival Hamas party rejected the statement , saying `` Abbas hates the rockets just like we hate the Jews . '' Hamas suspects that Israel 's attacks are part of an effort to weaken Hamas in favor of Fatah . Then Israeli prime minister Ehud Olmert said that no one involved in terrorist activities is immune . The position of the United States State Department is that the conflict `` all started with Hamas not only attacking the legitimate security forces in the Gaza Strip , but also starting a stepped-up campaign of rocket launches against Israel . '' Israel does not target Fatah 's security forces , although it has had clashes with the al Aqsa Martyrs ' Brigades , a violent offshoot of the group .

neg: We Charge Genocide We Charge Genocide : The Crime of Government Against the Negro People is a paper accusing the United States government of genocide based on the UN Genocide Convention . This paper was written by the Civil Rights Congress ( CRC ) and presented to the United Nations at meetings in Paris in December 1951 .   The document pointed out that the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide defined genocide as any acts committed with `` intent to destroy '' a group , `` in whole or in part . '' To build its case for black genocide , the document cited many instances of lynching in the United States , as well as legal discrimination , disenfranchisement of blacks in the South , a series of incidents of police brutality dating to the present , and systematic inequalities in health and quality of life . The central argument : the US government is both complicit with and responsible for a genocidal situation based on the UN 's own definition of genocide .   The document received international media attention and became caught up in Cold War politics , as the CRC was supported by the American Communist Party . Its many examples of shocking conditions for African Americans shaped beliefs about the United States in countries across the world . The American government and white press accused the CRC of exaggerating racial inequality in order to advance the cause of Communism . The US State Department forced CRC secretary William L. Patterson to surrender his passport after he presented the petition to a UN meeting in Paris .


query: Impeachment is only a formal phrasing of charges.

pos: Impeachment Impeachment is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of government . Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office ; it is only a formal statement of charges , akin to an indictment in criminal law , and is thus only the first step towards removal . Once an individual is impeached , he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote , which then entails the removal of the individual from office .   Because impeachment and conviction of officials involve an overturning of the normal constitutional procedures by which individuals achieve high office ( election , ratification , or appointment ) and because it generally requires a supermajority , they are usually reserved for those deemed to have committed serious abuses of their office . In the United States , for example , impeachment at the federal level is limited to those who may have committed `` high crimes and misdemeanors '' . Several federal officials , including two US presidents ( Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton , who were both acquitted ) and several judges , have been impeached over the course of US history . US President Richard Nixon resigned during the Watergate scandal before impeachment proceedings could begin .   The federal procedure in the United States involves a vote for impeachment in the House of Representatives on a document known as the article of impeachment . Each separate grounds will be a separate article . House members who support the impeachment then appoint managers who will act like prosecutors in the preparation for the Senate hearing . The hearing for removal is conducted in the Senate and in the case of the impeachment of a president , the Chief Justice of the United States presides over the proceedings ( otherwise the vice-president presides ) , which are conducted as a trial with witnesses being heard under oath or affirmation . The defendant has the right to legal counsel , the right to cross-examine all witnesses , and the opportunity to testify in his or her defense . The senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence . The hearing can not be conducted without a 50 % plus one quorum . After the hearing , the deliberations are held in private . Removal requires a two-thirds majority of the Senate .   Impeachment has its origins in English law but fell out of use in the 18th century . It exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world , including Brazil , the Republic of Ireland , Philippines , Russia , South Korea and the United States .

neg: False accusation False accusations ( or groundless accusations or unfounded accusations or false allegations or false claims ) can be in any of the following contexts :  Informally in everyday life .  Quasi-judicially  Judicially .

neg: Death row Death row is a special section of a prison in the United States that houses inmates who are awaiting execution after being sentenced to death for the conviction of a capital crime . The US is the only Western country that still applies the death penalty for capital crimes . Thirty-one of its 50 states and the federal government authorize this penalty . But by 2016 , sixteen of these states and the federal government had a formal or `` de facto '' moratorium , due in large part to questions about the death penalty itself or the use of lethal injection as a method of execution .   `` Death row '' is a term also used figuratively to describe the state of awaiting execution ( `` being on death row '' ) , even in places where no special facility or separate unit for condemned inmates exists . After a person is found guilty of a capital offense , the judge will give the jury the option of imposing a death sentence or life imprisonment without the possibility of parole ( LWOP ) . It is up to a jury to decide whether to give the death sentence ; this usually has to be a unanimous decision . If sentenced to death , a convict will remain on death row during appeal and habeas corpus procedures , which can take years . Since 1973 and later , with an increasing number of persons being freed since 1993 , some 157 persons as of January 2017 have been exonerated on appeal and released from death row . Wrongful convictions have been proven based on DNA evidence , informants retracting testimony or being proven false , prosecutorial misconduct , racial bias in jury selection , and other constitutional issues .

