query: The Dayton Agreement was signed in April.

pos: Dayton Agreement The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina , also known as the Dayton Agreement , Dayton Accords , Paris Protocol or Dayton-Paris Agreement , is the peace agreement reached at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton , Ohio , United States , in November 1995 , and formally signed in Paris on 14 December 1995 . These accords put an end to the - year-long Bosnian War , one of the Yugoslav Wars .

neg: House of Peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina The House of Peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Dom Naroda Bosne i Hercegovine / Дом Народа Босне и Херцеговине ) is one of the two chambers of the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina , with the other chamber being the House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was established through the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995 .   It has 15 members equally distributed among the three ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina : 5 Bosniaks , 5 Serbs , and 5 Croats . The members are appointed by the parliaments of the constituent peoples . Their duty is to make sure that no law is passed unless all three groups agree on it .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1396 In United Nations Security Council resolution 1396 , adopted unanimously on 5 March 2002 , after recalling resolutions 1031 ( 1995 ) , 1088 ( 1996 ) , 1112 ( 1997 ) , 1256 ( 1999 ) and 1357 ( 2001 ) on the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Council welcomed the acceptance by the Steering Board of the Peace Implementation Council on 28 February 2002 of the offer of the European Union to provide a European Union Police Mission ( EUPM ) to succeed the United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina ( UNMIBH ) from 1 January 2003 .   The Security Council recalled the Dayton Agreement and preparations for the transition from UNMIBH at the end of its mandate . It agreed to the designation of Paddy Ashdown to succeed Wolfgang Petritsch as High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina and appreciated the work of the latter for his achievements .   The resolution welcomed the establishment of the EUPM from 1 January 2003 to follow on from the end of UNMIBH 's mandate as part of a co-ordinated rule of law programme . It encouraged co-ordination among the EUPM , UNMIBH and High Representative to ensure a transition of responsibilities from the International Police Task Force to the EUPM and welcomed the streamlining of the international civilian implementation effort in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The EUPM was to monitor and train the Bosnian Police and to create or reform sustainable institutions to EU standards .   Finally , Resolution 1396 reaffirmed the importance and final authority the Council attached to the role of the High Representative in co-ordinating activities of organisations and agencies in the implementation of the Dayton Agreement .

neg: Middle East nuclear weapon free zone The Middle East nuclear weapon free zone ( MENWFZ ) is a proposed agreement similar to other nuclear-weapon-free zones in other regions . Steps towards the establishment of such a zone began in the 1960s led to a joint declaration by Egypt and Iran in 1974 which resulted in a General Assembly resolution ( broadened in 1990 through the Mubarak Initiative to cover all weapons of mass destruction ) . Following the 1995 NPT Review Conference , the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) held a series of meetings involving experts and academics to consider ways to advance this process .   Such a zone would strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT ) , would help to promote global nuclear disarmament and would also help the Middle East peace process as substantial confidence-building measures .   The United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 ( the ceasefire ending the Gulf War ) recognizes the goal of establishing the MENWFZ ( para 14 ) .   For the Egyptian government ( until the political changes of 2011 ) , a MENWFZ was seen as a central source of pressure on Israel to relinquish its ambiguous nuclear policy , and to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT ) . Until the Iranian nuclear program , Israel was believed to be the only Mideast country to have a nuclear deterrence capability , developed in the 1960s . As Avner Cohen , Gerald Steinberg and other experts have noted , Israeli policy has emphasized the link between nuclear demilitarization and a comprehensive peace settlement including Palestinian issues and with countries and potential threats in the region , including Syria and Iran . Israel maintains a veil of `` studied ambiguity '' ( `` amimut '' ) about its nuclear arsenal , and has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty .   Four countries in the Middle East have been found in non-compliance with their IAEA safeguards obligations under the NPT : Iraq , Libya , Iran , and Syria . Of these cases , Iran and Syria remain unresolved .   Following pressure from Egypt and the Arab League , the 2010 NPT Review Conference called for holding a conference on a MENWFZ which would primarily press Israel to end its policy of a ambiguity . Finland planned to host such an event in 2012 . However , no agreement was reached on the agenda and other issues , and the conference was called off in November 2012 .   An international group of concerned citizens , including former members of the Israeli Knesset , responded to the lack of progress in official talks by organizing an International Conference For A WMD-Free Middle East . It was held in Haifa in December 2013 .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 982 United Nations Security Council resolution 982 , adopted unanimously on 31 March 1995 , after reaffirming all resolutions on the situation in the former Yugoslavia in particular Resolution 947 ( 1994 ) concerning the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) , the Council extended the mandate of UNPROFOR for additional period terminating 30 November 1995 and discussed operations in Croatia .   The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina had accepted the Contact Group peace plan and the parties in the country were observing a ceasefire agreement . The Council was encouraged by UNPROFOR 's efforts to assist in the implementation of the Washington agreements . The importance of the city of Sarajevo as the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina and as a multicultural , multiethnic , and religious centre was reiterated , and that the agreement on demilitarisation of the city would have a positive effect . Human rights had to be respected in order to build mutual trust and peace .   The mandate of UNPROFOR was extended until 30 November 1995 and the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was authorised to redeploy all UNPROFOR personnel and assets from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , except those required for the United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia . UNPROFOR would continue to carry out the implementation of relevant agreements , facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid to Bosnia and Herzegovina via Croatia and maintain its support structure in that country . Meanwhile , parties in both countries were urged to observe the ceasefire and negotiate a peaceful settlement .   Finally , the resolution concluded by requesting the Secretary-General to keep the Council informed on developments in the region .

