query: Boyd Holbrook appeared in films such as A Walk Among the Tombstones and Gone Girl.

pos: Boyd Holbrook Robert Boyd Holbrook ( born circa 1981 ) is an American actor and fashion model . He has appeared in films such as Milk , Out of the Furnace , Run All Night , A Walk Among the Tombstones , and Gone Girl , and stars as DEA Agent Steve Murphy in the Netflix series Narcos . In 2017 , he portrayed villain Donald Pierce in Logan .

neg: Columbia Ranch The former Columbia Ranch is located at 411 N. Hollywood Way in Burbank , California and is now called the Warner Bros. . Ranch . It was the backdrop for many of the Columbia Pictures movies and Screen Gems/Columbia Pictures Television shows , including Father Knows Best , The Donna Reed Show , Dennis the Menace , Hazel , Bewitched , Gidget , I Dream of Jeannie , The Monkees , The Flying Nun , Here Come the Brides , The Partridge Family , The Hathaways , Lost Horizon , High Noon , Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , You Were Never Lovelier , The Wild One , and Autumn Leaves . Only the front facades of the houses and buildings were built ; the interiors were always shot at other locations or studios . The streets were constructed and arranged in such a way as to allow shooting at multiple angles to create the illusion of a much larger area , though the lot only spans across about six city blocks .

neg: Harlan Warde Harlan Warde ( born Harlan Ward Lufkin ; November 6 , 1917 -- March 13 , 1980 ) was a character actor active in television and movies . During World War II , he served in Special Forces .   Warde showed up in supporting roles as detectives , doctors , and ministers . Warde made five guest appearances on Perry Mason between 1958-1966 , primarily in law enforcement roles , such as Assistant District Attorney Harold Hanley in `` The Case of the Haunted Husband '' , and Sgt. Roddin in the only color episode in 1966 entitled , `` The Case of the Twice Told Twist '' . From 1958 -- 62 , he joined Chuck Connors in The Rifleman . Warde played John Hamilton , President of the North Fork Bank . He appeared in 18 episodes of The Rifleman , making his debut in episode 8 , `` The Safeguard . '' Over his 40-year-career in Hollywood , Warde appeared in over 180 films and television series , including multiple westerns .   In 1962 -- 1971 Warde joined the cast of the TV Western series The Virginian in the recurring role of Sheriff Brannon . Warde also appeared on The Big Valley in 1967 as a politician who is murdered in the episode entitled `` Night Of The Executioner '' and on the The Andy Griffith Show episode `` Opie and the Spoiled Kid '' ( 1963 ) as Simon Winkler . Warde 's last role was in the 1979 Rockford Files episode `` A Different Drummer '' playing an aging father of a shady doctor .

neg: Hills of Old Wyoming Hills of Old Wyoming is a 1937 American Western film directed by Nate Watt and written by Maurice Geraghty . The film stars William Boyd , George `` Gabby '' Hayes , Morris Ankrum , Russell Hayden , Gail Sheridan , John Beach and Clara Kimball Young . The film was released on April 16 , 1937 , by Paramount Pictures .

neg: Girls Gone Wild (film) Girls Gone Wild was a 1929 American melodrama film produced and released by Fox Film Corporation . The film was controversial as an early example of the rising tide of violence and disrespect for the law that would become key themes in the 1930s .

neg: Conrad Hall Conrad Lafcadio Hall , ASC ( June 21 , 1926 -- January 6 , 2003 ) was an American cinematographer from Papeete , Tahiti , French Polynesia . Named after writers Joseph Conrad and Lafcadio Hearn , he was best known for photographing films such as In Cold Blood , Cool Hand Luke , Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid , American Beauty , and Road to Perdition . For his work he garnered a number of awards , including three Academy Awards and BAFTA Awards .   In 2003 , Hall was judged to be one of history 's ten most influential cinematographers in a survey of the members of the International Cinematographers Guild .   He has been given a star in Hollywood Boulevard 's Walk of Fame .

neg: Duel at Diablo Duel at Diablo is a 1966 western film starring James Garner in his first Western since leaving Maverick and Sidney Poitier in his first Western . Based on Marvin H. Albert 's 1957 novel Apache Rising , the film was written by Albert and Michael M. Grilikhes and directed by Ralph Nelson who had directed Poitier in Lilies of the Field . The supporting cast includes Bibi Andersson , Bill Travers , Dennis Weaver and John Hoyt ; Ralph Nelson has a cameo as an Army Major . The movie was shot on location amidst striking scenery in Utah ; the musical score was composed by Neal Hefti .

neg: Holly (name) Holly is an English-language surname and given name .   Holly is a special name and known as an English or Irish surname ( variant Holley ) it is either locational , ultimately derived an Old English hol lēah '' -LSB- dwelling by -RSB- the clearing by the hollow '' , or descriptive , from hol-ēage `` hollow-eyed '' . In Ireland , it was also used as a translation of the name Mac Cuilinn , which is derived from cuileann , the Gaelic name of the holly tree , and by extension sometimes of the similar-sounding McQuillan surname of Ulster . The masculine names Holly , Hollie were derived from the surname , but have mostly fallen out of use since the mid 20th century due to the rise in popularity of the feminine name .  Hollis is an English surname derived from a Middle English holis '' -LSB- dwelling by -RSB- holly trees '' ; it was also used as a masculine given name .   Holly ( variant Hollie ) was first used as a feminine given name in the 20th century , as a `` botanical '' name given to girls , in reference to , or at least secondarily associated with , the holly tree . While the feminine name is on record in the United States since the 1930s , its surge in popularity was due to Holly Golightly , the socialite protagonist in Truman Capote 's Breakfast at Tiffany 's ( 1958 ) , which was made into a film starring Audrey Hepburn in 1961 . The name of this character is stated to be short for Holiday ( rather than a reference to the plant ) .  The name peaked in popularity in the United States in the 1970s and 1980s , and has declined since , ranking at # 380 in the United States as of 2009 .  It was popularly given in England and Wales during the 2000s , staying in the top 30 girls ' names throughout 1996 -- 2012 , with a peak at rank # 12 in 2002 ( and dropping to rank # 33 as of 2013 ) .  A tendency to give the name to girls born on or near Christmas has also been observed . More recent eccentric spellings of the feminine name include Holli ( 1970s ) , Holleigh , Hollee , Hollye .

neg: Walking Tall (TV series) Walking Tall is an American television drama series that ran on NBC in 1981 for one season of seven episodes . The first 5 episodes aired Saturday nights at 9:00 p.m. ( opposite the ABC series The Love Boat ) . The last 2 episodes aired Tuesday nights at 10:00 p.m. ( opposite ABC 's Hart to Hart ) . NBC reran all 7 episodes from April -- June 1981 . This one-hour show was a continuation of the 1973 film Walking Tall , which was based on the life of McNairy County Sheriff Buford Pusser . In this series , Pusser is the sheriff of the fictionalized McNeal County , Tennessee , fighting criminals each week in 1969 .   Bo Svenson played Pusser , whom he had played before in Walking Tall Part 2 ( 1975 ) and Walking Tall : Final Chapter ( 1977 ) . ( Brian Dennehy played Pusser in A Real American Hero in 1978 on CBS ) .   The rest of the cast included :  Walter Barnes as Carl Pusser  Harold Sylvester as Deputy Aaron Fairfax  Courtney Pledger as Deputy Joan Litton  Jeff Lester as Deputy Grady Spooner  Heather McAdam as Dwanna Pusser  Rad Daly as Michael Pusser   L.Q. Jones appeared in one segment as John Witter , Pusser 's long-time nemesis .   Guest stars included Robert Englund , William Windom , Chuck Connors , Merlin Olsen , Ralph Bellamy , Gail Strickland , James MacArthur , and Art Hindle .   The theme song `` Walking Tall '' was sung by Brad Mercer . At the time , Svenson was the highest-paid actor in a television series .