neg: Precedent In legal systems based on common law , a precedent , or authority , is a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts . Common law legal systems place great value on deciding cases according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar and predictable outcomes , and observance of precedent is the mechanism by which that goal is attained . The principle by which judges are bound to precedents is known as stare decisis . Black 's Law Dictionary defines `` precedent '' as a `` rule of law established for the first time by a court for a particular type of case and thereafter referred to in deciding similar cases . '' Common law precedent is a third kind of law , on equal footing with statutory law ( statutes and codes enacted by legislative bodies ) , and Delegated legislation ( in U.K. parlance ) or regulatory law ( in U.S. parlance ) ( regulations promulgated by executive branch agencies ) .   Case law , in common law jurisdictions , is the set of decisions of adjudicatory tribunals or other rulings that can be cited as precedent . In most countries , including most European countries , the term is applied to any set of rulings on law which is guided by previous rulings , for example , previous decisions of a government agency .   Essential to the development of case law is the publication and indexing of decisions for use by lawyers , courts and the general public , in the form of law reports . While all decisions are precedent ( though at varying levels of authority as discussed throughout this article ) , some become `` leading cases '' or `` landmark decisions '' that are cited especially often .

neg: Of counsel Of counsel is , in the legal profession of the United States , often the title of an attorney who has a relationship with a law firm or an organization , but is not an associate or a partner . Some firms use titles such as `` counsel '' , `` special counsel '' , and `` senior counsel '' for the same concept . According to American Bar Association Formal Opinion 90-357 , the term `` of counsel '' is to describe a `` close , personal , continuous , and regular relationship '' between the firm and counsel lawyer . In large law firms , the title generally denotes a lawyer with the experience of a partner , but who does not carry the same workload or business development responsibility .

neg: Impeachment (Norway) In Norway , impeachment , also known as the Constitutional Court of the Realm ( Riksrett ) , is a judicial process with the power to convict Members of Parliament , Members of the Council of State and Supreme Court Justices for criminal acts performed in line of duty . Impeachment is based on the Constitution of Norway § § 86 and 87 . Parliament authorizes the impeachment process , which establishes a tribunal consisting of five members of the Supreme Court and six lay members appointed by the Parliament of Norway . Impeachment has been used eight times , the last case being held in 1927 .

neg: Closing argument A closing argument , summation , or summing up is the concluding statement of each party 's counsel reiterating the important arguments for the trier of fact , often the jury , in a court case . A closing argument occurs after the presentation of evidence . A closing argument may not contain any new information and may only use evidence introduced at trial . It is not customary to raise objections during closing arguments , except for egregious behavior . However , such objections , when made , can prove critical later in order to preserve appellate issues .   In the United States , the plaintiff is generally entitled to open the argument . The defendant usually goes second . The plaintiff or prosecution is usually then permitted a final rebuttal argument . In some jurisdictions , however , this form is condensed , and the prosecution or plaintiff goes second , after the defense , with no rebuttals . Either party may waive their opportunity to present a closing argument .   During closing arguments , counsel may not ( among other restrictions ) vouch for the credibility of witnesses , indicate their personal opinions of the case , comment on the absence of evidence that they themselves have caused to be excluded , or attempt to exhort the jury to irrational , emotional behavior .   In some countries ( e.g. France or Germany ) , in criminal cases , the defendant 's counsel always makes his closing argument last , after the public prosecutor or any other party . Sometimes the defendant is allowed to address the court directly after his or her counsel 's closing argument .   In a criminal law case , the prosecution will restate all the evidence which helps prove each element of the offence . In the USA , there are often several limits as to what the prosecution may or may not say , including precluding the prosecution from using a defendant 's exercise of his Fifth Amendment right to silence as evidence of guilt . One of the most important restrictions on prosecutors , however , is against shifting the burden of proof , or implying that the defense must put on evidence or somehow prove the innocence of the defendant .   In some cases , a judge 's presentation of the jury instruction is also known as summing up . In this case , the judge is merely articulating the law and questions of fact upon which the jury is asked to deliberate .   The purposes and techniques of closing argument are taught in courses on Trial Advocacy . The closing is often planned early in the trial planning process . The attorneys will integrate the closing with the overall case strategy through either a theme and theory or , with more advanced strategies , a line of effort . The prosecution should also state the main points and be sure to give their side of the argument and to be emotional .