neg: Peace Implementation Council The Peace Implementation Council ( PIC ) is an international body charged with implementing the Dayton Peace Agreement for Bosnia and Herzegovina . The Council was established at an implementation conference held in London , United Kingdom on December 8 and 9 , 1995 , subsequent to the completion of the negotiations of the accord the preceding month . The Council is , in effect , the realization , through the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , of the international community 's governance of Bosnia and Herzegovina after signature of the Dayton Agreement . This international control over Bosnia and Herzegovina is to last until the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustainable .   The PIC comprises 55 countries and agencies that support the peace process in many different ways - by assisting it financially , providing troops for SFOR , or directly running operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina . There is also a fluctuating number of observers .   Since the London conference , the PIC has come together at the ministerial level another six times to review progress and define the goals of peace implementation for the coming period : in June 1996 in Florence , Italy ; in December 1996 for a second time in London ; in December 1997 in Bonn , Germany ; in December 1998 in Madrid , Spain , in May 2000 and February 2007 in Brussels , Belgium .   The PIC clarifies the responsibilities of the High Representative as the main implementing body of the civilian part of the Dayton Agreement , as set out in Annex 10 the Dayton Agreement . For example , the 1997 Bonn session provided the Office of the High Representative with the so-called `` Bonn authority '' to dismiss elected and non-elected officials who obstruct the implementation of the Dayton Agreement . The High Representative from 2006-2007 , Christian Schwarz-Schilling , used this power sparingly , to promote confidence in elected domestic government . This strategy was reversed by the new appointee to that post , Miroslav Lajčák , who imposed several decisions on his first day at work .

neg: Bosnia and Herzegovina–United States relations The 1992-95 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina was ended with the help of participation by the United States in brokering the 1995 Dayton Agreement . The United States maintains command of the NATO headquarters in Sarajevo . The United States has donated hundreds of millions of dollars to help with infrastructure , humanitarian aid , economic development , and military reconstruction in Herzegovina and Bosnia . The U.S. Agency for International Development ( USAID ) and Support for Eastern European Democracies ( SEED ) has played a large role in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina , including programs in economic development and reform , democratic reform ( media , elections ) , infrastructure development , and training programs for Bosnian professionals , among others . Additionally , there are many non-governmental organizations ( NGOs ) that have likewise played significant roles in the reconstruction .   According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report , 33 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina 's people approve of U.S. leadership , with 49 % disapproving and 18 % uncertain .

neg: Arab League The Arab League , formally the League of Arab States , is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa , the Horn of Africa and Arabia . It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members : Kingdom of Egypt , Kingdom of Iraq , Transjordan ( renamed Jordan in 1949 ) , Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , and Syria . Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945 . Currently , the League has 22 members , but Syria 's participation has been suspended since November 2011 , as a consequence of government repression during the Syrian Civil War .   The League 's main goal is to `` draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them , to safeguard their independence and sovereignty , and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries '' .   Through institutions , such as the Arab League Educational , Cultural and Scientific Organization ( ALECSO ) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League 's Council of Arab Economic Unity ( CAEU ) , the Arab League facilitates political , economic , cultural , scientific , and social programmes designed to promote the interests of the Arab world . It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions , to deliberate on matters of common concern , to settle some Arab disputes and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis . The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration . One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter , which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region .   Each member state has one vote in the League Council , and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them . The aims of the league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political , cultural , economic and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties . Furthermore , the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures . In March 2015 , the Arab League General Secretary announced the establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism and other threats to the Arab States . The decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen . Participation in the project is voluntary , and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states . The growing militarization of the region and the increase in violent civil wars as well as terrorist movements are the reason behind the creation of the JAF , financed by the rich Gulf countries .   In the early 1970s , the Economic Council of the League of Arab States put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across the European states . That led , under the decree of the League of Arab States no . K1175/D52/G , to the decision by the Arab governments to set up the Arab British Chamber of Commerce which was mandated to `` promote , encourage and facilitate bilateral trade '' between the Arab world and its major trading partner , the United Kingdom .

neg: United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 is a resolution upgrading Palestine to non-member observer state status in the United Nations . It was adopted by the sixty-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly on 29 November 2012 , the date of the International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People and the 65th anniversary of the adoption by the General Assembly of resolution 181 ( II ) on the Future Government of Palestine . The draft resolution was proposed by Palestine 's representative at the United Nations . It , however , maintains the status of the Palestinian Liberation Organization as the representative of the Palestinian people within the United Nations system . Though strongly contested by the United States and the government of Israel , former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert expressed support for the measure . The motion was seen as largely symbolic , though it could allow Palestine to start proceedings at the International Criminal Court against Israel . Its timing , following a year in which Palestine obtained membership of UNESCO and the UN Security Council was unable `` to make a unanimous recommendation '' on their application for full UN membership , and coming several days after the completion of Operation Pillar of Defense , was also noted . The new status equates Palestine with that of the Holy See within the United Nations system and implicitly recognises Palestinian sovereignty .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 838 United Nations Security Council resolution 838 , adopted unanimously on 10 June 1993 , after reaffirming Resolution 713 ( 1991 ) and all subsequent resolutions on the situation in the former Yugoslavia and in particular Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Council discussed options for the deployment of international observers on the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina to ensure implementation of previous Security Council resolutions .   The Council reiterated its demands in resolutions 752 ( 1992 ) and 819 ( 1993 ) which called for the end of foreign interference in Bosnia and Herzegovina and for the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( Serbia and Montenegro ) cease supplying arms and military equipment to Bosnian Serb paramilitary units respectively . Violations of resolutions 757 ( 1992 ) , 787 ( 1992 ) and 820 ( 1993 ) were condemned which involved actions that took place between Serbia and Montenegro and the protected areas in Croatia and those areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the control of Bosnian Serbs . In this regard , the Council considered the possible deployment of observers around the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina as indicated in Resolution 787 ( 1992 ) .   The resolution also noted the decision of Serbia and Montenegro to prohibit all but humanitarian supplies to Bosnian Serb paramilitaries and the Council urged the country to implement the commitment . The Vance-Owen Peace Plan was recommended as a peaceful settlement of the conflict in the region .   The Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was requested to report back to the Security Council on options for the deployment of international observers to monitor the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina with priority for its border with Serbia and Montenegro . He was requested to contact Member States in order to ensure the availability of any material derived from aerial surveillance .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 740 United Nations Security Council resolution 740 , adopted unanimously on 7 February 1992 , after reaffirming resolutions 713 ( 1991 ) , 721 ( 1991 ) , 724 ( 1991 ) and 727 ( 1992 ) and considering a report by the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali , the Council approved plans for a peacekeeping mission in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia .   The Council expressed its desire to deploy the force after the `` remaining obstacle in the way '' is removed , calling on the Serbian leaders to accept the United Nations peace plan . Then Croatian President Franjo Tuđman had accepted the plan . It also approved the increase of the military liaison commission to a total of 75 officers , up from 50 .   The resolution went on to call on all parties to co-operate with the Conference on Yugoslavia to reach a settlement of the issue consistent with the principles of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , and also to all states to continue to observe the arms embargo on the country .