neg: The Comancheros (film) The Comancheros is a 1961 Western Deluxe CinemaScope color film directed by Michael Curtiz , based on a 1952 novel of the same name by Paul Wellman , and starring John Wayne and Stuart Whitman . The supporting cast includes Ina Balin , Lee Marvin , Nehemiah Persoff , Bruce Cabot , Jack Elam , Patrick Wayne , and Edgar Buchanan . Also featured are western film veterans Bob Steele , Guinn `` Big Boy '' Williams and Harry Carey , Jr. in uncredited supporting roles .   When illness prevented Curtiz ( director of Casablanca and The Adventures of Robin Hood ) from finishing the film , Wayne took over as director , though his role remained uncredited . Curtiz died shortly after the film was completed .

neg: When a Man's a Man When a Man 's a Man is a 1935 American Western film directed by Edward F. Cline and written by Frank Mitchell Dazey and Agnes Christine Johnston . The film stars George O'Brien , Dorothy Wilson , Paul Kelly , Harry Woods , Jimmy Butler and Richard Carlyle . The film was released on February 15 , 1935 , by Fox Film Corporation .   Parts of the film were shot in Zion National Park .

neg: Sunset Boulevard (film) Sunset Boulevard ( stylized onscreen as SUNSET BLVD. ) is a 1950 American film noir directed and co-written by Billy Wilder , and produced and co-written by Charles Brackett . It was named after the boulevard that runs through Los Angeles and Beverly Hills , California .   The film stars William Holden as Joe Gillis , an unsuccessful screenwriter , and Gloria Swanson as Norma Desmond , a faded silent film star who draws him into her fantasy world where she dreams of making a triumphant return to the screen , with Erich von Stroheim as Max Von Mayerling , her devoted servant . Nancy Olson , Fred Clark , Lloyd Gough and Jack Webb play supporting roles . Director Cecil B. DeMille and gossip columnist Hedda Hopper play themselves , and the film includes cameo appearances by leading silent film actors Buster Keaton , H. B. Warner and Anna Q. Nilsson .   Praised by many critics when first released , Sunset Boulevard was nominated for eleven Academy Awards ( including nominations in all four acting categories ) and won three . Deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' by the U.S. Library of Congress in 1989 , Sunset Boulevard was included in the first group of films selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . In 1998 , it was ranked number twelve on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 best American films of the 20th century , and in 2007 , it was 16th on their 10th Anniversary list .

neg: That Girl Montana That Girl Montana is an extant 1921 American silent western film starring Blanche Sweet and distributed by Pathé Exchange . Jesse D. Hampton produced and Robert Thornby directed . The film is based on a 1901 novel , That Girl Montana , by Marah Ellis Ryan . This is one of Sweet 's few 1920s silent films to survive and is available in the DVD format .

neg: Cock o' the Walk Cock o ' the Walk can refer to :   Cock o ' the Walk ( 1930 film ) , an American film  Cock o ' the Walk ( 1935 film ) , an American film  Cock o ' the Walk ( 1953 film ) , a Mexican film

neg: Not as a Stranger Not as a Stranger is a 1955 Drama film produced and directed by Stanley Kramer based on the 1954 novel of the same name by Morton Thompson . The romantic melodrama novel was widely popular , topping that year 's list of bestselling novels in the United States .   The film was Kramer 's directorial debut and featured Olivia de Havilland and Robert Mitchum in the lead roles , backed by a stellar supporting cast including Frank Sinatra , Gloria Grahame , Broderick Crawford , Charles Bickford , Lon Chaney , Jr. , Harry Morgan , and Lee Marvin . The film was released by United Artists .   Sinatra had catapulted back into the limelight as the result of a supporting role for a film from a similarly popular novel , From Here to Eternity , two years earlier . Initially a minor box office success , Not as a Stranger is seldom seen today , never receiving widespread distribution on home video . It was first released on DVD in 1992 .

neg: The Devil's Playground (1946 film) The Devil 's Playground is a 1946 American Western film directed by George Archainbaud and written by Ted Wilson . The film stars William Boyd , Andy Clyde , Rand Brooks , Elaine Riley and Robert Elliott . The film was released on November 15 , 1946 , by United Artists .

neg: The Country Girl (1954 film) The Country Girl is a 1954 American drama film directed by George Seaton and starring Bing Crosby , Grace Kelly , and William Holden . Adapted by George Seaton from Clifford Odets ' 1950 play of the same name , the film is about an alcoholic has-been actor struggling with the one last chance he 's been given to resurrect his career . Seaton won the Academy Award for Best Writing , Adapted Screenplay . It was entered in the 1955 Cannes Film Festival .   Kelly won the Oscar for Best Actress for the role , which previously had earned Uta Hagen her first Tony Award in the play 's original Broadway production . The role , a non-glamorous departure for Kelly , was as the alcoholic actor 's long-suffering wife .   The win was a huge surprise , as most critics and people in the press felt that Judy Garland would win for A Star Is Born . NBC even sent a camera crew to Garland 's hospital room , where she was recuperating from the birth of her son , in order to conduct a live interview with her if she won . The win by Kelly instead famously prompted Groucho Marx to send Garland a telegram stating it was `` the biggest robbery since Brinks . ''   Given the period of its production , the film is notable for its realistic , frank dialogue and honest treatments of the surreptitious side of alcoholism and post-divorce misogyny .

neg: Holbrook Blinn Holbrook Blinn ( January 23 , 1872 -- June 24 , 1928 ) was an American stage and film actor .

neg: Gun Smoke (1931 film) Gun Smoke is a 1931 American Western film directed by Edward Sloman and written by Grover Jones and William Slavens McNutt . The film stars Richard Arlen , Mary Brian , William `` Stage '' Boyd , Eugene Pallette , Charles Winninger , Louise Fazenda and Brooks Benedict . The film was released on April 11 , 1931 , by Paramount Pictures .

neg: Chinatown (1974 film) Chinatown is a 1974 American neo-noir mystery film , directed by Roman Polanski from a screenplay by Robert Towne , starring Jack Nicholson and Faye Dunaway . The film was inspired by the California Water Wars , a series of disputes over southern California water at the beginning of the 20th century , by which Los Angeles interests secured water rights in the Owens Valley . The Robert Evans production , a Paramount Pictures release , was the director 's last film in the United States and features many elements of film noir , particularly a multi-layered story that is part mystery and part psychological drama .   In 1991 , the film was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being `` culturally , historically or aesthetically significant '' and it is frequently listed as one of the greatest films of all-time . At the 47th Academy Awards , it was nominated for eleven Oscars , with Towne winning Best Original Screenplay . The Golden Globe Awards honored it for Best Drama , Best Director , Best Actor and Best Screenplay . The American Film Institute placed it second among mystery films in 2008 .   A sequel , The Two Jakes , was released in 1990 , again starring Nicholson , who also directed , with Robert Towne returning to write the screenplay . The film failed to generate the acclaim of its predecessor .