neg: Sentencing in England and Wales Sentencing in England and Wales refers to a bench of magistrates or district judge in a Magistrate 's Court or a judge in a Crown Court passing sentence on a person found guilty of a criminal offence . In deciding the sentence , the court will take into account a number of factors : the type of offence and how serious it is , the timing of any plea of guilty , the defendant 's character and antecedents , including his/her criminal record and the defendant 's personal circumstances such as their financial circumstances in the case of a fine being imposed .   In England and Wales , the types of sentence that may be imposed for a particular offence are specified by statute . There are four main types of sentence : discharges , fines , community sentences and custodial ( or prison ) sentences . If a court convicts a defendant but decides not to impose any punishment , he/she is discharged conditionally or absolutely . Discharges may be ordered for any offence where the penalty is not fixed by law , although in practice they are used in the least serious offences . Fines are the most common sentence , with the maximum fine in the magistrates ' court being # 5,000 for each offence .   For offences considered to be `` serious enough '' , a range of community sentences is available to the court . Community sentences place ` requirements ' on the offender - things they must do , or not do , in the community . Requirements can include : doing unpaid work , getting treatment for an addiction ( for example drugs ) , or preventing a defendant from going to a specific place or area . For those offences considered so serious that a non custodial sentence can not be justified , a prison sentence may be imposed , either immediate or suspended . The maximum prison sentence in the magistrates ' court is six months ( which may be imposed consecutively up to 12 months for two triable either-way offences ) . There is also a range of ancillary sentences available to the courts , such as compensation orders , costs , restraining orders and disqualification orders , depending on the type of offence .   For the most serious offences such as murder , the sentence is fixed as life . Some offences carry minimum sentences , for example , certain firearms offences , `` three strikes and you 're out '' burglaries , using someone to mind a weapon , or those committed by dangerous offenders . There are different sentencing provisions for offenders aged ten to seventeen years old , and some modified provisions for those in the 18-20 age range .

neg: True threat A true threat is a threatening communication that can be prosecuted under the law . It is distinct from a threat that is made in jest . The U.S. Supreme Court has held that true threats are not protected under the U.S. Constitution based on three justifications : preventing fear , preventing the disruption that follows from that fear , and diminishing the likelihood that the threatened violence will occur . There is some concern that even satirical speech could be regarded as a `` true threat '' due to concern over terrorism .   The true threat doctrine was established in the 1969 Supreme Court case Watts v. United States . In that case , an eighteen-year-old male was convicted in a Washington , D.C. District Court for violating a statute prohibiting persons from knowingly and willfully making threats to harm or kill the President of the United States . The conviction was based on a statement made by Watts , in which he said , '' -LSB- i -RSB- f they ever make me carry a rifle the first man I want to get in my sights is L.B.J. '' Watts appealed , leading to the Supreme Court finding the statute constitutional on its face , but reversing the conviction of Watts .   In reviewing the lower court 's analysis of the case , the Court noted that `` a threat must be distinguished from what is constitutionally protected speech . '' The Court recognized that `` uninhibited , robust , and wideopen '' political debate can at times be characterized by `` vehement , caustic , and sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks on government and public officials . '' In light of the context of Watts ' statement - and the laughter that it received from the crowd - the Court found that it was more `` a kind of very crude offensive method of stating a political opposition to the President '' than a `` true threat . '' In so holding , the Court established that there is a `` true threat '' exception to protected speech , but also that the statement must be viewed in its context and distinguished from protected hyperbole . The opinion , however , stopped short of defining precisely what constituted a `` true threat . ''

neg: United States Congress The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers : the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington , D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment . Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party , and only rarely to a third party or as independents . Congress has 535 voting members : 435 Representatives and 100 Senators . The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members . These members can , however , sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation . These members represent Washington , D.C. , Puerto Rico , American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands .   The members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency , known as a `` district '' . Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results , provided that each state has at least one congressional representative . Each state , regardless of population or size , has two senators . Currently , there are 100 senators representing the 50 states . Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term , with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election .