neg: United Nations resolutions on Abkhazia The Security Council of the United Nations passed 32 resolutions where it recognizes Abkhazia as an integral part of Georgia and supports its territorial integrity according to the principles of the international law . The UN is urging both sides to settle the Georgian -- Abkhazian conflict through peaceful means by intensifying diplomatic dialogue and ratifying the final accord about the status of Abkhazia in the Georgian Constitution . Moreover , United nations calls for immediate return of all expelled ethnic Georgians ( approximately 250,000 ) and determining the final status of Abkhazia as maximum autonomy or federative structure within the borders of the Georgian state . The resolutions also commend Russia 's role as a peacekeeper and facilitator towards a resolution of the conflict . Resolution 1716 also urges Georgia to ensure that no troops are present in the Kodori Gorge and asks Georgia to refrain from provocative actions in the Kodori Gorge .   Many of the resolutions relate to the establishment and extension of the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia .   On May 15 , 2008 , the United Nations General Assembly adopted a non-binding resolution recognising the right of all refugees ( including victims of reported `` ethnic cleansing '' ) to return to Abkhazia and their property rights . It `` regretted '' the attempts to alter pre-war demographic composition and called for the `` rapid development of a timetable to ensure the prompt voluntary return of all refugees and internally displaced persons to their homes . ''   The following are United Nations resolutions adopted by the Security Council with regards to Abkhazia :  United Nations Security Council Resolution 849 ( July 9 , 1993 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 854 ( August 6 , 1993 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 858 ( August 24 , 1993 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 876 ( October 19 , 1993 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 881 ( November 4 , 1993 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 892 ( December 22 , 1993 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 896 ( January 31 , 1994 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 901 ( March 4 , 1994 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 906 ( March 25 , 1994 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 934 ( June 30 , 1994 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 937 ( July 21 , 1994 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 971 ( January 12 , 1995 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 993 ( May 12 , 1995 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1036 ( January 12 , 1996 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1065 ( July 12 , 1996 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1077 ( October 22 , 1996 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1096 ( January 30 , 1997 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1124 ( July 30 , 1997 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1150 ( January 30 , 1998 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1187 ( July 30 , 1998 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1225 ( January 28 , 1999 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1255 ( July 30 , 1999 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1287 ( January 31 , 2000 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1311 ( July 28 , 2000 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1339 ( January 31 , 2001 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1364 ( July 31 , 2001 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1393 ( January 31 , 2002 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1427 ( July 29 , 2002 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1462 ( January 30 , 2003 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1494 ( July 30 , 2003 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1524 ( January 30 , 2004 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1554 ( July 29 , 2004 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1582 ( January 28 , 2005 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1615 ( July 29 , 2005 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1656 ( January 31 , 2006 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1716 ( October 13 , 2006 ) ;  UN Security Council Resolution 1752 ( April 13 , 2007 ) ;  UN Security Council Resolution 1781 ( October 15 , 2007 ) ;  United Nations Security Council Resolution 1808 ( April 15 , 2008 ) ;  UN General Assembly Resolution GA/10708 ( May 15 , 2008 ) .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1454 United Nations Security Council resolution 1454 , adopted on 30 December 2002 , after recalling all previous resolutions on Iraq , including resolutions 661 ( 1991 ) , 986 ( 1995 ) , 1284 ( 1999 ) , 1352 ( 2001 ) , 1360 ( 2001 ) , 1382 ( 2001 ) , 1409 ( 2002 ) and 1447 ( 2002 ) concerning the Oil-for-Food Programme , the Council adjusted the list of restricted goods ( Goods Review List ) and procedures for its implementation under the Oil-for-Food Programme . It was the final Security Council resolution adopted in 2002 .   The Security Council was convinced of the need for a temporary measure to provide humanitarian assistance to the Iraqi people until the Iraqi government fulfilled the provisions of Resolution 687 ( 1991 ) and 1284 , and had distributed aid throughout the country equally . It reaffirmed the commitment of all states to Iraq 's sovereignty and territorial integrity , its determination to improve the humanitarian situation and pledge to adjust the Goods Review List .   Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter , the Council adjusted the Goods Review List and procedures for its implementation . More than 50 items were added to the Goods Review List . It would conduct a review of the measures within 90 days and before the end of the current extension of the Oil-for-Food Programme , while the Committee established in Resolution 661 was also requested to conduct reviews . The Secretary-General Kofi Annan was instructed to develop consumption rates and use levels for chemicals and medications specified in the annexes of the resolution within 60 days . Finally , the resolution appealed to all states to co-operate in the timely submission of technically complete applications and the issuing of export licences .   Resolution 1454 was adopted by 13 votes to none against and two abstentions from Russia and Syria . Russia opposed the `` restrictive '' nature of the text while Syria noted that Iraq had begun complying with weapons inspections and regretted that the speed of negotiations resulting in the adoption of the current resolution did not allow enough time for examining the list .

neg: Treaty of Dunkirk The Treaty of Dunkirk was signed on 4 March 1947 , between France and the United Kingdom in Dunkirk ( France ) as a Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance against a possible German attack in the aftermath of World War II . The Dunkirk Treaty entered into force on 8 September 1947 and it preceded the Treaty of Brussels of 1948 . According to professor of Political Science Marc Trachtenberg , the German threat was a pretext for defense against USSR .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 845 United Nations Security Council resolution 845 , adopted unanimously on 18 June 1993 , after recalling Resolution 817 ( 1993 ) and considering the Secretary-General 's report pursuant to it , the Council urged both Greece and the Republic of Macedonia to continue efforts to settle the naming dispute .   The efforts of the Co-Chairmen of the Steering Committee of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia were appreciated , while the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was requested to keep the Security Council regularly updated , with the aim of settling the issue before the 48th session of the General Assembly in September 1993 .