neg: Walkabout (film) Walkabout is a 1971 film set in the Australian outback , directed by Nicolas Roeg and starring Jenny Agutter , Luc Roeg ( credited as `` Lucien John '' ) and David Gulpilil ( credited as `` David Gumpilil '' ) . Edward Bond wrote the screenplay , which is loosely based on the 1959 novel Walkabout by James Vance Marshall . Walkabout premiered in competition at the 1971 Cannes Film Festival .


query: David Jones (video game developer) founded a company.

pos: David Jones (video game developer) David Scott Jones ( born October 1965 ) is a Scottish games programmer and entrepreneur who founded computer game companies DMA Design in 1987 ( which became Rockstar North in 2002 ) and Realtime Worlds in 2002 . Jones created Lemmings and Grand Theft Auto , which both spawned many successful sequels . He also created the Crackdown franchise for the Xbox 360 and Xbox One consoles , and the open-ended massively multiplayer online game , APB : All Points Bulletin .

neg: The 3DO Company The 3DO Company ( formerly THDO on the NASDAQ stock exchange ) , also known as 3DO , was an American video game company . It was founded in 1991 by Electronic Arts founder Trip Hawkins , in a partnership with seven companies including LG , Matsushita ( now Panasonic ) , AT&T Corporation , MCA , Time Warner , and Electronic Arts itself . After 3DO 's flagship video game console , the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer , failed in the marketplace , the company exited the hardware business and became a third-party video game developer . It went bankrupt in 2003 due to poor sales of its games . Its headquarters were in Redwood City , California in the San Francisco Bay Area .

neg: International Games System International Games System ( IGS ; ) is a company based in Taiwan which develops video game software for arcade cabinets and home computers . It was founded in 1989 .

neg: Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom is a puzzle video game developed by Michael J. Hanson and published by Mindscape for the Commodore 64 . The game is based on the Indiana Jones series , and was released in North America around January 1985 , while a U.K. version was released in March 1985 .   Gameplay requires the player to think like fictional archaeologist Indiana Jones to solve the puzzles of each level , as the game does not provide the player with any rules or gameplay information ; the game 's cover advertised , `` Nobody told Indiana Jones the rules . And no one will tell you . ''

neg: Big Huge Games Big Huge Games is a video game developer located in Timonium , Maryland . The company was founded in February 2000 by four veteran game industry developers : Tim Train , David Inscore , Jason Coleman and Brian Reynolds ( lead designer of Alpha Centauri , et al. ) . Their first game , Rise of Nations , was a critical and commercial hit . The original studio became defunct in May 2012 , but the name `` Big Huge Games '' was later reacquired by Reynolds and Train for their new venture ( previously known as SecretNewCo ) . The revived studio released the mobile game DomiNations on Android and iOS in April 2015 .

neg: Cloud Imperium Games Cloud Imperium Games Corporation is an American video game company , founded in 2010 by Chris Roberts and Ortwin Freyermuth , with offices in Los Angeles , California , Austin , Texas , Manchester , Derby and Frankfurt .

neg: Revolution Software Revolution Software Ltd is a British video game developer , based in York , United Kingdom .   The company was founded in 1990 by Charles Cecil , Tony Warriner , David Sykes and Noirin Carmody . Until 6 December 1990 , the company was named Turnvale Limited after the location in their first game Lure of the Temptress . The company 's speciality would be for writing adventure games , including Beneath a Steel Sky , and the Broken Sword series which have sold over 4 million copies worldwide and have earned # 100 million . The company was started with a view to creating Lure of the Temptress -- which incorporated the Virtual Theatre Engine . This virtual engine was subsequently used to develop the first two games in the Broken Sword series .

neg: Ritual Entertainment Ritual Entertainment was a video game developer established in 1996 by Robert Atkins , Mark Dochtermann , Jim Dosé , Richard ` Levelord ' Gray , Michael Hadwin , Harry Miller , and Tom Mustaine . Based in Dallas , Texas , Ritual Entertainment was formerly known as Hipnotic Interactive , during which period they began development of their signature video game SiN .   Members of the Ritual Entertainment development team have contributed game assets to other titles such as American McGee 's Alice , Medal of Honor : Airborne , Tomb Raider : Legend , and 25 to Life , and are also the creators of '' Übertools '' for id Tech 3 , which has been licensed for a number of other games .   On January 24 , 2007 , developer MumboJumbo announced the acquisition of Ritual Entertainment . With this acquisition , Ritual 's focus on traditional action-oriented games was changed to casual games , essentially `` stalling '' Ritual 's latest game series , SiN Episodes , after releasing only one episode out of a planned nine .   The purchase followed months of departures of several key employees including chief executive officer Steve Nix who became director of business development at id Software , vice president and co-founder Tom Mustaine who left to found Escalation Studios . Several months after the acquisition , community relations manager Steve Hessel left the company to join Splash Damage .   Prior to the announcement , on December 6 , 2006 , Ritual announced the appointment of Ken Harward as the company 's new studio director .

neg: Chair Entertainment Chair Entertainment Group , LLC ( commonly referred to as Chair Entertainment , stylized as ChAIR ) is an American video game developer based in Salt Lake City , Utah .

neg: David Production is a Japanese animation studio known for the anime television series adaptation for the long-running manga series JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure .   The company was founded by former Gonzo president and producer Kōji Kajita and fellow producer Taito Okiura in September 2007 upon having left Gonzo . The company 's first work was as an animation subcontractor , but in 2009 David Production undertook their first full animation production as a primary contractor with Ristorante Paradiso .   Fuji Television acquired the studio on August 1 , 2014 .

neg: Valcon Games Valcon Games is a developer and publisher of video games based in Bellevue , Washington , United States .   The company was founded in 2005 by Colin Gordon and Glen Halseth , both former members of Kemco . Valcon publishes games that are overlooked for the US market and also localizes games from other territories . They have not released any new products since 2011 and their web site current redirects to Google . It is possible the company is no longer in operation .

neg: David Jones (programmer) David Jones is a former freelance computer game programmer who was prolific in the mid-to-late 1980s . He is best known for the creation of the cult computer game character Magic Knight in his 1985 game Finders Keepers for the Mastertronic budget label and released on the ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC , MSX and Commodore 64 .   Finders Keepers spawned three cult sequels : Spellbound ( 1985 ) , Knight Tyme ( 1986 ) and Stormbringer ( 1987 ) .

neg: Game (retailer) Game Digital plc is the parent company of Game Retail Limited , a British video game company that trades under the Game brand , stylised as GAME .   The company 's origins lie in the founding of the Rhino Group by Terry Norris and Bev Ripley in 1991 . A number of mergers and acquisitions followed during the 1990s , and in 1999 , the company was purchased by Electronics Boutique Limited , which rebranded itself as The Game Group . The company continued to expand during the 2000s , purchasing several retailers including Gameswizards in Australia .   In March 2012 , several suppliers , including Nintendo , Electronic Arts and Capcom refused to supply their latest products due to concerns over Game 's creditworthiness . Game subsequently entered administration on 26 March 2012 , and was purchased by OpCapita the following week . Baker Acquisitions was subsequently renamed Game Retail Ltd. .   The company operated in the United Kingdom under the Game and Gamestation brands from the acquisition of the latter in May 2007 until late-2012 , when it was announced that the business would focus solely on the Game brand .

