query: 1956 was the year when Kerala was formed.

pos: Kerala Kerala ( -LSB- ˈkɛrələ -RSB- ) historically known as Keralam , is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast . It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions . Spread over 38863 km2 , it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast , Tamil Nadu to the east and south , and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west . With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census , Kerala is the thirteenth-largest Indian state by population and is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state .   The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE . The Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala , though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas . In the 15th century , the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala , and paved the way for the European colonisation of India . After independence , Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949 . In 1956 , Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district , Travancore-Cochin ( excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district ) , and the taluk of Kasaragod ( now Kasaragod District ) , South Kanara .   Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India , 3.44 % ; highest Human Development Index ( HDI ) , 0.712 in 2015 ; the highest literacy rate , 93.91 % in the 2011 census ; the highest life expectancy , 77 years ; and the highest sex ratio , 1,084 women per 1000 men . The state has witnessed significant emigration , especially to Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s , and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community . Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population , followed by Islam and Christianity . The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures , developed over millennia , under influences from other parts of India and abroad .   The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output . In the agricultural sector , coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important . The state 's coastline extends for 595 km , and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3 % to the state 's income . The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages , mainly English and Malayalam . Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India , with backwaters , beaches , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions .

neg: Department of Revenue and Land Survey (Kerala) The Department of Revenue and Land Survey , is a key government department under Government of Kerala , that manages all government owned lands and decides land use policy in the Indian state of Kerala . The department is also a key government agency , deriving various taxes on land , as well as lease amounts from various government lands , which are principal sources of income for the Government . In addition , the department manages land-use policy , survey of land areas , and effective management and implementation of land reforms .

neg: Kerala Premier League Kerala Premier League is a professional football league organised by Kerala Football Association played in the state of Kerala .

neg: List of birds of Kerala The state of Kerala , India has about 509 bird species within its boundary . This following list of birds is based on the taxonomic treatment and scientific nomenclature of Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World 4th edition . Species list and English names is entirely based on the checklist of Birds of Kerala published in November 2015 . Five recent additions to this list are also included .   __ NOTOC __

neg: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) ( Dravidian Progress Federation ) is a state political party in the states of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry in India . It is a Dravidian party founded by C. N. Annadurai in 1949 as a breakaway faction from the Thiravidar Kazhagam ( known as Justice Party until 1944 ) headed by Periyar . Since 1969 , DMK has been headed by M Karunanidhi , who has served as Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu several times . DMK holds the distinction of being the first party other than the Indian National Congress to win state-level elections with a clear majority on its own in any state in India .

neg: January 1956 The following events occurred in January 1956 :

neg: Periyar E. V. Ramasamy Erode Venkata Ramasamy ( 17 September 1879 -- 24 December 1973 ) , commonly known as Periyar also referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar , was an Tamilian social activist , and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam .   E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode , Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas . At a young age , he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination .   E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 , but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins . He questioned the subjugation of Dravidian race as the Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from them but opposed and discriminated them in cultural and religious matters . In 1924 , E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non-violent agitation ( satyagraha ) in Vaikam , Kerala . From 1929 to 1932 Ramasamy toured British Malaya , Europe , and Russia , which had an influence on him . In 1939 , E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party , and in 1944 , he changed its name to Dravidar Kazhagam . The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) in 1949 . While continuing the Self-Respect Movement , he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) .   E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism , self-respect , women 's rights and eradication of caste . He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non-Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India . His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste-based discrimination . He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet . The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as `` the prophet of the new age , the Socrates of South East Asia , father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance , superstitions , meaningless customs and base manners . ''

neg: Kudumbashree Kudumbashree is the women empowerment and poverty eradication program , framed and enforced by the State Poverty Eradication Mission ( SPEM ) of the Government of Kerala . The Mission aims to eradicate absolute poverty within a definite time frame of 10 years under the leadership of Local Self Governments formed and empowered by the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution of India . The Mission launched by the State Government with the active support of Government of India and NABARD has adopted a different methodology in addressing poverty by organizing the poor in to community-based organizations . The Mission follows a process approach rather than a project approach . The mission was officially inaugurated by the then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 as requested by the State Government .   Kudumbashree , a community organization of Neighborhood Groups ( NHGs ) of women in Kerala , has been recognized as an effective strategy for the empowerment of women in rural as well as urban areas : bringing women together from all spheres of life to fight for their rights or for empowerment . The overall empowerment of women is closely linked to economic empowerment . Women through these NHGs work on a range of issues such as health , nutrition , agriculture , etc. besides income generation activities and seeking micro credit .   Kudumbashree differs from conventional programmes in that it perceives poverty not just as the deprivation of money , but also as the deprivation of basic rights . The poor need to find a collective voice to help claim these rights .   Kudumbashree was conceived as a joint programme of the Government of Kerala and Nabard implemented through Community Development Societies ( CDSs ) of Poor Women , serving as the community wing of Local Governments . Kudumbashree is formally registered as the `` State Poverty Eradication Mission '' ( SPEM ) , a society registered under the Travancore Kochi Literary , Scientific and Charitable Societies Act 1955 . It has a governing body chaired by the State Minister of LSG . There is a state mission with a field officer in each district . This official structure supports and facilitates the activities of the community network across the state . Kudumbashree differs from conventional programmes in that it perceives poverty not just as the deprivation of money , but also as the deprivation of basic rights . The poor need to find a collective voice to help claim these rights .   The grassroots of Kudumbashree are Neighbourhood Groups ( NHG in short ) that send representatives to the ward level Area Development Societies ( ADS ) . The ADS sends its representatives to the Community Development Society ( CDS ) , which completes the unique three-tier structure of Kudumbashree . Today , there are 2.77 lakhs NHGs , over 19,854 ADSs and 1073 CDSs in Kudumbashree .   It is this network that brings women to the Grama Sabhas and helps them bring the needs of the poor to the attention of the local governments . The Community Development Societies are also very active in Government programmes and play significant roles in development activities ranging from socio-economic surveys and enterprise development to community management and social audit .   Though its efforts to engage women in civil society in development issues and opportunities , Kudumbashree in association with the local self government of Kerala is charting out new meaning and possibilities for local economic development and citizen centric governance .

neg: Treaty of London 1956 The Treaty of London 1956 was signed to set up the independent Federation of Malaya , which achieved its independence on 31 August 1957 .