neg: Macedonia naming dispute The Macedonia naming dispute is a political dispute regarding the use of the name Macedonia between the southeastern European countries of Greece and the Republic of Macedonia , formerly a federal unit of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Pertinent to its background is an early 20th century multifaceted dispute and armed conflict that formed part of the background to the Balkan Wars . The specific naming dispute , although an existing issue in Yugoslav -- Greek relations since World War II , was reignited after the breakup of Yugoslavia and the newly gained independence of the former Socialist Republic of Macedonia in 1991 . Since then , it has been an ongoing issue in bilateral and international relations .   Citing historical and territorial concerns resulting from the ambiguity between the Republic of Macedonia , the adjacent Greek region of Macedonia and the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon which falls mostly within Greek Macedonia , Greece opposes the use of the name `` Macedonia '' by the Republic of Macedonia without a geographical qualifier such as `` Northern Macedonia '' for use by all and for all purposes . As millions of ethnic Greeks identify themselves as Macedonians , unrelated to the Slavic people who are associated with the Republic of Macedonia , Greece further objects to the use of the term `` Macedonian '' for the neighboring country 's largest ethnic group and its language . The Republic of Macedonia is accused of appropriating symbols and figures that are historically considered part of Greek culture such as the Vergina Sun and Alexander the Great , and of promoting the irredentist concept of a United Macedonia , which involves territorial claims on Greece , Bulgaria , Albania , and Serbia .   The dispute has escalated to the highest level of international mediation , involving numerous attempts to achieve a resolution . In 1995 , the two countries formalised bilateral relations and committed to start negotiations on the naming issue , under the auspices of the United Nations . Until a solution is found , the provisional reference `` the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia '' ( sometimes unofficially abbreviated as FYROM ) is used by international organisations and states which do not recognise translations of the constitutional name Republic of Macedonia ( Република Македонија , Republika Makedonija ) . UN members , and the UN as a whole , have agreed to accept any final agreement on a new name resulting from negotiations between the two countries . The parties are represented by Ambassadors Vasko Naumovski and Adamantios Vassilakis , under the mediation of Matthew Nimetz .

neg: Brotherhood and unity Brotherhood and unity was a popular slogan of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia that was coined during the Yugoslav People 's Liberation War ( 1941 -- 45 ) , and which evolved into a guiding principle of Yugoslavia 's post-war inter-ethnic policy . In Slovenia , the slogan `` Brotherhood and Peace '' ( bratstvo i mir ) was used in the beginning .   After the invasion of Yugoslavia by Axis forces in April 1941 , the occupying powers and their helpers sought to systematically incite hatred among the many national , ethnic and religious groups of Yugoslavia . The Yugoslav Communist Party successfully publicized the brotherhood and unity of Yugoslavia 's nations ( narodi ) and national minorities ( nacionalne manjine , later renamed to narodnosti ) in their struggle against the fascist enemy and domestic collaborators . The decision of the second session of AVNOJ on the federalization of Yugoslavia in 1943 was regarded as the recognition of this Brotherhood and Unity principle .   After the war , the slogan designated the official policy of inter-ethnic relations in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , as embodied in its federal constitutions of 1963 and of 1974 . The policy prescribed that Yugoslavia 's nations ( Serbs , Macedonians , Croats , Slovenes , Montenegrins , Muslims ) and national minorities ( Albanians , Hungarians , Romanians , Bulgarians , Jews , Italians , and others ) are equal groups that coexist peacefully in the federation , promoting their similarities and interdependence in order to overcome national conflicts and hatred . Every individual was entitled to the expression of their own culture , while the ethnic groups had an oath to one another to maintain peaceful relations . Citizens were also encouraged and allowed to declare their nationality as Yugoslav , which usually polled at 10 % . The policy also led to the adoption of national quota systems in all public institutions , including economic organizations , in which national groups were represented by their republic 's or province 's national composition .   Throughout Yugoslavia many factories , schools , public venues , folklore ensembles and sporting teams used to be named `` Brotherhood and unity '' , as well as the Ljubljana-Zagreb-Beograd-Skopje highway ( Highway `` Brotherhood and Unity '' ) . The country had a decoration called the Order of the Brotherhood and Unity .   Several prominent persons from former Yugoslavia were convicted for activities deemed to threaten the brotherhood and unity , such as acts of chauvinist propaganda , separatism and irredentism . Among the convicts were the former presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Alija Izetbegović ) and Croatia ( Franjo Tuđman and Stjepan Mesić ) , Croatian army general of Albanian descent Rahim Ademi and many others . One Kosovo Albanian , Adem Demaçi , was imprisoned for almost 30 years for allegations of espionage and irredentism .

neg: April Novelization April Novelization ( Nowela kwietniowa ) refers to the changes ( constitutional amendments ) to the 1952 Constitution of the People 's Republic of Poland , agreed in April 1989 , in the aftermath of the Polish Round Table Agreement .   Among key changes were :  restoration of the Senate of Poland and the post of the president of Poland ( the latter annulling the power of the Polish United Workers ' Party general secretary )  introduction of the National Court Council ( Krajowa Rada Sądownictwa )  changes to the electoral legislation , in order to make elections more free and fair  powers of the Sejm were adjusted   The 1952 constitution would be even further reformed by the December Novelization and Small Constitution of 1992 , and finally replaced in 1997 by a completely new current Constitution of Poland .