neg: Reasonable doubt Reasonable doubt is a term used in jurisdiction of Anglo-Saxon countries . Evidence that is beyond reasonable doubt is the standard of evidence required to validate a criminal conviction in most adversarial legal systems .   Generally , prosecutors bear the burden of proof and are required to prove their version of events to this standard . This means that the proposition being presented by the prosecution must be proven to the extent that there could be no `` reasonable doubt '' in the mind of a `` reasonable person '' that the defendant is guilty . There can still be a doubt , but only to the extent that it would not affect a reasonable person 's belief regarding whether or not the defendant is guilty . Beyond `` the shadow of a doubt '' is sometimes used interchangeably with beyond reasonable doubt , but this extends beyond the latter , to the extent that it may be considered an impossible standard . The term `` reasonable doubt '' is therefore used .   If doubt does affect a `` reasonable person 's '' belief that the defendant is guilty , the jury is not satisfied beyond `` reasonable doubt '' . The precise meaning of words such as `` reasonable '' and `` doubt '' are usually defined within jurisprudence of the applicable country . A related idea is Blackstone 's formulation `` It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer '' .   Beyond a reasonable doubt is the highest burden of proof in any court in the United States . Criminal cases must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt .

neg: John Breckinridge (U.S. Attorney General) John Breckinridge ( December 2 , 1760 -- December 14 , 1806 ) was a lawyer and politician from the U.S. state of Virginia . He served in the state legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky before being elected to the U.S. Senate and appointed United States Attorney General during the second term of President Thomas Jefferson . He is the progenitor of Kentucky 's Breckinridge political family and the namesake of Breckinridge County , Kentucky .   Breckinridge 's father was a local politician , and his mother was a member of the Preston political family . Breckinridge attended the William and Mary College intermittently between 1780 and 1784 ; his attendance was interrupted by the Revolutionary War and his election to the Virginia House of Delegates . One of the youngest members of that body , his political activities acquainted him with many prominent politicians . In 1785 , he married `` Polly '' Cabell , a member of the Cabell political family . Despite making a comfortable living through a combination of legal and agricultural endeavors , letters from relatives in Kentucky convinced him to move to the western frontier . He established `` Cabell 's Dale '' , his plantation , near Lexington , Kentucky , in 1793 .   Breckinridge was appointed as the state 's attorney general soon after arriving . In November 1797 , he resigned and was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives the next month . As a legislator , he secured passage of a more humane criminal code that abolished the death penalty for all offenses except first-degree murder . On a 1798 trip to Virginia , an intermediary gave him Thomas Jefferson 's Kentucky Resolutions , which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts . At Jefferson 's request , Breckinridge assumed credit for the modified resolutions he shepherded through the Kentucky General Assembly ; Jefferson 's authorship was not discovered until after Breckinridge 's death . He opposed calling a state constitutional convention in 1799 but was elected as a delegate . Due to his influence , the state 's government remained comparatively aristocratic , maintaining protections for slavery and limiting the power of the electorate . Called the father of the resultant constitution , he emerged from the convention as the acknowledged leader of the state 's Democratic-Republican Party and was selected Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1799 and 1800 .   Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1800 , Breckinridge functioned as Jefferson 's floor leader , guiding administration bills through the chamber that was narrowly controlled by his party . Residents of the western frontier called for his nomination as vice president in 1804 , but Jefferson appointed him as U.S. Attorney General in 1805 instead . He was the first cabinet-level official from the West but had little impact before his death from tuberculosis on December 14 , 1806 .

neg: Shadrake v Attorney-General Shadrake Alan v. Attorney-General is a 2011 judgment of the Court of Appeal of Singapore that clarified the law relating to the offence of scandalizing the court . Alan Shadrake , the author of the book Once a Jolly Hangman : Singapore Justice in the Dock ( 2010 ) , was charged with contempt of court by way of scandalizing the court . The Prosecution alleged that certain passages in his book asserted that the Singapore judiciary lacks independence , succumbs to political and economic pressure , and takes a person 's position in society into account when sentencing ; and that it is the method by which Singapore 's ruling party , the People 's Action Party , stifles political dissent in Singapore .   In the High Court , Justice Quentin Loh made significant changes to the law when he rejected the use of the long-standing `` inherent tendency '' test that had been applied to establish the actus reus of the offence , and instead adopted a `` real risk '' test . This allows a court to take into consideration the circumstances surrounding the uttering or publication of the impugned words and to only hold someone liable if that person has created a real risk in the circumstances in which the impugned words were communicated . In addition , he ruled that should an impugned statement be found to have scandalized the court , the only applicable defence to contempt of court would be if the statement amounted to `` fair criticism '' . In doing so , he rejected justification and fair comment as defences . Applying the real risk test , Justice Loh found that 11 out of 14 impugned statements were contemptuous and that the defence of fair criticism did not apply to any of the statements . The High Court thus found Shadrake guilty of the offence of contempt by way of scandalizing the court and sentenced him to six weeks ' imprisonment and a fine of S$ 20,000 .   Upon appeal , the Court of Appeal , while upholding the use of the real risk test , made several changes to the way the test is to be applied . In addition , the Court clarified that fair criticism is an element that determines whether there is liability , rather than operates as a defence . The Court , when applying its modified test , found that only nine of the 14 statements were contemptuous . It upheld the sentence passed by the High Court .   Both the High Court and Court of Appeal judgments explored the rationale for the law against contempt of court and its relation with freedom of speech , and emphasized the importance of public confidence in the administration of justice which can be impugned by contempt of court .