neg: Cinema of Sri Lanka Sri Lankan cinema encompasses the films made in Sri Lanka . It is a fledgling industry that has struggled to find a footing since its inauguration in 1947 with Kadawunu Poronduwa produced by S.M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone . Sri Lankan films are usually made in the Sinhalese language , the language of the majority Sinhala people .   In the first nine years most films were made in South India and followed the conventions of Indian cinema . Studio shooting was the norm , with Indian style sets erected in film studios . Even though it is popularly held that Rekava , made in 1956 by pioneer director Lester James Peries , was the first Sinhala film to be shot completely out of studio , it was really the film `` Gambada Sundari '' , made in 1950 which was the first film shot outside studios . It was also the first Sri Lankan film where , like in `` Rekawa '' , the dialog was recorded on the spot . This was because the film was shot on 16mm , using an Auricon sound-on-film camera which recorded the sound on the 16mm film optically , unlike in the case of where the sound was recorded on a Kinevox 35mm magnetic recorder . The film was later ` blown-up ' to 35mm and was screened in Colombo in 1950 .   Though `` Rekawa '' was acclaimed by local and international critics , the film failed to find an audience in the country and was a box office failure . Films continued to follow formulaic storylines borrowed from India up through the early 1960s despite such efforts as Sandesaya and Kurulu Bedda .   In 1964 , Lester James Peries again contributed to the development of Sri Lankan cinema with Gamperaliya which was the first Sinhala film to feature no songs and like Rekava shot completely outside the studio . It garnered massive praise for portraying Sinhala culture in a realistic manner and was hailed by critics and audiences alike . The producer Anton Wicremasinghe was awarded the Silver Peacock at the New Delhi International Film Festival for Gamperaliya . Following this breakthrough , several artistic Sinhala films were made in the late-1960s including Sath Samudura by professor Siri Gunasinghe , ably supported by exquisite cinematography by Dr.D.B . Nihalsinghe .   During the 1970s several talents came to the forefront while commercial cinema continued to steal storylines and plots from Indian films . These include Dr. D.B. Nihalsingha with `` Weilkatara '' - Sri Lanka 's first film in Cinemascope ratio wide screen in 1972 ; Vasantha Obeysekera who followed up his well-received debut Ves Gatho with a slew of successful films culminating with Palangetiyo in 1979 . Another major director who stepped forward during this time is Dharmasena Pathiraja who examined the tensions of city youth in such works as Bambaru Awith and Ahas Gauwa . Artist and poet Mahagama Sekera 's sole film Thun Man Handiya is also an important film in Sri Lankan cinema released in 1970 . Sumitra Peries , the wife of Lester James Peries , also struck out during the 1970s with work that looked at the conflicting roles of women in society . Her work include Gehenu Lamai and Ganga Addara .   Over the next few decades , artists such as Tissa Abeysekara , Dr. D.B. Nihalsingha , Udayakantha Warnasooriya , H.D.Premaratne , Ashoka Handagama , Prasanna Vithanage and Vimukthi Jayasundara have attempted to breathe new life into the industry . Nihalsingha was an accomplished cinematographer as well as an editor : so his films has an input which was special and brought a viewpoint to all his films , most of which focused on the exploited women .   Vithanage 's film Purahanda Kaluwara is widely considered one of the best movies made in Sri Lanka as is Jayasundara 's Sulanga Enu Pinisa which won the coveted Camera d'Or for best first film at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival .   During Sri Lankan Civil War several films have begun to tackle gritty subjects such as family relationships , abortion and results of the conflict between the military and Tamil Tiger rebels in the north . Director Asoka Handagama especially has drawn criticism for pursuing such material in his work .   In the recent years high budget films like Aloko Udapadi , Aba ( film ) and Maharaja Gemunu based on Sinhalese epic historical stories gain huge success .

neg: Welfare party kerala Welfare Party Kerala is the state unit of Welfare Party of India . The declaration of Welfare Party Kerala was made on October 19 , 2011 at Tagore Hall , Kozhikode . Since then Welfare Party Kerala has been actively intervene in the political scene and elections in Kerala .

neg: Mannanthala Mannanthala is a suburb of Thiruvananthapuram , the capital of Kerala , India .

neg: Hindu temples in Thrissur Rural Thrissur district is situated in the central part of Kerala state in India . Thrissur district was formed on July 1 , 1949 . It is an important cultural centre and is known as the Cultural Capital of Kerala .

neg: Greek legislative election, 1956 Parliamentary elections were held in Greece on 19 February 1956 . The result was a victory for Constantine Karamanlis and his National Radical Union party by securing the electoral vote despite trailing in the popular vote . It was the first general election in Greece in which women had the right to vote , although women had first voted in a by-election in Thessaloniki Prefecture in 1953 in which the first female MP was elected .   Although the Liberal Democratic Union , a coalition of centrist parties , received a slim plurality of votes , the conservative governing party , the National Radical Union , won the most seats due to a complex and controversial electoral system enacted by Karamanlis . A `` first past the post '' system was applied in the rural constituencies where the ERE was expected to gain a plurality , while proportional representation was reserved for the urban constituencies , where the Liberal Democratic Union was expected to lead . As a result , the Liberal Democratic Union came up 19 seats short of a majority .   The Liberal Democratic Union included the Liberal Party , led by Sophoklis Venizelos and Georgios Papandreou , as well as the left-wing EDA , led by Ioannis Passalidis . A few years later , Georgios Papandreou and Sophoklis Venizelos renounced their alliance with EDA , breaking up the Liberal Democratic Union .

neg: Union Christian College, Aluva The Union Christian College , Aluva ( known as UC College ) is an educational institution in Kerala , India . It is situated to the north of Aluva in Ernakulam District .   Founded in 1921 as a centre of Christian Higher Education , UC College is an inter-denominational cooperation venture among four major Kerala Christian denominations , Church of South India , Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church , Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church , and Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church .   The college was affiliated to The Madras University , then Travancore University and is now affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University , Kottayam .

neg: Cochin College The Cochin College is an arts and science college located at Kochi , India . The Cochin College was founded on 15 July 1967 , in response to an increasing demand for higher education in Cochin . The institution grew into a postgraduate college in 1995 , from its beginning as a junior college in 1967 . The college was accredited by NAAC with B Grade ( 2.85 ) in February 2012 .   The college is sponsored by the Cochin Education Society which was founded as a result of the joint efforts of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and the former Mattancherry Municipal Council . The college is affiliated to the Mahatma Gandhi University , Kottayam and offers courses in Science and Humanities at the degree level such as Physics , Chemistry , Zoology , Botany , Commerce , Economics , English Literature and Mathematics At the postgraduate level the college offers M.Com , with specialistion in Financial Management , M.Sc Physics with Electronics and M.Sc Chemistry with Environmental Chemistry .

neg: Malanad Malanad or Mala Nadu ( മലനാട in Malayalam ) is term used to refer a hilly geographical region of both Kannur and kasaragod districts in Kerala state , India . It is the continuation of Malenadu , The hilly region of Karnataka state . Malanad region covers the hilly areas of vellarikundu thaluk in kasaragod distrct and the highlands of Taliparamba thaluk & Iritty Thaluk of Kannur disrict . The malanad area starts from palchuram in kannur-wayanad border and end at Ranipuram in Kasaragod - kodagu border . The land lies as a narrow strip between the coorg disrtct of karnataka to the east and wayanad district to south and the midland areas of north malabar in west whereas tulunadu in north . the major rivers that are originating from the region are River tejaswini and Valapattanam River . from 1950s onwards the migatrion of roman christians to malanadu happens from kottayam & idukki districts .