neg: Health in Bosnia and Herzegovina Health in Bosnia and Herzegovina was impacted by the Balkan War of the early 1990s , during which Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their independence . Bosnia faced many challenges during the war , including bombings throughout the country that ruined much of the infrastructure . Parallel regimes took over Bosnia and flipped the country upside down with land mines , bullets , and bombings . The war displaced over 800,000 refugees and killed over 100,000 people . The war in Bosnia also consisted of an ethnic `` cleanse '' of Bosnian Muslims initiated by Bosnian Serbs , which included containment of Bosniaks in concentration camps . The war ended with NATO involvement and the Dayton Agreement in 1995 . The Dayton Agreement acknowledges Bosnia and Herzegovina as a democratic country and the country is moving toward the basic principals that accompany that , such as civil rights and equality . During the war there was minimal attention given to the standard of health and major public health concerns , such as pest control , hygiene , disinfection , and import and export programs , were all interrupted or stopped .  The war affected Bosnia in many ways . The war torn country not only lost much of the infrastructure , but the economy and the governmental system were also affected . It is estimated that there are still thousands of people living as refugees and a large portion of the population still fall under the United Nations High Commission of Refugees category of a refugee or displaced person . The shortcomings of the current health care system include the lack of communication between health care centers , lack of skills , and lack of standards that are uniform throughout the country .

neg: Palestinian territories `` Palestinian territories '' and `` occupied Palestinian territories '' ( OPT or oPt ) are descriptions often used to describe the West Bank ( including East Jerusalem ) and the Gaza Strip , which are occupied or otherwise under the control of Israel . Israeli governments have maintained that the area involved is within territorial dispute . The extent of the territories , while subject to future negotiations , have frequently been defined by the Green Line .   The term `` Palestinian Territory , Occupied '' was used by the United Nations ( UN ) and other international organizations between 1998 to 2013 in order to refer to areas controlled by the Palestinian National Authority . In December 2012 , UN Secretariat communications replaced this by the term State of Palestine . The ISO adopted the name change in 2013 . But , as of August 2015 , the UN Security Council continues to treat Palestine as a non-sovereign entity ; This prevents its admission to UN General Assembly membership .   Israel occupied the territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the Six-Day War of 1967 and has since maintained control . Previously , these territories had been occupied by Jordan and Egypt , respectively , since the 1948 founding of Israel . In 1980 , Israel officially absorbed East Jerusalem and has proclaimed the whole of Jerusalem to be its capital . The inclusion , though never formally amounting to legal annexation , was condemned internationally and declared `` null and void '' by the United Nations Security Council . The Palestinian National Authority , the United Nations , the international legal and humanitarian bodies and the international community regard East Jerusalem as part of the West Bank , and consequently a part of the Palestinian territories . The Palestinian National Authority never exercised sovereignty over the area , although it housed its offices in Orient House and several other buildings as an assertion of its sovereign interests .   Israel shut them down in response to the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing . Israeli sovereignty , however , has not been recognized by any country , since the unilateral annexation of territory occupied during war contravenes the Fourth Geneva Convention . The cost of the occupation for Israel over four decades ( 1967 -- 2007 ) is estimated to amount to $ 50 billion . The World Bank estimates the annual cost in 2013 to the Palestinian economy of Israeli occupation at $ 3.4 billion .   In 1988 , with the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) intention to declare a Palestinian State , Jordan renounced all territorial claims to the West Bank , including East Jerusalem . Since the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988 , 135 UN Member Nations have recognized the State of Palestine , comprising the Palestinian territories . It has not been recognized by Israel and some Western nations , including the United States .   In 1993 , following the Oslo Accords , parts of the territories politically came under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian National Authority ( Areas A and B ) . Israel still exercises full military control and , civil control over 61 % of the West Bank ( Area C ) . The Oslo Accords established access to the sea for Gaza within 20 nautical miles from the shore . The Berlin Commitment of 2002 reduced this to 12 mi . In October 2006 Israel imposed a 6-mile limit , and at the conclusion of the Gaza War restricted access to a 3-nautical-mile limit , beyond which a no-go zone exists . As a result , more than 3,000 Palestinian fishermen are denied access to 85 % of the maritime areas agreed to in 1995 . The majority of the Dead Sea area is off-limits to Palestinian use , and Palestinians are denied access to its coast line .   Israel disengaged from the Gaza Strip in 2005 , however the international community considers the West Bank and the Gaza Strip still to be occupied by Israel . The Hamas takeover of Gaza in 2007 divided the Palestinian territories politically . Abbas 's Fatah largely ruled the West Bank and was recognized internationally as the official Palestinian Authority ( see : Fatah-Hamas conflict ) . In 2014 , the two political groups agreed to hold elections and form a compromise unity government . The 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict intervened ; however , the unity government survived .


query: The National Security Agency is tasked with the processing of data for counterintelligence purposes.

pos: National Security Agency The National Security Agency ( NSA ) is a military intelligence organization and a constituent of the United States Department of Defense ( DOD ) . The NSA is responsible for global monitoring , collection , and processing of information and data for foreign intelligence and counterintelligence purposes , a discipline known as signals intelligence ( SIGINT ) . NSA is concurrently charged with protection of U.S. government communications and information systems against penetration and network warfare . Although many of NSA 's programs rely on `` passive '' electronic collection , the agency is authorized to accomplish its mission through active clandestine means , among which are physically bugging electronic systems and allegedly engaging in sabotage through subversive software . Moreover , NSA maintains physical presence in a large number of countries across the globe , where its Special Collection Service ( SCS ) inserts eavesdropping devices in difficult-to-reach places . SCS collection tactics allegedly encompass `` close surveillance , burglary , wiretapping , breaking and entering . ''   Unlike the Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) and the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , both of which specialize primarily in foreign human espionage , NSA does not unilaterally conduct human-source intelligence gathering , despite often being portrayed so in popular culture . Instead , NSA is entrusted with assistance to and coordination of SIGINT elements at other government organizations , which are prevented by law from engaging in such activities without the approval of the NSA via the Defense Secretary . As part of these streamlining responsibilities , the agency has a co-located organization called the Central Security Service ( CSS ) , which was created to facilitate cooperation between NSA and other U.S. military cryptanalysis components . Additionally , the NSA Director simultaneously serves as the Commander of the United States Cyber Command and as Chief of the Central Security Service .   Originating as a unit to decipher coded communications in World War II , it was officially formed as the NSA by President Harry S. Truman in 1952 . Since then , it has become one of the largest U.S. intelligence organizations in terms of personnel and budget , operating as part of the Department of Defense and simultaneously reporting to the Director of National Intelligence .   NSA surveillance has been a matter of political controversy on several occasions , such as its spying on anti-Vietnam-war leaders and economic espionage . In 2013 , the extent of some of the NSA 's secret surveillance programs was revealed to the public by Edward Snowden . According to the leaked documents , the NSA intercepts the communications of over a billion people worldwide , many of whom are United States citizens , and tracks the movement of hundreds of millions of people using cellphones . Internationally , research has pointed to the NSA 's ability to surveil the domestic Internet traffic of foreign countries through `` boomerang routing '' .