neg: Constitutional Court (Portugal) The Constitutional Court ( Tribunal Constitucional , -LSB- tɾibuˈnaɫ kõʃtitusiuˈnaɫ -RSB- ) is a special court , defined by the Portuguese Constitution as part of the judicial branch of the Portuguese political organization . Unlike the rest of the country 's courts , the Constitutional Court has important characteristics , such as a special composition , and unique competences . The main task of the court is to review the constitutionality of the newly approved laws , but it also has important powers related to the President of the Republic , the political parties and referenda .   The Portuguese Constitution defines the Constitutional Court as a completely independent organ , that operates independently from the other branches of government , such as the Executive or the Legislative . The judges of the Constitutional Court are independent and can not be impeached . The decisions of the court are above the decisions of any other authority .   The court works in Lisbon , in the Ratton Palace located in Bairro Alto .

neg: Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy On December 7 , 2006 , the George W. Bush administration 's Department of Justice ordered the unprecedented midterm dismissal of seven United States Attorneys . Congressional investigations focused on whether the Department of Justice and the White House were using the U.S. Attorney positions for political advantage . Allegations were that some of the attorneys were targeted for dismissal to impede investigations of Republican politicians or that some were targeted for their failure to initiate investigations that would damage Democratic politicians or hamper Democratic-leaning voters .  The U.S. attorneys were replaced with interim appointees , under provisions in the 2005 USA PATRIOT Act reauthorization .   A subsequent report by the Justice Department Inspector General in October 2008 found that the process used to fire the first seven attorneys and two others dismissed around the same time was `` arbitrary '' , `` fundamentally flawed '' , and `` raised doubts about the integrity of Department prosecution decisions '' . In July 2010 , the Department of Justice prosecutors closed the two-year investigation without filing charges after determining that the firing was inappropriately political , but not criminal , saying `` Evidence did not demonstrate that any prosecutable criminal offense was committed with regard to the removal of David Iglesias . The investigative team also determined that the evidence did not warrant expanding the scope of the investigation beyond the removal of Iglesias . ''

neg: Criminal investigation Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts , used to identify , locate and prove the guilt of an accused criminal . A complete criminal investigation can include searching , interviews , interrogations , evidence collection and preservation and various methods of investigation . Modern-day criminal investigations commonly employ many modern scientific techniques known collectively as forensic science .   Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi . In the code it is suggested that both the accuser and accused had the right to present evidence they collected . In the modern era criminal investigations are most often done by government police forces . Private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations .   An early recorded professional criminal investigator was the English constable . Around 1250 CE it was recorded that the constable was to '' ... record ... matters of fact , not matters of judgment and law . ''

neg: Abstention doctrine An abstention doctrine is any of several doctrines that a court of law in the United States of America may ( or in some cases must ) apply to refuse to hear a case if hearing the case would potentially intrude upon the powers of another court . Such doctrines are usually invoked where lawsuits involving the same issues are brought in two different court systems at the same time ( such as federal and state courts within a federal system ) .   The United States has a federal court system with limitations on the cases that federal courts can hear , while each state has its own individual court system . In some instances , the jurisdiction of these courts overlap , so a lawsuit between two parties may be brought in either or both courts . The latter circumstance can lead to confusion , waste of resources , as well as the appearance that one court is disrespecting the other . Both federal and state courts have developed rules determining when one court will defer to another 's jurisdiction over a particular case .