neg: Puducherry Puducherry ( -LSB- pᵿdᵿˈtʃɛri -RSB- literally New Town in Tamil ) , formerly known as Pondicherry ( -LSB- pɒndᵻˈtʃɛri -RSB- ) , is a union territory of India . It was formed out of four exclaves of former French India , namely Pondichéry ( Pondicherry ; now Puducherry ) , Karikal ( Karaikal ) , Mahé and Yanaon ( Yanam ) . It is named after the largest district , Puducherry . Historically known as Pondicherry ( Pāṇṭiccēri ) , the territory changed its official name to Puducherry ( Putuccēri ) on 20 September 2006 .   Puducherry lies in the southern part of the Indian Peninsula . The areas of Puducherry district and Karaikal district are bound by the state of Tamil Nadu , while Yanam district and Mahé district are enclosed by the states of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala respectively . Puducherry is the 29th most populous and the third most densely populated state/union territory in India . It has a GDP of and ranks 27th in India .

neg: Left United Front The Left United Front is a coalition of political parties in Kerala , India . The Left United Front was launched in March 2014 , by the Revolutionary Marxist Party , the Socialist Unity Centre of India ( Communist ) and the Marxist Communist Party of India ( United ) . According to RMP state chairman T.L. Santhosh , the goal of the Left United Front is to fight '' -LSB- ... -RSB- against anti-people policies , corruption , communalism and murder politics of the existing fronts '' .   The front fielded M. Shajarkhan in the Thiruvananthapuram seat .

neg: Kerala Startup Mission Kerala Startup Mission ( KSUM ) formerly known as ` Technopark Technology Business Incubator ' , is India 's first and successful Non Academic Business Incubator , hosted and housed inside Asia 's Largest IT Park Technopark . Technopark Technology Business Incubator ( T-TBI ) , a joint association of Technopark , Thiruvananthapuram and the Department of Science and Technology ( DST ) , Government of India , to help the technology business start-ups , started operation during 2007 . KSUM functions with a vision to support and nurture the startups in the state of Kerala . It also is the first non-academic business incubator . Since launching in 2006 , KSUM has incubated more than 200 + of India 's most promising startups .   Kerala Startup Mission have been actively initiating various programmes for developing the student entrepreneurship in the state . Government of Kerala declared the start up policy with an aim to accelerate the growth of student entrepreneurs . KSUM being the nodal agency for implementing the Startup policy have come up with various schemes for the effective implementation of the policy . The schemes covers a broad area from schools , colleges and to young entrepreneurs .

neg: A P J Abdul Kalam Technological University APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University ( initially called ` Kerala Technological University ' ) is a university established by the government of Kerala . The objective of the University is to coordinate , supervise , regulate , guide and provide leadership in all aspects of technological and engineering education and research in Kerala State .   The university has its headquarters in Thiruvananthapuram and its jurisdictional authority extends to the whole of Kerala State . The university has been established both as a teaching and affiliation university . Engineering colleges may be affiliated as a regular college , a constituent college , an autonomous college , or as a college with academic autonomy .


query: Jean-Martin Charcot was a neurologist.

pos: Jean-Martin Charcot Jean-Martin Charcot ( -LSB- ʃɑrˈkoʊ -RSB- -LSB- ʃaʁko -RSB- ; 29 November 1825 -- 16 August 1893 ) was a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology . He is known as `` the founder of modern neurology '' , and his name has been associated with at least 15 medical eponyms , including Charcot -- Marie -- Tooth disease and Charcot disease ( better known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , motor neurone disease , or Lou Gehrig disease ) . Charcot has been referred to as `` the father of French neurology and one of the world 's pioneers of neurology '' .  His work greatly influenced the developing fields of neurology and psychology ; modern psychiatry owes much to the work of Charcot and his direct followers . He was the `` foremost neurologist of late nineteenth-century France '' and has been called `` the Napoleon of the neuroses '' .

neg: Hermann Oppenheim Hermann Oppenheim ( 1 January 1858 -- 5 May 1919 ) was one of the leading neurologists in Germany .   He studied medicine at the Universities of Berlin , Göttingen and Bonn . He started his career at the Charité-Hospital in Berlin as an assistant to Karl Westphal ( 1833 -- 1890 ) . In 1891 Oppenheim opened a successful private hospital in Berlin .   In 1894 , Oppenheim was the author of a textbook on nervous diseases titled Lehrbuch der Nervenkrankheiten für Ärzte und Studierende , a book that soon became a standard in his profession . It was published in several editions and languages , and is considered one of the best textbooks on neurology ever written . He also published significant works on tabes dorsalis , alcoholism , anterior poliomyelitis , syphilis , multiple sclerosis and traumatic neurosis . In the field of physiology , he published articles on metabolism of urea with the aid of Nathan Zuntz ( 1847 -- 1920 ) .   In 1889 he published a treatise on traumatic neuroses that was harshly criticized by eminent physicians that included Jean-Martin Charcot ( 1825 -- 1893 ) and Max Nonne ( 1861 -- 1959 ) ; the reason being due to Oppenheim 's assertion that psychological trauma caused organic changes that perpetuated psychic neuroses .   His expertise involving brain disease led directly to the first successful removal of a brain tumor , an operation that was performed by a physician named R. Köhler . With surgeon Fedor Krause ( 1857 -- 1937 ) , he reported the first successful removal of a pineal tumor .   He coined the term `` dystonia musculorum deformans '' for a type of childhood torsion disease he described , a disorder that was later to become known as `` Ziehen-Oppenheim syndrome '' ( named along with German psychiatrist Theodor Ziehen 1862 -- 1950 ) . Also , another name for amyotonia congenita is `` Oppenheim 's disease '' .

neg: Richard Cassirer Richard Cassirer ( April 23 , 1868 -- August 20 , 1925 ) was a German neurologist born into a Jewish family in Breslau .   After receiving his medical doctorate in 1891 , he became assistant at the psychiatric clinic in Breslau under Karl Wernicke ( 1848 -- 1905 ) . In 1893 he relocated to Vienna , where he furthered his studies with Richard von Krafft-Ebing ( 1840 -- 1902 ) and Heinrich Obersteiner ( 1847 -- 1922 ) . Later , he became professor of neurology at the University of Berlin , where he worked closely with Hermann Oppenheim ( 1858 -- 1919 ) .   As a clinical neurologist , Cassirer specialized on the anatomy of the central nervous system , and made contributions in his research of multiple sclerosis , encephalitis and poliomyelitis . Among his written works was a new edition ( 1923 ) of Oppenheim 's Lehrbuch der Nervenkrankheiten für Ärzte und Studierende .   In 1912 he first described a circulatory disease marked by an association of ovarian insufficiency and acrocyanosis with vasomotor-trophic disturbance of the skin , and disturbances of sensitivity caused by dysregulation of the vegetative nervous system which has been given the eponymic name of `` Cassirer 's syndrome '' or `` Crocq-Cassirer syndrome '' .   In 1921 , Dr. Cassirer was asked to give testimony in regards to the mental condition of Soghomon Tehlirian , a man accused of murdering Talaat Pasha . Cassirer maintained that Tehlirian was not sane when he carried out the crime due to a psychotic state caused as a result of his family being victims of a war-time massacre .   Cassirer 's portrait was painted by renowned artist Max Liebermann in 1918 , and later presented to the Tate Gallery in London .