neg: Hexage Hexage is a video game developer , based in the Czech Republic but registered in the United Kingdom . The company has produced multiple titles for mobile devices . A few of studio 's games have surpassed a million downloads . The most successful title is Reaper : Tale of a Pale Swordsman .   The company was founded in 2009 . It originally focused on mobile devices but in 2013 the company released its games for Windows . Reaper : Tale of a Pale Swordsman even became available on Steam as it succeeded on Steam Greenlight . The company also tried to release Radiant Defense on Steam before , and it got released as well .   Even though the company is based in the Czech Republic , it built an image of British company , since in 2009 it was impossible to release video games from the Czech Republic on Google Play . The company develops its games with its own devices . The soundtracks for all the games are by Kubatko

neg: Silicon Studio Silicon Studio is a Japanese computer graphics technology company and video game developer based in Tokyo . As a technology company , Silicon Studio has produced several products in the 3D computer graphics field , including middleware software , such as a post-processing visual effects library called YEBIS , as well as general real-time graphics engines and game development engines , such as OROCHI and Mizuchi , a physically based rendering engine . As a video game developer , Silicon Studio has worked on different titles for several gaming platforms , most notably , the action-adventure game 3D Dot Game Heroes on the PlayStation 3 , the role-playing video game Bravely Default on the Nintendo 3DS , and Fantasica on the iOS and Android mobile platforms .

neg: Bruce Davis (video game industry) Bruce L. Davis ( born 1952 ) is an American businessman , currently CEO and chairman of Digimarc . Formerly the head of both Imagic and Activision , he is known for his role in the development of the video game industry .   A native of New York , Davis earned a B.S. in accounting and psychology and an M.A. in criminal justice from University at Albany , SUNY , and a law degree from Columbia University . He began his professional career by establishing the intellectual property practice at the firm of Orrick , Herrington & Sutcliffe in San Francisco , California . He assumed leadership of Imagic as it was going out of business in the North American video game crash of 1983 .   From 1987 to 1991 , Davis was first chief operating officer , then chairman and CEO of Activision . The board of directors promoted him from senior vice president to replace Jim Levy shortly after the acquisition of Infocom , in the hopes of stemming the continuing financial damage from the crash . He had opposed the merger , and many Infocom employees believed he was deliberately working against them , changing processes that had made the game business successful . Activision co-founder and programmer David Crane was also critical of Davis : `` Bruce Davis ' biggest mistake was treating video games as commodities , rather than creative products . '' Nevertheless , Davis 's leadership of Activision began well . He led the company to a profit in his first year at the helm on strong sales growth , following 16 consecutive quarters of multimillion-dollar losses . The turnaround effort was stymied after a huge damages award for infringement of Magnavox 's original home video game patents was upheld on appeal in 1988 . That year Activision changed its name to Mediagenic , as Davis sought to expand the company 's product lines to non-gaming software . In February 1991 , Robert Kotick , backed by Steve Wynn of Mirage Resorts , staged a successful hostile takeover . Kotick and his team then filed a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in cooperation with Magnavox parent company Philips in a leveraged recapitalization of Activision , as it was renamed in 1992 . Kotick replaced Davis in this restructuring .   Starting in 1992 , Davis founded and served as president of TV Guide on Screen , a joint venture of News Corporation and TCI that supplied electronic guides and navigational software for the cable television market . The company later merged with Prevue Networks , then with TV Guide . TV Guide later merged with Gemstar International . The resulting Gemstar-TV Guide International was acquired in 2008 by Macrovision .   Davis is chairman and CEO of Digimarc . He led Digimarc from start up in 1997 to a more than US$ 100 million public company supplying digital watermarking technologies to national and state governments and to the media industry . He has been chairman of the board since 2002 .   A prolific inventor , Davis has been awarded more than 50 patents on television user interface improvements and other innovations in media management and security . In 2003 , Mr. Davis was named Ernst & Young 's Pacific Northwest Entrepreneur Of The Year for the technology category .

neg: TimeGate Studios TimeGate Studios was an American video game developer based in Sugar Land , Texas . The company , which was founded in 1998 , released eight titles before closing in 2013 .

neg: Oxygen Studios Oxygen Studios was a video game development studio set up by Oxygen Games in 2007 . The studio 's primary focus is on producing mainstream titles on Wii and Nintendo DS . It also collaborates with third parties to bring their titles to PlayStation 2 and PC .   In June 2008 , Oxygen Studios were nominated for the Develop Industry Excellence Awards 2008 in the category of Best New UK/European Studio alongside FinBlade , Konami Paris , Rockstar London and Doublesix .   In January 2009 , it was announced that the studio had been put up for sale by its parent company , Oxygen Games , as they looked to move back to an external development business model .

neg: MercurySteam MercurySteam Entertainment , S.L. is a game developer based in San Sebastián de los Reyes , Spain . The company makes titles for the major platforms , including PC , Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . The company was founded by former members of Rebel Act Studios , who previously developed Severance : Blade of Darkness in 2001 . Dave Cox is a producer at Konami who has helped out MercurySteam during the Castlevania : Lords of Shadow trilogy . In 2015 , Nintendo Life reported that MercurySteam had worked on a Metroid prototype for Wii U and 3DS , that was later turned down and possibly retrofitted into a different project .

neg: Firaxis Games Firaxis Games , Inc. is an American video game developer founded in 1996 by Sid Meier , Jeff Briggs , and Brian Reynolds upon leaving MicroProse . Now a wholly owned subsidiary of Take-Two Interactive , the company is best known for its Civilization series of games , though it has had notable success with other titles as well . Firaxis is based in Sparks , Maryland ; Sid Meier continues to lead creative efforts there . The focus of the company has been on strategy and simulation games .

neg: WorkJam WorkJam Co. , Ltd. ( 株式会社ワークジャム Work Jam Co. , Ltd. ) is a Japanese video game and software development company . The company 's social game business was purchased by CommSeed and Cykan Holdings . Its main headquarters was located in Chiyoda , Tokyo .


query: Huntington's disease is being studied.