neg: National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace In the United States government , the National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace , is a component of the larger National Strategy for Homeland Security . The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace was drafted by the Department of Homeland Security in reaction to the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks . Released on February 14 , 2003 , it offers suggestions , not mandates , to business , academic , and individual users of cyberspace to secure computer systems and networks . It was prepared after a year of research by businesses , universities , and government , and after five months of public comment . The plan advises a number of security practices as well as promotion of cyber security education .   The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace identifies three strategic objectives : ( 1 ) Prevent cyber attacks against America 's critical infrastructures ; ( 2 ) Reduce national vulnerability to cyber attacks ; and ( 3 ) Minimize damage and recovery time from cyber attacks that do occur . To meet these objectives , the National Strategy outlines five national priorities : The first priority , the creation of a National Cyberspace Security Response System , focuses on improving the government 's response to cyberspace security incidents and reducing the potential damage from such events . The second , third , and fourth priorities ( the development of a National Cyberspace Security Threat and Vulnerability Reduction Program , the creation of a National Cyberspace Security Awareness and Training Program , the necessity of Securing Governments ' Cyberspace ) aim to reduce threats from , and vulnerabilities to , cyber attacks . The fifth priority , the establishment of a system of National Security and International Cyberspace Security Cooperation , intends to prevent cyber attacks that could impact national security assets and to improve the international management of and response to such attacks .   Ultimately , the National Strategy encourages companies to regularly review their technology security plans , and individuals who use the Internet to add firewalls and anti-virus software to their systems . It calls for a single federal center to help detect , monitor and analyze attacks , and for expanded cyber security research and improved government-industry cooperation .

neg: MI5 The Security Service , also MI5 ( Military Intelligence , Section 5 ) , is the United Kingdom 's domestic counter-intelligence and security agency and is part of its intelligence machinery alongside the Secret Intelligence Service ( MI6 ) , Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) and Defence Intelligence ( DI ) . MI5 is directed by the Joint Intelligence Committee ( JIC ) , and the service is bound by the Security Service Act 1989 . The service is directed to protect British parliamentary democracy and economic interests , and counter terrorism and espionage within the UK .   Within the civil service community the service is colloquially known as Box 500 ( after its official wartime address of PO Box 500 ; its current address is PO Box 3255 , London SW1P 1AE ) .   The service has had a national headquarters at Thames House on Millbank in London since 1995 , drawing together personnel from a number of locations into a single HQ facility . Thames House was , until March 2013 , shared with the Northern Ireland Office ( NIO ) and is also home to the Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre , a subordinate organisation to the Security Service . The service has offices across the United Kingdom including an HQ in Northern Ireland .   Details of the northern operations centre in Greater Manchester were revealed by the firm who built it . Plans to open the northern operations centre were reported by The Manchester Evening News in February 2005 , and plans to open a permanent Scottish office in Glasgow were reported by The Scotsman in January of that year .

neg: Total Information Awareness Total Information Awareness ( TIA ) was a program of the United States Information Awareness Office that began during the 2003 fiscal year . It operated under this title from February until May 2003 , before being renamed as the Terrorism Information Awareness .   Based on the concept of predictive policing , TIA aimed to gather detailed information about individuals in order to anticipate and prevent crimes before they are committed . As part of efforts to win the War on Terror , the program searched for all sorts of personal information in the hunt for terrorists around the globe . Admiral John Poindexter referred to it as a `` Manhattan Project for Counter-Terrorism '' . According to Senator Ron Wyden ( D-Ore . ) , TIA was the `` biggest surveillance program in the history of the United States '' .   The program was defunded alongside the Information Awareness Office in late 2003 by the United States Congress after media reports criticized the government for attempting to establish `` Total Information Awareness '' over all citizens .   Although the program was formally suspended , its data mining software was later adopted by other government agencies , with only superficial changes being made . The core architecture of TIA continued development under the code name `` Basketball . '' According to a 2012 New York Times article , the legacy of Total Information Awareness is `` quietly thriving '' at the National Security Agency ( NSA ) .

neg: Network forensics Network forensics is a sub-branch of digital forensics relating to the monitoring and analysis of computer network traffic for the purposes of information gathering , legal evidence , or intrusion detection . Unlike other areas of digital forensics , network investigations deal with volatile and dynamic information . Network traffic is transmitted and then lost , so network forensics is often a pro-active investigation .   Network forensics generally has two uses . The first , relating to security , involves monitoring a network for anomalous traffic and identifying intrusions . An attacker might be able to erase all log files on a compromised host ; network-based evidence might therefore be the only evidence available for forensic analysis . The second form relates to law enforcement . In this case analysis of captured network traffic can include tasks such as reassembling transferred files , searching for keywords and parsing human communication such as emails or chat sessions .   Two systems are commonly used to collect network data ; a brute force `` catch it as you can '' and a more intelligent `` stop look listen '' method .

neg: Surveillance Surveillance ( -LSB- sərˈveɪ.əns -RSB- or -LSB- sərˈveɪləns -RSB- ) is the monitoring of behavior , activities , or other changing information for the purpose of influencing , managing , directing , or protecting people . This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment ( such as closed-circuit television ( CCTV ) cameras ) or interception of electronically transmitted information ( such as Internet traffic or phone calls ) . It can also include simple no - or relatively low-technology methods such as human intelligence agents and postal interception . The word surveillance comes from a French phrase for `` watching over '' ( sur means `` from above '' and veiller means `` to watch '' ) and is in contrast to more recent developments such as sousveillance .   Surveillance is used by governments for intelligence gathering , prevention of crime , the protection of a process , person , group or object , or the investigation of crime . It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes , such as robbery and kidnapping , by businesses to gather intelligence , and by private investigators .   Surveillance is often a violation of privacy , and it is often opposed by various civil liberties groups and activists . Liberal democracies have laws which restrict domestic government and private use of surveillance , usually limiting it to circumstances where public safety is at risk . Authoritarian government seldom have any domestic restrictions , and international espionage is common among all types of countries .