neg: Germain Sée Germain Sée ( February 6 , 1818 -- May 12 , 1896 ) was a French clinician who was a native of Ribeauvillé , Haut-Rhin .   He studied medicine in Paris , obtaining his doctorate in 1846 with a dissertation on ergotism ( `` Recherches sur les propriétés du seigle ergoté et de ses principes constituants '' ) . In 1852 he became a physician of hospitals in Paris , and subsequently worked at La Rochefoucauld ( from 1857 ) , Beaujon ( from 1861 ) , Pitié ( from 1862 ) and Charité ( from 1868 ) hospitals . In 1866 he succeeded Armand Trousseau as chair of therapeutics at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris , and in 1876 attained the chair of clinical medicine at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris .   Sée specialized in the study of lung and cardiovascular diseases . He also made contributions in his research of chorea and its association with rheumatic disorders . He conducted extensive studies of various drugs , being an advocate of antipyrine as a general analgesic , and sodium salicylate for treatment of acute rheumatism .   Among his writings were the multi-volume `` Médecine clinique '' , a work that he co-authored with Frédéric Labadie-Lagrave , and `` Leçons de pathologie expérimentale '' , a book on experimental pathology that was edited by Maurice Raynaud . His `` Des maladies spécifiques , non tuberculeuses , du poumon '' was later translated into English and published with the title `` Diseases of the lungs ( of a specific not tuberculous nature ) '' ( 1885 ) .   In 1869 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine .

neg: Paul Briquet Paul Briquet or Pierre Briquet ( 12 January 1796 to 25 January 1881 ) was a French physician and psychologist that advanced the reasoned treatment of disturbed people said to be hysterics .   Briquet became a medical doctor in 1824 , a professor in 1827 . In 1836 he operated at the Cochin hospital and in 1846 at La Charité hospital . In 1853 he described the preparation and use of quinine .   He published Traité clinique et thérapeutique de l'Hystérie in 1859 , and the following year he was admitted to the Academie de Medecine .   A type of personality disorder called Briquet 's syndrome is classified as somatic symptom disorder .   `` Although many of his theoretical concepts , basic scientific knowledge and data processing techniques were primitive by our standards , his approach , his emphasis on demonstrable facts , and his many well-substantiated conclusions mark his Treatise on Hysteria as an avant-garde work relevant even today ''   Briquet was a proponent of male hysteria in his Treatise . He cites Louyer-Villermay , M. Dubois , M. Landouzy , and M. Monneret as putting to rest the doubt over male hysteria . He wrote , `` Regardless of the denials , men may suffer from hysteria , and the cases that prove it are not rare , and it is only possible to prevent it by acknowledging that . '' As a mental condition , hysteria is not due to uterine influence : `` Hysteria may occur in men , who have no uterus , in non-menstruating young women whose uterus is still in a rudimentary state and where it remains without influence , and in old women where it no longer influences . '' Briquet describes circumstances where simultaneously the senses are excited , and efforts are made to conceal the excitation , as precursors to hysteria .   In Mark Micale 's reading of Briquet 's Treatise , the introductory section on male hysteria is followed by prejudice against the male victims of the disorder .  Briquet chooses to begin the main body of his book with a 40-page discussion of hysteria in the adult male -- the very first discussion of its kind in a nineteenth-century medical text .  By the end of Briquet 's long and authoritative exposition , an adult man capable of `` affective impressions '' is seen as not only sick and abnormal , but also as a deviation from , and menace to , the bourgeois family order .  Apart from the gender factor , Briquet studied the epidemiology of hysteria through 430 patients that he attended over a decade of clinical work .  Micale describes the anticipation of affective neuroscience :  -LSB- Briquet centers -RSB- hysteria in the brain , conjecturing that a part of the human brain is reserved for emotional or `` affective sensations '' , as opposed to motor control and intellectual operations . He then specifies that `` hysteria is an illness consisting of a neurosis of the part of the brain destined to receive affective impressions and feelings '' . He goes on to maintain that the disorder is caused by the complex and highly individual interaction of many disparate factors , including age , gender , emotional disposition , family history , mode of education , previous physical illness and psychological stress . The malady develops temperamentally , he claims , in individuals with an `` affective predominance '' .   In his 2004 history of mental illness , Theodore Millon noted Briquet 's advances :  -LSB- Briquet -RSB- speculated on untoward developmental and life experiences as playing a pathogenic role ( e.g. parental mistreatment , spousal abuse , unfavorable employment circumstances , or business failures ) . Recognizing that only a small subset of those subjected to these psychosocial experiences developed the hysterical syndrome , Briquet proposed predispositions as pathogenic factors . Aware that life circumstances troubled his patients , he suggested that many would benefit by speaking to an empathetic counselor or physician who might serve as a confidant . Briquet showed great sensitivity in going beyond the crude medications of the day to employ a psychotherapeutic approach to his patients ' difficulties .

neg: The central science Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences , which include chemistry , with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering . The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics . The phrase was popularized by its use in a textbook by Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay , titled Chemistry : The Central Science , which was first published in 1977 , with a thirteenth edition published in 2014 .   The central role of chemistry can be seen in the systematic and hierarchical classification of the sciences by Auguste Comte in which each discipline provides a more general framework for the area it precedes ( mathematics → astronomy → physics → chemistry → physiology and medicine → social sciences ) . Balaban and Klein have more recently proposed a diagram showing partial ordering of sciences in which chemistry may be argued is `` the central science '' since it provides a significant degree of branching . In forming these connections the lower field can not be fully reduced to the higher ones . It is recognized that the lower fields possess emergent ideas and concepts that do not exist in the higher fields of science .   Thus chemistry is built on an understanding of laws of physics that govern particles such as atoms , protons , electrons , thermodynamics , etc. although it has been shown that it has not been `` fully ` reduced ' to quantum mechanics '' . Concepts such as the periodicity of the elements and chemical bonds in chemistry are emergent in that they are more than the underlying forces that are defined by physics .   In the same way , biology can not be fully reduced to chemistry despite the fact that the machinery that is responsible for life is composed of molecules . For instance , the machinery of evolution may be described in terms of chemistry by the understanding that it is a mutation in the order of genetic base pairs in the DNA of an organism . However , chemistry can not fully describe the process since it does not contain concepts such as natural selection that are responsible for driving evolution . Chemistry is fundamental to biology since it provides a methodology for studying and understanding the molecules that compose cells .   Connections made by chemistry are formed through various sub-disciplines that utilize concepts from multiple scientific disciplines . Chemistry and physics are both needed in the areas of physical chemistry , nuclear chemistry , and theoretical chemistry . Chemistry and biology intersect in the areas of biochemistry , medicinal chemistry , molecular biology , chemical biology , molecular genetics , and immunochemistry . Chemistry and the earth sciences intersect in areas like geochemistry and hydrology .

neg: Jacques Monod Jacques Lucien Monod ( 9 February 1910 -- 31 May 1976 ) , a French biochemist , won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965 , sharing it with François Jacob and Andre Lwoff `` for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis '' .   Monod ( along with François Jacob ) became famous for his work on the E. coli lac operon , which encodes proteins necessary for the transport and breakdown of the sugar lactose ( lac ) . From their own work and the work of others , he and Jacob came up with a model for how the levels of some proteins in a cell are controlled . In their model , the manufacture of proteins , such as the ones encoded within the lac ( lactose ) operon , is prevented when a repressor , encoded by a regulatory gene , binds to its operator , a specific site on the DNA next to the genes encoding the proteins . ( It is now known that repressor bound to the operator physically blocks RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter , the site where transcription of the adjacent genes begins . )   Study of the control of expression of genes in the lac operon provided the first example of a transcriptional regulation system . Monod also suggested the existence of mRNA molecules that link the information encoded in DNA and proteins . He is widely regarded as one of the founders of molecular biology . Monod 's interest in the lac operon originated from his doctoral dissertation , for which he studied the growth of bacteria in culture media containing two sugars .