pos: Huntington's disease Huntington 's disease ( HD ) , also known as Huntington 's chorea , is an inherited disorder that results in death of brain cells . The earliest symptoms are often subtle problems with mood or mental abilities . A general lack of coordination and an unsteady gait often follow . As the disease advances , uncoordinated , jerky body movements become more apparent . Physical abilities gradually worsen until coordinated movement becomes difficult and the person is unable to talk . Mental abilities generally decline into dementia . The specific symptoms vary somewhat between people . Symptoms usually begin between 30 and 50 years of age , but can start at any age . The disease may develop earlier in life in each successive generation . About 8 % of cases start before the age of 20 years and typically present with symptoms more similar to Parkinson 's disease . People with HD often underestimate the degree of their problems .   HD is typically inherited from a person 's parents , with 10 % of cases due to a new mutation . The disease is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in either of an individual 's two copies of a gene called Huntingtin . This means a child of an affected person typically has a 50 % chance of inheriting the disease . The Huntingtin gene provides the genetic information for a protein that is also called `` huntingtin '' . Expansion of CAG ( cytosine-adenine-guanine ) triplet repeats in the gene coding for the Huntingtin protein results in an abnormal protein , which gradually damages cells in the brain , through mechanisms that are not fully understood . Diagnosis is by genetic testing , which can be carried out at any time , regardless of whether or not symptoms are present . This fact raises several ethical debates : the age at which an individual is considered mature enough to choose testing ; whether parents have the right to have their children tested ; and managing confidentiality and disclosure of test results .   There is no cure for HD . Full-time care is required in the later stages of the disease . Treatments can relieve some symptoms and in some improve quality of life . The best evidence for treatment of the movement problems is with tetrabenazine . HD affects about 4 to 15 in 100,000 people of European descent . It is rare among Japanese , while the occurrence rate in Africa is unknown . The disease affects men and women equally . Complications such as pneumonia , heart disease , and physical injury from falls reduce life expectancy . Suicide is the cause of death in about 9 % of cases . Death typically occurs fifteen to twenty years from when the disease was first detected .   The first likely description of the disease was in 1841 by Charles Oscar Waters . The condition was described in further detail in 1872 by George Huntington , after whom it is named . The genetic basis was discovered in 1993 by an international collaborative effort led by the Hereditary Disease Foundation . Research and support organizations began forming in the late 1960s to increase public awareness , to provide support for individuals and their families , and to promote research . Current research directions include determining the exact mechanism of the disease , improving animal models to aid with research , testing of medications to treat symptoms or slow the progression of the disease , and studying procedures such as stem cell therapy with the goal of repairing damage caused by the disease .

neg: Parkinson's disease Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system . The symptoms generally come on slowly over time . Early in the disease , the most obvious are shaking , rigidity , slowness of movement , and difficulty with walking . Thinking and behavioral problems may also occur . Dementia becomes common in the advanced stages of the disease . Depression and anxiety are also common occurring in more than a third of people with PD . Other symptoms include sensory , sleep , and emotional problems . The main motor symptoms are collectively called `` parkinsonism '' , or a `` parkinsonian syndrome '' .   The cause of Parkinson 's disease is generally unknown , but believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors . Those with a family member affected are more likely to get the disease themselves . There is also an increased risk in people exposed to certain pesticides and among those who have had prior head injuries while there is a reduced risk in tobacco smokers and those who drink coffee or tea . The motor symptoms of the disease result from the death of cells in the substantia nigra , a region of the midbrain . This results in not enough dopamine in these areas . The reason for this cell death is poorly understood , but involves the build-up of proteins into Lewy bodies in the neurons . Diagnosis of typical cases is mainly based on symptoms , with tests such as neuroimaging being used to rule out other diseases .   There is no cure for Parkinson 's disease . Initial treatment is typically with the antiparkinson medication L-DOPA ( levodopa ) , with dopamine agonists being used once levodopa becomes less effective . As the disease progresses and neurons continue to be lost , these medications become less effective while at the same time they produce a complication marked by involuntary writhing movements . Diet and some forms of rehabilitation have shown some effectiveness at improving symptoms . Surgery to place microelectrodes for deep brain stimulation has been used to reduce motor symptoms in severe cases where drugs are ineffective . Evidence for treatments for the non-movement-related symptoms of PD , such as sleep disturbances and emotional problems , is less strong .   In 2015 , PD affected 6.2 million people and resulted in about 117,400 deaths globally . Parkinson 's disease typically occurs in people over the age of 60 , of which about one percent are affected . Males are more often affected than females . When it is seen in people before the age of 50 , it is called young-onset PD . The average life expectancy following diagnosis is between 7 and 14 years . The disease is named after the English doctor James Parkinson , who published the first detailed description in An Essay on the Shaking Palsy , in 1817 . Public awareness campaigns include World Parkinson 's Day ( on the birthday of James Parkinson , 11 April ) and the use of a red tulip as the symbol of the disease . People with parkinsonism who have increased the public 's awareness of the condition include actor Michael J. Fox , Olympic cyclist Davis Phinney , and late professional boxer Muhammad Ali .

neg: Deutetrabenazine Deutetrabenazine ( trade name Austedo ) is a pharmaceutical drug for the treatment of chorea associated with Huntington 's disease .   Chemically , deutetrabenazine is an analog of tetrabenazine in which six hydrogen atoms have been replaced by deuterium atoms . The incorporation of deuterium slows the rate of drug metabolism , allowing less frequent dosing . In May , 2017 , published data showed deutetrabenazine effective in tardive dyskinesia . <ref> Deutetrabenazine effective in T.D. Retrieved May 28 , 2017 .

neg: Mahlon DeLong Mahlon R. DeLong is an American neurologist and professor at the Medical School of Emory University . His research has advanced the understanding and treatment of Parkinson 's disease , dystonia , tremor and other neurological movement disorders .   DeLong attended Stanford University ( AB 1962 ) , Harvard Medical School ( MD 1966 ) , completed his internship at Boston City Hospital and his residency training at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore , and subsequently joined the faculty of Johns Hopkins University . Since 1990 , he has been a member of the faculty at Emory University , where he has been the William Patterson Timmie Professor of Neurology since 1993 . He is a member of the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiative .   In 1968 , DeLong began five years of research training in the laboratory of Edward Evarts at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda , Maryland . In 1971 , he and Russell T. Richardson did experiments with monkeys to find out first groups of neurons ( nucleus basalis ) , which are involved in the pathogenesis conditioned learning and they revealed the role played by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine .   At the NIH , DeLong recorded the reactions of single brain cells in a part of the brain called the basal ganglia . At that time , it was known that the basal ganglia were involved in movement , and were the part of the brain most significantly affected in Parkinson 's disease . However , little was known about how the basal ganglia affected movement , or how disease of the basal ganglia caused the movement disorders seen in Parkinson 's disease . In meticulous experiments over several years , DeLong measured the firing of specific cells in the basal ganglia of awake monkeys when they performed specific trained movements .   Based on this work , and the work of others , DeLong and his colleagues identified a series of separate circuits that connect the basal ganglia with the cerebral cortex and thalamus . These circuits allow parallel processing of emotions , thoughts , and movement .   In the 1980s , DeLong and his colleagues began to study monkeys with an experimentally-induced disease much like Parkinson 's disease . He discovered that neurons in a part of the basal ganglia called the subthalamic nucleus were firing excessively , and that destroying ( ablating ) the subthalamic nucleus greatly improved the symptoms .   Shortly thereafter , neurosurgeon Alim-Louis Benabid discovered that the same improvement could be achieved by placing a wire into the subthalamic nucleus , connecting it to a battery and delivering an adjustable high-frequency stimulation to the tip of the wire -- a technique called deep brain stimulation . Today , this technique is used to improve symptoms and the quality of life in patients with Parkinson 's disease who are not responding adequately to pharmacologic treatment . Ablation or deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus has transformed the lives of many people with Parkinson 's disease .   For his work in understanding the circuits connecting the basal ganglia to other parts of the brain , and in applying that knowledge to develop a technique that has eased the suffering of many people with Parkinson 's disease , DeLong was honored in 2014 with the Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences .   The same accomplishments were recognized by his receipt ( with Benabid ) of the 2014 Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award .