neg: Ministry of Intelligence Services The Ministry of Intelligence Services ( המשרד לענייני מודיעין HaMisrad LeAnyinei Modi'in ) is government ministry responsible for intelligence in Israel .

neg: National Intelligence Authority (United States) The National Intelligence Authority ( NIA ) was the United States Government authority responsible for monitoring the Central Intelligence Group ( CIG ) , the successor intelligence agency of the Office of Strategic Services established by President Harry S. Truman 's Executive Letter of 22 January 1946 in the immediate aftermath of World War Two . The National Intelligence Authority and Central Intelligence Group were both replaced respectively by the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency under the National Security Act of 1947 implemented on the 18 September 1947 .

neg: National Directorate of Security The National Directorate of Security ( NDS ) is the primary intelligence agency of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan .

neg: Cyberwarfare by Russia Cyberwarfare by Russia includes denial of service attacks , hacker attacks , dissemination of disinformation and propaganda , participation of state-sponsored teams in political blogs , internet surveillance using SORM technology , persecution of cyber-dissidents and other active measures . According to investigative journalist Andrei Soldatov , some of these activities have been coordinated by the Russian signals intelligence , which is part of the FSB and was formerly a part of the 16th KGB department , but others have been directed by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Military of Russia .

neg: Intelligence Authorization Act The Intelligence Authorization Act was implemented in order to codify covert , clandestine operations and defines requirements for reporting such operations to the Congress . The American Constitution states , in Article 1 , Section 9 , that `` a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time . '' The act was passed along with the Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980 , which allowed Congress and members of the agency to be included in important decisions and operations carried out by the Central Intelligence Agency . The Intelligence Authorization Act was also an attempt to limit the authority and secrecy within the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) regarding foreign and domestic affairs , though its applications extends to each of the intelligence agencies , not just to the CIA .

neg: Intelligence analysis management Intelligence Analysis Management is the process of managing and organizing the analytical processing of raw intelligence information . The terms `` analysis '' , `` production '' , and `` processing '' denote the organization and evaluation of raw information used in a phase informally called `` connecting the dots '' , thus creating an `` intelligence mosaic '' . The information may result in multiple analytic products , each with different security classifications , time scales , and levels of detail . Intelligence analysis goes back to the beginning of history . Sherman Kent is often considered the father of modern intelligence analysis . His writings include a 1947 book , Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy .   During his career in the Office of Strategic Services and the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , Kent defined many of the parameters of modern analysis and its use . Kent disagreed with the philosophy that analysts never recommend policy , but only advise policymakers . He considered it a partnership in which the analyst did not push a personal point of view .   Recent scholarship drawing upon theories of the sociology of knowledge has criticized Kent 's work for being over-positivist and for failing to recognize the role the identity and culture of the analytic unit play in formulating , accepting , and rejecting the hypotheses used to collect and analyze intelligence .

neg: Big data Big data is a term for data sets that are so large or complex that traditional data processing application software is inadequate to deal with them . Challenges include capture , storage , analysis , data curation , search , sharing , transfer , visualization , querying , updating and information privacy . The term `` big data '' often refers simply to the use of predictive analytics , user behavior analytics , or certain other advanced data analytics methods that extract value from data , and seldom to a particular size of data set . `` There is little doubt that the quantities of data now available are indeed large , but that 's not the most relevant characteristic of this new data ecosystem . ''  Analysis of data sets can find new correlations to `` spot business trends , prevent diseases , combat crime and so on . '' Scientists , business executives , practitioners of medicine , advertising and governments alike regularly meet difficulties with large data-sets in areas including Internet search , fintech , urban informatics , and business informatics . Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work , including meteorology , genomics , connectomics , complex physics simulations , biology and environmental research .   Data sets grow rapidly - in part because they are increasingly gathered by cheap and numerous information-sensing Internet of things devices such as mobile devices , aerial ( remote sensing ) , software logs , cameras , microphones , radio-frequency identification ( RFID ) readers and wireless sensor networks . The world 's technological per-capita capacity to store information has roughly doubled every 40 months since the 1980s ; , every day 2.5 exabytes ( 2.5 × 1018 ) of data are generated . One question for large enterprises is determining who should own big-data initiatives that affect the entire organization .   Relational database management systems and desktop statistics - and visualization-packages often have difficulty handling big data . The work may require `` massively parallel software running on tens , hundreds , or even thousands of servers '' . What counts as `` big data '' varies depending on the capabilities of the users and their tools , and expanding capabilities make big data a moving target . `` For some organizations , facing hundreds of gigabytes of data for the first time may trigger a need to reconsider data management options . For others , it may take tens or hundreds of terabytes before data size becomes a significant consideration . ''

neg: Office for Foreign Relations and Information The Office for Foreign Relations and Information ( ÚZSI ) ( Czech : Úřad pro zahraniční styky a informace ) is the main foreign intelligence service of the Czech Republic responsible for the collection , analysis and dissemination of intelligence . It is mandated to provide accurate and timely intelligence to the Government of the Czech Republic that is vital to support and protect foreign and economic policy interests .   The service also protects the country from terrorism , the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction , economic crimes , etc. . Powers of the service are determined by the Act N. 153/1994 Coll. , the Intelligence Services of the Czech Republic Act which also lays out the structure of the organization . Officers of the service are mandated to act in accordance with the agency 's code of ethics .

neg: British intelligence agencies The Government of the United Kingdom maintains intelligence agencies within several different government departments . The agencies are responsible for collecting and producing foreign and domestic intelligence , providing military intelligence , performing espionage and counter-espionage . Their intelligence assessments contribute to the conduct of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom , maintaining the national security of the United Kingdom , military planning and law enforcement in the United Kingdom . The three main agencies are the Secret Intelligence Service ( MI6 ) , the Security Service ( MI5 ) , and the Government Communications Headquarters .   The history of the organisations goes back to the 19th century . The decryption of the Zimmermann Telegram in 1917 was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I , and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events . During the Second World War and afterwards , many observers regarded Ultra as immensely valuable to the Allies of World War II . In the post-war period , intelligence cooperation between the United Kingdom and the United States became the cornerstone of Western intelligence gathering and the `` Special Relationship '' between the UK and the USA .