neg: Georges Gilles de la Tourette Georges Albert Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette ( 30 October 1857 -- 26 May 1904 ) was a French physician and the namesake of Tourette 's syndrome , a neurological condition characterized by physical and verbal tics . He was born in the small town of Saint-Gervais-les-Trois-Clochers in the district of Châtellerault , near the city of Loudun . He could be retrospectively classified as a neurologist , but the field did not exist in his time .   During 1873 Tourette began medical studies at Poitiers . He later relocated to Paris where he became a student , amanuensis , and house physician of his mentor , the influential contemporary neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot , director of the Salpêtrière Hospital . Charcot also helped him to advance in his academic career . Tourette studied and lectured in psychotherapy , hysteria and medical and legal ramifications of mesmerism ( modern-day hypnosis ) .   Tourette described the symptoms of Tourette 's syndrome in nine patients in 1884 , using the name `` maladie des tics '' . Charcot renamed the syndrome `` Gilles de la Tourette 's illness '' in his honor .   In 1893 , a former female patient shot Tourette in the head , claiming he had hypnotized her against her will . Both Tourette and many modern hypnologists state that this is impossible . His mentor , Charcot , had died recently , and his young son had also died recently . After these events , Tourette began to experience mood swings between depression and hypomania . Nevertheless , he organized public lectures in which he spoke about literacy , mesmerism and theatre .   Tourette published an article on hysteria in the German Army , which angered Bismarck , and a further article about unhygienic conditions in the floating hospitals on the river Thames . With Gabriel Legué he analyzed abbess Jeanne des Anges ' account of her hysteria that was allegedly based on her unrequited love for a priest Urbain Grandier , who was later burned for witchcraft .   Around 1902 , Tourette 's condition worsened and he was dismissed from his post . Gilles de la Tourette died on 26 May 1904 in a psychiatric hospital in Lausanne , Switzerland .

neg: Neurophysiology Neurophysiology ( from Greek νεῦρον , neuron , `` nerve '' ; φύσις , physis , `` nature , origin '' ; and - λογία , - logia , `` knowledge '' ) is a branch of physiology and neuroscience that is concerned with the study of the functioning of the nervous system . The primary tools of basic neurophysiological research include electrophysiological recordings , such as patch clamp , voltage clamp , extracellular single-unit recording and recording of local field potentials , as well as some of the methods of calcium imaging , optogenetics , and molecular biology .   Neurophysiology is related to electrophysiology , neurobiology , psychology , neurology , clinical neurophysiology , neuroanatomy , cognitive science , biophysics , mathematical biology , and other sciences concerning the brain .

neg: The Salpêtrière School of Hypnosis The Salpêtriére School , also known as the School of Paris , is , with the Nancy School , one of the great schools that contributed to the golden age of hypnosis in France from 1882 to 1892 . The leader of this school , the neurologist Jean Martin Charcot , contributed to the rehabilitation of hypnosis as a scientific subject presenting it as a somatic expression of hysteria . Charcot also used hypnosis as an investigative method and that by putting his hysterical patients into an ` experimental state ' it would permit him to reproduce their symptoms and interpret them .   The work of the Salpêtrière School also presented a new vision of the phenomenon of hysteria . Charcot did not consider people suffering from hysteria as pretenders and discovered , to the surprise of all , that hysteria was not just a privilege reserved for women . Finally , Charcot associated hysteria to post-traumatic paralysis , establishing the basis for the theory of psychic trauma .   Amongst Charcot 's collaborators included as members of the Salpêtrière School , there was notably Joseph Babinski , Paul Richer , Alfred Binet , Charles Féré , Pierre Janet , Georges Gilles de la Tourette , Alexandre-Achille Souques , Jules Cotard , Pierre Marie , Gilbert Ballet , Paul Regnard , Désiré-Magloire Bourneville , Ferdinand Bottey , Paul Brémaud and Victor Dumontpallier . The work of the Saltpêtrière School had an important influence on most of the great clinicians of the era such as Sigmund Freud , Eugen Bleuler and Joseph Delboeuf .   Ultimately the polemic opposing Charcot against Hippolyte Bernheim and the other members of the Nancy School would end by Charcot being accused of operating as a carnival showman , training his patients in theatrical behaviour which he would attribute to hypnosis . After his death in 1893 , the practice of hypnotism would decline in medical circles and it would be prohibited by the founders of experimental psychology and psychoanalysis .

neg: Auguste-Charles Marie Auguste-Charles Marie ( 26 July 1864 -- 29 March 1935 ) was a French microbiologist born in Bayeux , department Calvados .   He served as interne des hôpitaux in Paris , earning his medical doctorate in 1895 with a thesis on cancer titled Recherches sur la question du cancer . From 1894 to 1899 he focused on physico-pathological studies of microbial poisoning at the Pasteur Institute in Paris . In 1899 -- 1900 he served under Maurice Nicolle ( 1862 -- 1932 ) as chief of anti-rabies services at the institute of microbiology in Constantinople . Afterwards he was associated with research done at the Pasteur Institute in Paris . Following the death of Emile Roux ( 1853 -- 1933 ) , he was appointed manager of anti-rabies services .   Marie is known for his research involving the action of tetanus toxin on the nervous system , as well as studies of tuberculosis and rabies . In the 1910s he demonstrated that natural and synthetic suprarenin had the ability to neutralize diphtheria and tetanus toxins . His investigations of rabies led to the development of new vaccination processes . With Jean Cantacuzène ( 1863-1934 ) , he published two articles on gastrointestinal cholera .   In 1903 he was co-founder of the Bulletin de l'Institut Pasteur . In 1934 , with Paul Remlinger ( 1871 -- 1964 ) , he was recipient of the `` Prix Dagnan-Bouveret '' by the Académie des sciences for work involving rage expérimentale ( experimental rabies ) . He died on 29 March 1935 in his laboratory at the Pasteur Institute .