neg: Neurophysiology Neurophysiology ( from Greek νεῦρον , neuron , `` nerve '' ; φύσις , physis , `` nature , origin '' ; and - λογία , - logia , `` knowledge '' ) is a branch of physiology and neuroscience that is concerned with the study of the functioning of the nervous system . The primary tools of basic neurophysiological research include electrophysiological recordings , such as patch clamp , voltage clamp , extracellular single-unit recording and recording of local field potentials , as well as some of the methods of calcium imaging , optogenetics , and molecular biology .   Neurophysiology is related to electrophysiology , neurobiology , psychology , neurology , clinical neurophysiology , neuroanatomy , cognitive science , biophysics , mathematical biology , and other sciences concerning the brain .

neg: Bangur Institute of Neurosciences Bangur Institute of Neurosciences , Name according to IPGMER website also known as the Bangur Institute of Neurology and abbreviated BIN , is a government-run apex superspeciality institute/hospital located at 52/1A , Sambhu Nath Pandit Street , Bhawanipur , Kolkata , West Bengal . The institute is adjacent and functionally attached to IPGMER and SSKM Hospital . The institute is affiliated to The West Bengal University of Health Science .   This is a major government-sponsored neurological institute and a premier training center in the field of neurosciences of West Bengal , and patients are regularly referred here from various hospitals of West Bengal and adjoining states . This hospital 's research activities include studies into strokes , cognitive neuroscience , movement disorders , epilepsy , neuromuscular ( myasthenia ) , developmental disorders of the brain , Wilson 's disease , electrophysiology , botulinium toxin , and neurogenetics .

neg: Psychiatric epidemiology Psychiatric epidemiology is a field which studies the causes ( etiology ) of mental disorders in society , as well as conceptualization and prevalence of mental illness . It is a subfield of the more general epidemiology . It has roots in sociological studies of the early 20th century . However , while sociological exposures are still widely studied in psychiatric epidemiology , the field has since expanded to the study of a wide area of environmental risk factors , such as major life events , as well as genetic exposures . Increasingly neuroscientific techniques like MRI are used to explore the mechanisms behind how exposures to risk factors may impact psychological problems and explore the neuroanatomical substrate underlying psychiatric disorders .

neg: Amen Clinics Amen Clinics is a group of mental and physical health clinics that work on the treatment of mood and behavior disorders . It was founded in 1989 by Daniel G. Amen , MD. a self-help guru and psychiatrist . The clinics perform clinical evaluations and brain SPECT ( single photon emission computed tomography ) imaging to diagnose and treat their patients . Amen Clinics uses SPECT scans , a type of brain-imaging technology , to measure neural activity through blood flow . It has a database of more than 100,000 functional brain scans from patients in 111 countries .   Amen Clinics has locations in Newport Beach , California ; San Francisco , California ; Atlanta , Georgia ; Reston , Virginia ; Bellevue , Washington ; and New York City .   The American Psychiatric Association have criticized the clinical appropriateness of Amen 's use of brain scans , stating , `` the clinical utility of neuroimaging techniques for planning of individualized treatment has not yet been shown . ''

neg: Health psychology Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health , illness , and healthcare . It is concerned with understanding how psychological , behavioral , and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness . Psychological factors can affect health directly . For example , chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis , cumulatively , can harm health . Behavioral factors can also affect a person 's health . For example , certain behaviors can , over time , harm ( smoking , excessive alcohol consumption ) or enhance health ( exercise , diet low in saturated fat ) . Health psychologists take a biopsychosocial approach . In other words , health psychologists understand health to be the product not only of biological processes ( e.g. , a virus , tumor , etc. ) but also of psychological ( e.g. , thoughts and beliefs ) , behavioral ( e.g. , habits ) , and social processes ( e.g. , socioeconomic status and ethnicity ) .   By understanding psychological factors that influence health , and constructively applying that knowledge , health psychologists can improve health by working directly with individual patients or indirectly in large-scale public health programs . In addition , health psychologists can help train other healthcare professionals ( e.g. , physicians and nurses ) to take advantage of the knowledge the discipline has generated , when treating patients . Health psychologists work in a variety of settings : alongside other medical professionals in hospitals and clinics , in public health departments working on large-scale behavior change and health promotion programs , and in universities and medical schools where they teach and conduct research .   Although its early beginnings can be traced to the field of clinical psychology , four different divisions within health psychology and one related field , occupational health psychology ( OHP ) , have developed over time . The four divisions include clinical health psychology , public health psychology , community health psychology , and critical health psychology . Professional organizations for the field of health psychology include Division 38 of the American Psychological Association ( APA ) , the Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society ( BPS ) , and the European Health Psychology Society . Advanced credentialing in the US as a clinical health psychologist is provided through the American Board of Professional Psychology .

neg: Aleksei Kozhevnikov Aleksei Yakovlevich Kozhevnikov ( 5 March 1836 - 23 October 1902 ) was a Russian neurologist and psychiatrist who was a native of Ryazan .   From 1853 until 1858 he studied medicine at the University of Moscow , and furthered his education in Germany , Switzerland , England and France . At Jean Martin Charcot 's laboratory in Paris he made important pathological correlations in the study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS ) . In 1869 he returned to Moscow , where he worked at the Novo-Ekaterininskii Hospital , and gave classes in neurologic and psychiatric diseases . From 1870 to 1884 he was in charge of the clinic for neurologic diseases , becoming professor extraordinarius in 1873 .   In 1880 Kozhevnikov attained the chair of special pathology and therapy at the University of Moscow , and in 1886 founded the university clinic of psychiatry . In 1890 he founded the Moscow Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists .   Kozhevnikov was a pioneer of Russian psychiatry , and was an advocate for humane treatment of the mentally insane . His name is lent to the eponymous `` Kozhevnikov 's epilepsy '' , also known as epilepsia continua , which is an epilepsy characterized by almost continuous , rhythmic muscular contractions that affect a limited portion of the body . He provided a comprehensive description of progressive familial spastic diplegia , and made contributions in the neuropathological study of nuclear ophthalmoplegia and asthenic bulbar paralysis .   Among his students and assistants were Sergei Korsakoff ( 1853-1900 ) , Grigory Ivanovich Rossolimo ( 1860-1928 ) , Liverij Osipovich Darkshevich ( 1858-1925 ) , Vladimir Karlovich Roth ( 1848-1916 ) and Lazar Salomonovich Minor ( 1855-1942 ) .

neg: Microinfarct A microinfarct is a microscopic stroke less than 1 millimeter in size . Microinfarcts can be found in 25-50 % of all elderly deceased persons . Microinfarcts may be the second most important cause of dementia , after Alzheimer 's disease .   Microinfarcts are microscopic lesions , of cellular death or tissue necrosis , which are a result of pathologies involving small vessels . Such pathologies are arteriosclerosis or cerebral amyloid angiopathy . Microinfarcts take longer to affect neuronal death progress , at up to 28 days , rather than hours .   Microinfarcts can range in size from 0.2 to 2.9 mm . This ailment usually goes undetected in clinical-radiological , like structural MRI , studies and is known as a `` silent pathology '' . Depending on the size , large acute microinfarcts may be detected via a special imaging known as diffusion weighted imaging .   Microinfarcts tend to occur at a high frequency , without specific regionalized locations . They are common in aging brains . This high frequency is thought to directly disrupt cognitive networks that are imperative to brain operation . Even though microinfarcts are usually undetectable , there is a general assessment of the cognitive status measured on a scale called the Clinical Dementia Rating ( CDR ) . This scale measures different parts of the brain such as diffuse white matter , periventricular myelination and cortical microinfarcts . Assessments of cortical microinfarcts have had the highest rates with being associated with cognitive degeneration . This lower cognition specifically affects perceptual speed and memory ( semantic and episodic ) . People with high frequency of this ailment tend to have greater chances of developing dementia .   Although not many studies have been conducted and little is known between microinfarcts and other vascular or epidemiological risk factors , these brain lesions are thought to be masked by other pathologies . However , the common macroscopic infarct is not exhibited in 45 % of people tested for microinfarcts .