neg: United States Senate The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which , along with the United States House of Representatives , the lower chamber , composes the legislature of the United States of America .   The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution . The Senate is composed of senators who represent each of the several states , with each state being equally represented by two senators , regardless of their population , serving staggered terms of six years ; with fifty states presently in the Union , there are 100 U.S. Senators . From 1789 until 1913 , Senators were appointed by legislatures of the states they represented ; following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913 , they are now popularly elected . The Senate chamber is located in the north wing of the Capitol , in Washington , D.C.   As the upper house , the Senate has several powers of advice and consent which are unique to it ; these include the ratification of treaties , the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries , Supreme Court justices , federal judges , other federal executive officials , flag officers , regulatory officials , ambassadors , and other federal uniformed officers . In addition to these , in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for Vice President , the duty befalls upon the Senate to elect one of the top two recipients of electors for that office . It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House . The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative and more prestigious body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms , smaller size , and statewide constituencies , which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere .   The presiding officer of the Senate is the Vice President of the United States , who is President of the Senate ; in their absence , the President Pro Tempore , who is customarily the senior member of the controlling party , presides over the Senate . In the early 20th century , the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began , although they are not constitutional officers .

neg: Attorney General for England and Wales Her Majesty 's Attorney General for England and Wales , usually known simply as the Attorney General , is one of the Law Officers of the Crown . Along with the subordinate Solicitor General for England and Wales , the Attorney General serves as the chief legal adviser of the Crown and its government in England and Wales . The current Attorney General is Jeremy Wright , MP .   The position of Attorney General existed since at least 1243 , when records show a professional attorney was hired to represent the King 's interests in court . The position first took on a political role in 1461 when the holder of the office was summoned to the House of Lords to advise the government there on legal matters . In 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crown 's adviser and representative in legal matters , although still specialising in litigation rather than advice . The beginning of the twentieth century saw a shift away from litigation and more towards legal advice . Today prosecutions are carried out by the Crown Prosecution Service and most legal advice to government departments is provided by the Government Legal Service , both under the supervision of the Attorney General .   The job of the Attorney General is a demanding one , and Sir Patrick Hastings wrote while serving that `` to be a law officer is to be in hell '' . Duties include superintending the Crown Prosecution Service , the Serious Fraud Office , and other government lawyers with the authority to prosecute cases . Additionally , the Attorney General superintends the Government Legal Department ( formerly the Treasury Solicitor 's Department ) , HM Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate , The Service Prosecuting Authority and the strategic body , the National Fraud Authority . The Attorney advises the government , individual government departments and individual government ministers on legal matters , answering questions in Parliament and bringing `` unduly lenient '' sentences and points of law to the Court of Appeal of England and Wales . Since the passing of the Law Officers Act 1997 duties can be delegated to the Solicitor General , and any actions are treated as if they came from the Attorney General .

neg: Attorney-General for Australia The Attorney-General for AustraliaThe title is officially `` Attorney-General '' . For the purposes of distinguishing the office from other Attorneys-General , and in accordance with usual practice in the United Kingdom and other common law jurisdictions , the Australian Attorney-General currently refers to themselves as the `` Attorney-General for Australia '' or the `` Commonwealth Attorney-General '' : see Attorney-General website . Historically , `` Attorney-General of Australia '' was also used . is the first law officer of the Crown in right of the Commonwealth of Australia , chief law officer of the Commonwealth of Australia and a minister of the Crown . The Attorney-General is usually a member of the Federal Cabinet , but need not be . Under the Constitution they are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister , and serves at the Governor-General 's pleasure . In practice the Attorney-General is a party politician and their tenure is determined by political factors . By convention , but not constitutional requirement , the Attorney-General is a lawyer by training , either a barrister or solicitor .   Since 18 September 2013 , the Attorney-General for Australia has been Senator the Hon George Brandis , a Liberal Party of Australia member of the Australian Senate for the state of Queensland .

neg: Sentencing Act of 1987 The Sentencing Act of 1987 ( Pub.L . 100-182 ) enacted some changes to the federal sentencing regime in the United States . The legislation amended to permit expressly departures based on circumstances of an exceptional `` kind '' or `` degree . '' The insertion of this new language was described by the manager of the House bill , Representative John Conyers , as `` clarifying '' in nature because it simply made explicit in the law that which was previously described in the Senate Committee Report as implicit and intended . There is evidence that under the new regime , sentences may not have increased as much as expected : although the average prison term for trial sentences increases post‐reforms , there is no systematic increase in the average length of the pleas .   Additionally , the law abolished parole for federal prisoners and created the United States Sentencing Commission . The commission makes the guidelines used by federal judges when sentencing people convicted of a federal crime .   The bill was introduced by Senator Joseph Biden on October 27 , 1987 . It was signed into law on December 7 , 1987 , by President Ronald Reagan .