neg: Scientific theory A scientific theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can , in accordance with the scientific method , be repeatedly tested , using a predefined protocol of observations and experiments . Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and are a comprehensive form of scientific knowledge .   It is important to note that the definition of a `` scientific theory '' ( often ambiguously contracted to `` theory '' for the sake of brevity , including in this page ) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word `` theory '' . Per NAS 2008 : `` The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word . It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence . '' In everyday non-scientific speech , `` theory '' can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess , conjecture , idea , or , hypothesis ; such a usage is the opposite of the word `` theory '' in science . These different usages are comparable to the differing , and often opposing , usages of the term `` prediction '' in science versus `` prediction '' in vernacular speech , denoting a mere hope .   The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain . As additional scientific evidence is gathered , a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new empirical findings ; in such circumstances , a more accurate theory is then desired . In certain cases , the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful ( due to its sheer simplicity ) as an approximation under specific conditions ( e.g. , Newton 's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light ) .   Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions . They describe the causal elements responsible for a particular natural phenomenon , and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry ( e.g. , electricity , chemistry , astronomy ) . Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge , as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease .   As with other forms of scientific knowledge , scientific theories are both deductive and inductive in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability .   Paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and science historian Stephen Jay Gould said , `` ... facts and theories are different things , not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty . Facts are the world ′ s data . Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts . ''

neg: Étienne-Jules Marey Étienne-Jules Marey ( -LSB- maʁɛ -RSB- ; 5 March 1830 , Beaune , Côte-d'Or -- 15 May 1904 , Paris ) was a French scientist , physiologist and chronophotographer .   His work was significant in the development of cardiology , physical instrumentation , aviation , cinematography and the science of laboratory photography . He is widely considered to be a pioneer of photography and an influential pioneer of the history of cinema . He was also a pioneer in establishing a variety of graphical techniques for the display and interpretation of quantitative data from physiological measurement .

neg: Jean-Pierre Changeux Jean-Pierre Changeux ( -LSB- ʃɑ̃ʒø -RSB- ; born 6 April 1936 ) is a French neuroscientist known for his research in several fields of biology , from the structure and function of proteins ( with a focus on the allosteric proteins ) , to the early development of the nervous system up to cognitive functions . Although being famous in biological sciences for the MWC model , the identification and purification of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the theory of epigenesis by synapse selection are also notable scientific achievements . Changeux is known by the non-scientific public for his ideas regarding the connection between mind and physical brain . As put forth in his book , Conversations on Mind , Matter and Mathematics , Changeux strongly supports the view that the nervous system functions in a projective rather than reactive style and that interaction with the environment , rather than being instructive , results in the selection amongst a diversity of preexisting internal representations .

neg: Augustine (film) Augustine is 2012 French historical drama film about a love affair between French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot and his patient .   The film debuted in France at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival in the Special Screenings section and later played at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival in the Discovery section . It was released in France in November 2012 and in the U.S. in May 2013 , given a limited release by Music Box Films .

neg: Phenotype A phenotype is the composite of an organism 's observable characteristics or traits , such as its morphology , development , biochemical or physiological properties , behavior , and products of behavior ( such as a bird 's nest ) . A phenotype results from the expression of an organism 's genetic code , its genotype , as well as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions between the two . When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species , the species is called polymorphic . A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring ; while the coat color depends on many genes , it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow , black and brown .   This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism 's heredity and what that heredity produces . The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann , who distinguished between germ plasm ( heredity ) and somatic cells ( the body ) . The genotype-phenotype distinction should not be confused with Francis Crick 's central dogma of molecular biology , which is a statement about the directionality of molecular sequential information flowing from DNA to protein , and not the reverse .   Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that bird nests and other built structures such as caddis fly larvae cases and beaver dams can be considered as `` extended phenotypes '' .

neg: History of Tourette syndrome Tourette syndrome is an inherited neurological disorder with onset in childhood , characterized by the presence of multiple physical ( motor ) tics and at least one vocal ( phonic ) tic .   The eponym was bestowed by Jean-Martin Charcot ( 1825 -- 93 ) on behalf of his resident , Georges Albert Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette ( 1859 -- 1904 ) , a French physician and neurologist , who published an account of nine patients with Tourette 's in 1885 . The possibility that movement disorders , including Tourette syndrome , might have an organic origin was raised when an encephalitis epidemic from 1918 -- 1926 led to a subsequent epidemic of tic disorders . Research in 1972 advanced the argument that Tourette 's is a neurological , rather than psychological , disorder ; since the 1990s , a more neutral view of Tourette 's has emerged , in which biological vulnerability and adverse environmental events are seen to interact .   Findings since 1999 have advanced TS science in the areas of genetics , neuroimaging , neurophysiology , and neuropathology . Questions remain regarding how best to classify Tourette syndrome , and how closely Tourette 's is related to other movement disorders or psychiatric disorders . Good epidemiologic data is still lacking , and available treatments are not risk free and not always well tolerated .

neg: Music-specific disorders Neuroscientists have learned a lot about the role of the brain in numerous cognitive mechanisms by understanding corresponding disorders . Similarly , neuroscientists have come to learn a lot about music cognition by studying music-specific disorders . Even though music is most often viewed from a `` historical perspective rather than a biological one '' music has significantly gained the attention of neuroscientists all around the world . For many centuries music has been strongly associated with art and culture . The reason for this increased interest in music is because it `` provides a tool to study numerous aspects of neuroscience , from motor skill learning to emotion '' .

neg: Charcot foot Charcot foot could mean :  Charcot arthropathy in the foot , most commonly due to diabetic neuropathy  The characteristic foot deformity of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease ( nb . As a neuropathy , this can eventually lead to Charcot arthropathy of the foot )

neg: Synactive Theory of Newborn Behavioral Organization and Development The Synactive Theory of Newborn Behavioral Organization and Development ( Synaction n. , or Synactive adj. -LSB- from the Greek syn `` together '' and the Latin actio `` action , '' resulting in : `` together in action '' -RSB- ) suggests that development of the human fetus , and later newborn , proceeds through the constant balancing of approach and avoidance behaviors , leading to : 1 ) a continuous interaction of the subsystems ( i.e. , Autonomic , Motor , State and Attention/Interaction , and Regulatory ) and their increasingly defined delineations within the organism , that is the infant , and 2 ) the organism 's interaction with the environment at large . This process is aimed at bringing about the increasingly well-defined species-unique developmental agenda .   Figure 1 ( below ) , provides a graphic representation of the Synactive Theory of development , as applied to both fetal and newborn stages . It focuses upon the infant 's within-organism , four subsystems of functioning , and their continuous interaction with each other and with the environment across time ( i.e. , `` together in action , '' or synaction ) . The four subsystems include the :   Autonomic Subsystem : Expressed in the pattern of respiration ( e.g. , fast , slow , pauses ) color changes ( e.g. , pink , pale , red ) , neurological indicators ( e.g. , seizures , tremulousness ) , and visceral or gut signals such as bowel movements , gagging , and hiccoughing ;   Motor Subsystem : Observable through the tone , posture and movement patterns of the infant ;   State and Attention/Interaction Subsystem : Expressed via : 1 ) the range of states available to the infant ( i.e. , deep sleep , light sleep , drowsy , alert , hyperalert , and cry ) , 2 ) how clearly it is to observably differentiate one state from the other , and 3 ) the patterns of transitions from one state to another ( e.g. , smooth well-differentiated state transitions versus abrupt unorganized state transitions ) .   The attention/interaction system is set within this state continuum ( i.e. , from deep sleep to cry ) and represented by the infant 's ability to adjust the robustness and increasing refinement of an alert , attentive state . The infant uses this state to take in cognitive and social information from the environment as well as to bring forth and modify inputs from the surrounding world ; and   Regulatory Subsystem : Behaviorally represented via the observable strategies the infant uses ( Self-Regulation ) in maintaining a balanced , relatively stable and relaxed state of subsystem of functioning or in returning to this a state of subsystem functioning if imbalance , or stress has occurred within the subsystems .   An additional component of the regulatory subsystem is observable in the kind and amount of support offered by the caregiver ( e.g. , supporting a soft , tucked , flexed position of the infant 's arms and legs ) or by the environment ( e.g. , dimming the lights in the nursery ) . This Co-Regulation may be necessary to help the infant 's return to balance in situations when his/her own self-regulatory capacities are exceeded .   Reproduced with permission from Als , H. Toward a synactive theory of development : Promise for the assessment of infant individuality . Infant Mental Health Journal . 1982 : ( 3 ) : 229-243 ; p. 234 .   The graphic representation of the Synactive Theory above depicts the developing organism , that is , the infant , in constant interaction with the environment from within the womb to the newborn intensive care unit ( NICU ) , and the caregiving family 's support in the NICU , to the family in their home . Newborn infants are actively striving for their next steps in development , while depending upon `` good enough '' environments and care to assure progress along their developmental agenda .   The Synactive Theory of Development continues to be instrumental in guiding clinicians ( e.g. , neonatologist , nurses , psychologists , developmental specialists , physical/occupational therapists , etc. ) and researchers in their understanding of the often very small steps in development that prematurely born and other high risk newborns attempt to accomplish ( which are major steps for their immature or injured brain ) . This theory gives professionals the framework and tools with which to identify the infant 's strengths , challenges and accomplishments . Such accomplishments may include breathing , sucking and swallowing in a coordinated sequence ; moving food down into and through the stomach and intestinal track instead of upwards , leading to reflux and vomiting ; looking at the caregiver and breathing at the same time , as well as many others .   The Synactive Theory is the foundation of both : 1 ) the Assessment of Preterm Infants ' Behavior ( APIB ) , a standardized comprehensive newborn test , and 2 ) the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program ( NIDCAP ) , which is the care and intervention approach , that focuses on each infant 's behavioral cues ( e.g. , hand ( s ) to mouth , bracing with feet against a supporting surface ) in order to support the infant 's strengths and reduce the infant 's vulnerabilities . The infant 's family is viewed as the infant 's most important nurturer and is integrated in all care from the infant 's birth on throughout the infant 's hospitalization .