neg: Neurocognitive Neurocognitive functions are cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas , neural pathways , or cortical networks in the brain substrate layers of neurological matrix at the cellular molecular level . Therefore , their understanding is closely linked to the practice of neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience , two disciplines that broadly seek to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to perception defragmentation of concepts , memory embed , association and recall both in the thought process and behaviour .   A neurocognitive deficit is a reduction or impairment of cognitive function in one of these areas , but particularly when physical changes can be seen to have occurred in the brain , such as after neurological illness , mental illness , drug use , or brain injury .   A clinical neuropsychologist may specialise in using neuropsychological tests to detect and understand such deficits , and may be involved in the rehabilitation of an affected person . The discipline that studies neurocognitive deficits to infer normal psychological function is called cognitive neuropsychology .

neg: Psychiatrist A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry , the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis , prevention , study , and treatment of mental disorders . Psychiatrists are medical doctors , unlike psychologists , and must evaluate patients to determine whether their symptoms are the result of a physical illness , a combination of physical and mental ailments , or strictly psychiatric .   As part of the clinical assessment process , psychiatrists may employ a mental status examination ; a physical examination ; brain imaging such as a computerized tomography ( CT ) , magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , or positron emission tomography ( PET ) scan ; and blood testing . Psychiatrists prescribe medicine , and may also use psychotherapy , although the vast majority do medical management and refer to a psychologist or other specialized therapist for weekly to bi-monthly psychotherapy .

neg: Huntington's Disease Association The Huntington 's Disease Association ( HDA ) is a charity that supports people in England and Wales affected by the genetic neurodegenerative brain condition Huntington 's disease ( HD ) .   The HDA was founded in 1986 and is based in Liverpool . It supports a network of regional care advisors who offer care and support to people with and at risk of Huntington 's disease and their families . The HDA also has a research programme that supports scientific and social research into HD . It has worked to establish and support a network of multidisciplinary clinics for HD patients in the UK .   The charity was instrumental in the 2010 launch of an All-Party Parliamentary Group for Huntington 's disease in the UK Parliament , chaired by Lord Walton of Detchant , and 2010 research revealing that the prevalence of HD is much higher than previously thought .   The HDA won the 2005 UK Charity Award for healthcare and medical research and the 2005 National Health Service ( NHS ) Health and Social Care Award for long term conditions .   The HDA 's patrons are Patricia , Countess of Harewood , singer Tony Hadley and entertainer Shane Richie .   The HDA is part of the UK HD Alliance , along with the Scottish Huntington 's Association and HD Association Northern Ireland . It is also a member of the International Huntington Alliance .

neg: Neurodegeneration Neurodegeneration is the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons , including death of neurons . Many neurodegenerative diseases including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , Parkinson 's , Alzheimer 's , and Huntington 's occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes . Such diseases are incurable , resulting in progressive degeneration and/or death of neuron cells . As research progresses , many similarities appear that relate these diseases to one another on a sub-cellular level . Discovering these similarities offers hope for therapeutic advances that could ameliorate many diseases simultaneously . There are many parallels between different neurodegenerative disorders including atypical protein assemblies as well as induced cell death . Neurodegeneration can be found in many different levels of neuronal circuitry ranging from molecular to systemic .

neg: Biologist A biologist , is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology , the scientific study of life . Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter . Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding , in fields such as medicine , industry and agriculture .   While `` biologist '' can apply to any scientist studying biology , most biologists research and specialise in specific fields . In this way , biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions ( ecology ) , whole multicellular organisms , organs , tissues , cells , and small-scale cellular and molecular processes . Other biologists study less direct aspects of life , such as phylogeny and evolution .   Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method , to test the validity of a theory , with hypothesis formation , experimentation and documentation of methods and data .   There are many types of biologists . Some work on microorganisms , while others study multicellular organisms . There is much overlap between different fields of biology such as botany , zoology , microbiology , genetics and evolutionary biology , and it is often difficult to classify a biologist as only one of them . Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree . A doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research , and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology . Many biological scientists work in research and development . Some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms , including bacteria and other pathogens . This research enhances understanding and adds to the scientific database of literature . Furthermore , it often aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health and the natural environment . These biological scientists mostly work in government , university , and private industry laboratories . Many expand on specialized research that they started in post-graduate qualifications , such as a doctorate .

neg: Huntington's disease in popular culture Huntington 's disease has been shown in numerous formats , more so as awareness of the condition has increased . Here is a list of references to it in popular culture ;

neg: Inverse Warburg effect The term inverse Warburg effect was introduced by Lloyd Demetrius and colleagues ( 1,2 ) to describe the metabolic reprogramming observed in cortical regions of the brain during the prodromal phase of Alzheimer 's disease ( 3,4 ) and Parkinson 's disease ( 5,6 ) . This reprogramming refers to the up regulation of oxidative phosphorylation ( OxPhos ) in mitochondria of certain neurons -- a process which induces a hypermetabolic state in these neurons in an age dependent manner . The aging process is driven , in part , by an increase in molecular disorder and a concomitant decrease in enzymatic activity ( 7 ) leading to an impairment in the capacity of cells to appropriate energy from the external environment and to convert this energy into biosynthetic work . Consequently , the capacity of neurons to convert food derived fuel sources into ATP and to use this energy to maintain neuronal viability is susceptible to decline with age . However , age-induced mitochondrial dysfunction will induce a compensatory increase in OxPhos in certain sub-populations of neurons to maintain adequate energy production , and thereby ensure synaptic function and cell survival ( 8 ) . Within neurons of the aging brain an increase in OxPhos activity in intact mitochondria , and a redistribution of these mitochondria to sites which require high energy production has been documented ( 9 ) . Lloyd Demetrius and colleagues ( 1,2 ) have proposed this compensatory change as the fundamental and initiating event in the progression towards neurodegenerative diseases .   The inverse Warburg effect is postulated as the primary event in a cascade of metabolic changes ( The Inverse Warburg Hypothesis ) which ultimately leads to neuronal loss . The main energy currency in living organisms is ATP which must be continually generated to maintain cell viability . The energy is derived from two types of processes -- OxPhos which provides ~ 80 % of the total energy , and glycolysis which contributes the remaining ~ 20 % ( 10 ) ( Figure 1 ) .    In oncology , most cancer cells predominantly produce energy by the up-regulation of glycolysis . Malignant , rapidly growing tumor cells have glycolytic rates higher than those of their normal tissue of origin ( Figure 2 ) . This mode of metabolic reprogramming is now called the Warburg effect , after the Nobel Laureate , Otto Warburg , who proposed that up-regulation of glycolysis is a primary initiating event in the progression towards cancer ( 11 ) . Elevated glycolysis fuels anabolic processes that contribute to the rapid growth and cellular division associated with cancer ( 12 ) .   Epidemilogical studies have shown that cancer is inversely comorbid with both Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) and Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) ( 13,14 ) . The molecular and bioenergetic basis for this inverse relation can be explained by invoking the Warburg effect as the fundamental cause of cancer and the Inverse Warburg effect as the fundamental cause of AD and PD ( 15 ) . Elevated glycolysis in cancer cells leads to the heightened production of lactate , the end product of glycolysis . Lactate has emerged as a key cerebral energy source that can provide energy via OxPhos ( 16 ) . Therefore , neurons with elevated OxPhos become critically dependent on an oxidative substrate , such as lactate-derived pyruvate , a key feature of the inverse Warburg effect ( Figure 3 ) . Elevated lactate production , associated with cancer , may therefore fuel the heightened metabolic demands of neurons within the brains of elderly patients . A hypermetabolic state , as predicted by the inverse Warburg effect , has been detected in the brains of individuals during the presymptomatic phase of AD and PD ( 3 -- 6 ) . However , the inability to switch to the Warburg effect not only restricts the development of cancer , but also curtails a potential source of lactate for hypermetabolic neurons within the brain . Under this scenario , neurons are starved and neurodegeneration ensues . Thus the Inverse Warburg Effect provides a holistic model which defines the role of aging as a risk factor for AD and PD , and also provides an explanation for the inverse relationship between cancer and neurodegenerative disorders .