neg: National Intelligence Estimate National Intelligence Estimates ( NIEs ) are United States federal government documents that are the authoritative assessment of the Director of National Intelligence ( DNI ) on intelligence related to a particular national security issue . NIEs are produced by the National Intelligence Council and express the coordinated judgments of the United States Intelligence Community , the group of 16 U.S. intelligence agencies . NIEs are classified documents prepared for policymakers .

neg: Office of Intelligence Liaison The Office of Intelligence Liaison was an office of the United States Government . It was created on May 5 , 1977 by the CIA , the NSA , and the Department of Commerce . Its task was to handle foreign intelligence of interest to the Department of Commerce . In 1993 , the existence of the office was revealed by a British television program and in 1996 the name was changed to the Office for Executive Support .

neg: Australian Secret Intelligence Service The Australian Secret Intelligence Service ( ASIS ; -LSB- ` eɪsɪs -RSB- ) is the national foreign intelligence agency of Australia . It is responsible for overseas intelligence collection , including both counter-intelligence and liaising with the intelligence agencies of other countries . In these roles , ASIS is comparable to the British Secret Intelligence Service ( MI6 ) and the American Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) .   According to its website , the mission of ASIS is to : `` Protect and promote Australia 's vital interests through the provision of unique foreign intelligence services as directed by the Australian Government . ''   ASIS is part of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade portfolio and is housed within DFAT 's headquarters in Canberra . Its current Director-General is Nick Warner .

neg: State Intelligence Service (Sri Lanka) The State Intelligence Service ( SIS ) is an intelligence agency of the Sri Lankan government . It is tasked with both internal and external intelligence . It comes directly under the Ministry of Defence and was formerly known as the National Intelligence Bureau .

neg: National security National Security is a concept that a government , along with its parliaments , should protect the state and its citizens against all kind of `` national '' crises through a variety of power projections , such as political power , diplomacy , economic power , military might , and so on .   The concept developed all in the United States after World War II . Initially focusing on military might , it now encompasses a broad range of facets , all of which impinge on the non-military or economic security of the nation and the values espoused by the national society . Accordingly , in order to possess national security , a nation needs to possess economic security , energy security , environmental security , etc. . Security threats involve not only conventional foes such as other nation-states but also non-state actors such as violent non-state actors , narcotic cartels , multinational corporations and non-governmental organisations ; some authorities include natural disasters and events causing severe environmental damage in this category .   Measures taken to ensure national security include :  using diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats  marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation  maintaining effective armed forces  implementing civil defense and emergency preparedness measures ( including anti-terrorism legislation )  ensuring the resilience and redundancy of critical infrastructure  using intelligence services to detect and defeat or avoid threats and espionage , and to protect classified information  using counterintelligence services or secret police to protect the nation from internal threats   There is no single universally accepted definition of national security . The variety of definitions provide an overview of the many usages of this concept . The concept still remains ambiguous , having originated from simpler definitions which initially emphasised the freedom from military threat and political coercion to later increase in sophistication and include other forms of non-military security as suited the circumstances of the time .   A typical dictionary definition , in this case from the Macmillan Dictionary ( online version ) , defines the term as `` the protection or the safety of a country 's secrets and its citizens '' emphasising the overall security of a nation and a nation state . Walter Lippmann , in 1943 , defined it in terms of war saying that `` a nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate ínterests to avoid war , and is able , if challenged , to maintain them by war '' . A later definition by Harold Lasswell , a political scientist , in 1950 , looks at national security from almost the same aspect , that of external coercion : `` The distinctive meaning of national security means freedom from foreign dictation . ''   In 1960 , Arnold Wolfers , while recognising the need to segregate the subjectivity of the conceptual idea from the objectivity , talks of threats to acquired values : `` An ambiguous symbol meaning different things to different people . National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively , the absence of fear that such values will be attacked . '' The 1996 definition propagated by the National Defence College of India accretes the elements of national power : `` National security is an appropriate and aggressive blend of political resilience and maturity , human resources , economic structure and capacity , technological competence , industrial base and availability of natural resources and finally the military might . ''   Harold Brown , U.S. Secretary of Defense from 1977 to 1981 in the Carter administration , enlarged the definition of national security by including elements such as economic and environmental security : National security then is the ability to preserve the nation 's physical integrity and territory ; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms ; to preserve its nature , institution , and governance from disruption from outside ; and to control its borders.In 1990 , Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power : `` National security ... is best described as a capacity to control those domestic and foreign conditions that the public opinion of a given community believes necessary to enjoy its own self-determination or autonomy , prosperity and wellbeing . '' According to Prabhakaran Paleri , author of National Security , Imperatives and Challenges , national security may be defined as : The measurable state of the capability of a nation to overcome the multi-dimensional threats to the apparent well-being of its people and its survival as a nation-state at any given time , by balancing all instruments of state policy through governance , that can be indexed by computation , empirically or otherwise , and is extendable to global security by variables external to it .  A concise working definition by Premaratne that paraphrases the aspects of the definitions of Brown , Romm and Paleri defines national security as  Safeguarding the sovereignty , territorial integrity , citizenry and socioeconomic functionality of a nation from an aggressor intent on undermining a particular valued aspect of a nation through violent or unjust means

neg: Counterintelligence Corps The Counter Intelligence Corps ( CIC ) was a World War II and early Cold War intelligence agency within the United States Army . Its role was taken over by the U.S. Army Intelligence Corps in 1961 and , in 1967 , by the U.S. Army Intelligence Agency . Its functions are now performed by the United States Army Intelligence and Security Command and by counterintelligence agents assigned to Army tactical units . The National Counter Intelligence Corps Association ( NCICA ) , a veterans ' association , was established in the years immediately following World War II by Military Intelligence agents who had served in every area of military and domestic operations . The organization meets annually . Its newsletter , the Golden Sphinx , is published quarterly .