neg: Albert Pitres Albert Pitres ( 26 August 1848 -- 25 March 1928 ) was a French neurological physician . He was born in Bordeaux and received his training in Paris , where he was the student of Jean Martin Charcot ( 1825-1893 ) and Louis-Antoine Ranvier ( 1835-1922 ) . He served as dean of the Faculty of Medicine at Bordeaux ( appointed 1885 ) .   He began his medical studies in Bordeaux , later working as an interne to the hospitals of Paris ( from 1872 ) . In 1877 he defended his doctoral thesis , and during the following year received his agrégation with a dissertation titled `` Les hypertrophies et les dilatations cardiaques indépendante des lésions valvulaires '' . In the late 1870s , with Charles-Émile François-Franck , he performed studies on the excitation of the cerebral cortex and the localization of brain function . Afterwards , he returned to Bordeaux , where from 1881 to 1919 , he was maître to the chair of pathology . Pitres died in 1928 at the age of 79 after falling down stairs .   Lessons that Pitres gave at the amphitheater in Bordeaux on the following subjects were compiled and published : hysteria and hypnotism ( 1891 ) , amnesic aphasia ( 1897 ) , paraphasia ( 1898 ) and physical signs associated with pleural effusions ( 1902 ) . His studies of peripheral neuritis were published in Volume XXXVI of Gilbert and Carnot 's `` Nouveau traité de médeine et de thérapeutique '' . With Leo Testut ( 1849-1925 ) , he was co-author of `` Les nerfs en schémas , anatomie et physiopathologie '' ( 1925 ) .   His name became associated with pleural effusion and with tabes dorsalis . The term `` Pitres ' sign '' refers to hypoesthesia of the scrotum and testicles in tabes dorsalis .


query: Thanos is a character that appeared in multiple products.

pos: Thanos Thanos ( -LSB- ˈθænɒs -RSB- , -LSB- ˈθænoʊs -RSB- ) is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is usually depicted as a Titanian mutant -- Eternal superhuman . The character first appeared in Iron Man # 55 ( February 1973 ) and was created by writer Mike Friedrich and writer-artist Jim Starlin . Debuting in the Bronze Age of Comic Books , the character has been featured in more than four decades of Marvel continuity and a self-titled series .   Thanos appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe 's various films , including The Avengers ( 2012 ) , portrayed by Damion Poitier , and Guardians of the Galaxy ( 2014 ) , Avengers : Age of Ultron ( 2015 ) , Avengers : Infinity War ( 2018 ) and its untitled sequel ( 2019 ) , portrayed by Josh Brolin . The character has appeared in other Marvel-endorsed products , including animated television series , arcade , and video games .

neg: Animation studio An animation studio is a company producing animated media . The broadest such companies conceive of products to produce , own the physical equipment for production , employ operators for that equipment , and hold a major stake in the sales or rentals of the media produced . They also own rights over merchandising and creative rights for characters created/held by the company , much like authors holding copyrights . In some early cases , they also held patent rights over methods of animation used in certain studios that were used for boosting productivity . Overall , they are business concerns and can function as such in legal terms .   Currently there are about 201 animation studios dedicated to the production and distribution of animated films that are active . Few are actual production house where as others are corporate entities . Many of these animation studios help with the fulfillment of animation works for big brand names and have carried out outsourced projects including Nemo .

neg: Captain Marvel (DC Comics) Captain Marvel , also known as Shazam , is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . Artist C. C. Beck and writer Bill Parker created the character in 1939 . Captain Marvel first appeared in Whiz Comics # 2 ( cover-dated Feb. 1940 ) , published by Fawcett Comics . He is the alter ego of Billy Batson , a boy who , by speaking the magic word `` SHAZAM '' ( acronym of 6 Greek `` immortal elders '' - Solomon , Hercules , Atlas , Zeus , Achilles , and Mercury ) , can transform himself into a costumed adult with the powers of superhuman strength , speed , flight , and other abilities .   Based on book sales , the character was the most popular superhero of the 1940s , outselling even Superman . Fawcett expanded the franchise to include other `` Marvels '' , primarily Marvel Family associates Mary Marvel and Captain Marvel Jr. , who can harness Billy 's powers as well . Captain Marvel was also the first comic book superhero to be adapted into film , in a 1941 Republic Pictures serial titled Adventures of Captain Marvel .   Fawcett ceased publishing Captain Marvel-related comics in 1953 , partly because of a copyright infringement suit from DC Comics , alleging that Captain Marvel was a copy of Superman . In 1972 , DC licensed the Marvel Family characters from Fawcett , and returned them to publication . By 1991 , DC had acquired all rights to the characters . DC has since integrated Captain Marvel and the Marvel Family into their DC Universe and has attempted to revive the property several times , with mixed success . Due to trademark conflicts over another character named `` Captain Marvel '' owned by Marvel Comics since 1967 , DC chose to publish the character 's adventures in a comic book titled Shazam ! for many years , leading many to assume that this was the character 's name . DC later officially renamed the character `` Shazam '' when relaunching its comic book properties in 2011 .   In addition , since 1972 , the character has been featured in two television series adaptations , one live action and one animated , by Filmation , and an upcoming Warner Bros. . Shazam ! feature film scheduled for release in 2019 as part of the DC Extended Universe . Captain Marvel was ranked as the 55th greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine . IGN also ranked Captain Marvel as the 50th greatest comic book hero of all time , stating that the character will always be an enduring reminder of a simpler time . UGO Networks ranked him as one of the top heroes of entertainment , saying , `` At his best , Shazam has always been Superman with a sense of crazy , goofy fun '' .