neg: Broca's area Broca 's area or the Broca area -LSB- broʊˈkɑː -RSB- or -LSB- ˈbroʊkə -RSB- is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere ( usually the left ) of the hominid brain with functions linked to speech production .   Language processing has been linked to Broca 's area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients . They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain . Since then , the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca 's area , and the deficit in language production as Broca 's aphasia , also called expressive aphasia . Broca 's area is now typically defined in terms of the pars opercularis and pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus , represented in Brodmann 's cytoarchitectonic map as areas 44 and 45 of the dominant hemisphere . Studies of chronic aphasia have implicated an essential role of Broca 's area in various speech and language functions . Further , fMRI studies have also identified activation patterns in Broca 's area associated with various language tasks . However , slow destruction of the Broca 's area by brain tumors can leave speech relatively intact suggesting its functions can shift to nearby areas in the brain .

neg: Music-specific disorders Neuroscientists have learned a lot about the role of the brain in numerous cognitive mechanisms by understanding corresponding disorders . Similarly , neuroscientists have come to learn a lot about music cognition by studying music-specific disorders . Even though music is most often viewed from a `` historical perspective rather than a biological one '' music has significantly gained the attention of neuroscientists all around the world . For many centuries music has been strongly associated with art and culture . The reason for this increased interest in music is because it `` provides a tool to study numerous aspects of neuroscience , from motor skill learning to emotion '' .

neg: Synactive Theory of Newborn Behavioral Organization and Development The Synactive Theory of Newborn Behavioral Organization and Development ( Synaction n. , or Synactive adj. -LSB- from the Greek syn `` together '' and the Latin actio `` action , '' resulting in : `` together in action '' -RSB- ) suggests that development of the human fetus , and later newborn , proceeds through the constant balancing of approach and avoidance behaviors , leading to : 1 ) a continuous interaction of the subsystems ( i.e. , Autonomic , Motor , State and Attention/Interaction , and Regulatory ) and their increasingly defined delineations within the organism , that is the infant , and 2 ) the organism 's interaction with the environment at large . This process is aimed at bringing about the increasingly well-defined species-unique developmental agenda .   Figure 1 ( below ) , provides a graphic representation of the Synactive Theory of development , as applied to both fetal and newborn stages . It focuses upon the infant 's within-organism , four subsystems of functioning , and their continuous interaction with each other and with the environment across time ( i.e. , `` together in action , '' or synaction ) . The four subsystems include the :   Autonomic Subsystem : Expressed in the pattern of respiration ( e.g. , fast , slow , pauses ) color changes ( e.g. , pink , pale , red ) , neurological indicators ( e.g. , seizures , tremulousness ) , and visceral or gut signals such as bowel movements , gagging , and hiccoughing ;   Motor Subsystem : Observable through the tone , posture and movement patterns of the infant ;   State and Attention/Interaction Subsystem : Expressed via : 1 ) the range of states available to the infant ( i.e. , deep sleep , light sleep , drowsy , alert , hyperalert , and cry ) , 2 ) how clearly it is to observably differentiate one state from the other , and 3 ) the patterns of transitions from one state to another ( e.g. , smooth well-differentiated state transitions versus abrupt unorganized state transitions ) .   The attention/interaction system is set within this state continuum ( i.e. , from deep sleep to cry ) and represented by the infant 's ability to adjust the robustness and increasing refinement of an alert , attentive state . The infant uses this state to take in cognitive and social information from the environment as well as to bring forth and modify inputs from the surrounding world ; and   Regulatory Subsystem : Behaviorally represented via the observable strategies the infant uses ( Self-Regulation ) in maintaining a balanced , relatively stable and relaxed state of subsystem of functioning or in returning to this a state of subsystem functioning if imbalance , or stress has occurred within the subsystems .   An additional component of the regulatory subsystem is observable in the kind and amount of support offered by the caregiver ( e.g. , supporting a soft , tucked , flexed position of the infant 's arms and legs ) or by the environment ( e.g. , dimming the lights in the nursery ) . This Co-Regulation may be necessary to help the infant 's return to balance in situations when his/her own self-regulatory capacities are exceeded .   Reproduced with permission from Als , H. Toward a synactive theory of development : Promise for the assessment of infant individuality . Infant Mental Health Journal . 1982 : ( 3 ) : 229-243 ; p. 234 .   The graphic representation of the Synactive Theory above depicts the developing organism , that is , the infant , in constant interaction with the environment from within the womb to the newborn intensive care unit ( NICU ) , and the caregiving family 's support in the NICU , to the family in their home . Newborn infants are actively striving for their next steps in development , while depending upon `` good enough '' environments and care to assure progress along their developmental agenda .   The Synactive Theory of Development continues to be instrumental in guiding clinicians ( e.g. , neonatologist , nurses , psychologists , developmental specialists , physical/occupational therapists , etc. ) and researchers in their understanding of the often very small steps in development that prematurely born and other high risk newborns attempt to accomplish ( which are major steps for their immature or injured brain ) . This theory gives professionals the framework and tools with which to identify the infant 's strengths , challenges and accomplishments . Such accomplishments may include breathing , sucking and swallowing in a coordinated sequence ; moving food down into and through the stomach and intestinal track instead of upwards , leading to reflux and vomiting ; looking at the caregiver and breathing at the same time , as well as many others .   The Synactive Theory is the foundation of both : 1 ) the Assessment of Preterm Infants ' Behavior ( APIB ) , a standardized comprehensive newborn test , and 2 ) the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program ( NIDCAP ) , which is the care and intervention approach , that focuses on each infant 's behavioral cues ( e.g. , hand ( s ) to mouth , bracing with feet against a supporting surface ) in order to support the infant 's strengths and reduce the infant 's vulnerabilities . The infant 's family is viewed as the infant 's most important nurturer and is integrated in all care from the infant 's birth on throughout the infant 's hospitalization .