neg: Pip the Troll Pip the Troll is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics .

neg: Thor: The Mighty Avenger (toy line) Thor : The Mighty Avenger is a toy line manufactured by Hasbro based on the Marvel Comics film , Thor . It is composed mainly of 3.75 '' scale action figures .   The line falls under Marvel 's `` Avengers Assemble '' marketing banner , which will also include the Iron Man : The Armored Avenger and Captain America : The First Avenger toy lines . This will be used as a lead up to 2012 's The Avengers motion picture .   Unlike previous 3.75 '' action figure lines based on movies , Hasbro is not doing a comic series with this line . All of the figures will be based on the movie . This official street date for the line is March 1 , though some stores have started selling the toys in early February .

neg: Legion of Super-Heroes The Legion of Super-Heroes is a fictional superhero team appearing in books published by DC Comics . Created by writer Otto Binder and artist Al Plastino , the Legion is a group of superpowered beings living in the 30th and 31st centuries of the , and first appears in Adventure Comics # 247 ( April 1958 ) .   Initially , the team was closely associated with the original Superboy character ( Superman when he was a teenager ) , and was portrayed as a group of time travelers . Later , the Legion 's origin and back story were fleshed out , and the group was given its own monthly comic . Eventually , Superboy was removed from the team altogether and appeared only as an occasional guest star .   The team has undergone two major reboots during its run . The original version was replaced with a new rebooted version following the events of the `` Zero Hour '' storyline in 1994 and another rebooted team was introduced in 2004 . A fourth version of the team , nearly identical to the original version , was introduced in 2007 .

neg: The New Avengers (comics) The New Avengers is a fictional team of superheroes appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics . The title has been used for four American comic book series . The first two were written by Brian Michael Bendis and depicted a version of Marvel 's premiere superhero team , the Avengers . The third was written by Jonathan Hickman and depicted a group of characters called the Illuminati ( formerly introduced in New Avengers Vol . 1 # 7 -LSB- July 2005 -RSB- ) . The fourth is written by Al Ewing and depicts the former scientific terrorist group A.I.M. , reformed as `` Avengers Idea Mechanics '' , whose field team has appropriated the name `` New Avengers '' for itself .

neg: Dark X-Men The Dark X-Men are a fictional team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . They made their debut during the crossover between Dark Avengers and Uncanny X-Men written by Matt Fraction , as part of the broader Dark Reign storyline . Each member but Namor has been handpicked by then -- H.A.M.M.E.R. director Norman Osborn for his own criminal agenda .   The team was never officially called the `` Dark X-Men '' ( which was the name of the comics series , not the team ) . Instead , they were simply called the `` X-Men '' and were a government-sponsored team trying to take advantage of the name recognition of Charles Xavier 's X-Men , to which they had no official connection ( much like Osborn 's Avengers team was pretending to be the real Avengers ) .

neg: Avengers vs. X-Men Avengers vs. X-Men ( abbreviated AvX and AvsX ) is a 2012 crossover event that was featured in comic books published by Marvel Comics . The event , consisting of an eponymous limited series and numerous tie-in books , involves the return of the Phoenix Force and the subsequent war between the Avengers and the X-Men . The 12-issue twice-monthly series was first published in April 2012 , and features a storyline by Jason Aaron , Brian Michael Bendis , Ed Brubaker , Jonathan Hickman and Matt Fraction , with a rotating team of artists including John Romita , Jr. , Olivier Coipel and Adam Kubert .   The event was preceded by the four-issue limited series Avengers : X-Sanction by Jeph Loeb and Ed McGuinness and Avengers vs. X-Men # 0 . Avengers vs. X-Men also ties into the limited series AVX : VS , described as `` the fight book '' which expands upon many of the one-on-one battles featured in the main series , the digital series ; Avengers vs. X-Men : Infinite , and into a number of ongoing series including Avengers , Avengers Academy , New Avengers , Secret Avengers , Uncanny X-Men , Wolverine and the X-Men and X-Men : Legacy . The event was succeeded by the limited series AvX : Consequences .   Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics , Avengers vs. X-Men was a commercial success that topped the comic-book sales charts from April to October 2012 . The repercussions of the storyline resulted in the new status quos of the Marvel Universe presented in the company 's Marvel NOW ! relaunch initiative .

neg: Film series A film series ( also referred to as a film franchise ) is a collection of related films in succession that share the same fictional universe , or are marketed as a series .   Sometimes the work is conceived from the beginning as a multiple-film work , for example the Three Colours series , but in most cases the success of the original film inspires further films to be made . Individual sequels are relatively common , but are not always successful enough to spawn further installments .   The Marvel Cinematic Universe is the highest grossing film series in unadjusted US Dollar figures surpassing the Harry Potter , Star Wars , James Bond , and Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings series . However , `` Star Wars '' has the highest when adjusted for inflation .

neg: Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics) Captain Marvel is the name of several fictional superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . Most of these versions exist in Marvel 's main shared universe , known as the Marvel Universe .

neg: X-Men in television The fictional X-Men created by Marvel Comics has appeared in multiple forms of media besides comics , including on television numerous times , in both live action and animated television programs .

neg: Thor (Marvel Comics) Thor Odinson is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character , based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name , is the Asgardian god of thunder and possesses the enchanted hammer Mjolnir , which grants him the ability of flight and weather manipulation amongst his other superhuman attributes .   Debuting in the Silver Age of Comic Books , the character first appeared in Journey into Mystery # 83 ( Aug. 1962 ) and was created by editor-plotter Stan Lee , scripter Larry Lieber , and penciller-plotter Jack Kirby . He has starred in several ongoing series and limited series , and is a founding member of the superhero team the Avengers , appearing in each volume of that series . The character has also appeared in associated Marvel merchandise including animated television series , clothing , toys , trading cards , video games , and movies .   The character was first portrayed in live action by Eric Allan Kramer in the 1988 television movie The Incredible Hulk Returns . Chris Hemsworth portrays Thor in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Thor , The Avengers , Thor : The Dark World and Avengers : Age of Ultron and will reprise his role in Thor : Ragnarok , Avengers : Infinity War , and its untitled sequel . Thor placed 14th on IGN 's list of `` Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time '' in 2011 , and first in their list of `` The Top 50 Avengers '' in 2012 .

neg: Space opera Space opera is a subgenre of science fiction that emphasizes space warfare , melodramatic adventure , interplanetary battles , as well as chivalric romance , and often risk-taking . Set mainly or entirely in outer space , it usually involves conflict between opponents possessing advanced abilities , futuristic weapons , and other sophisticated technology . The term has no relation to music but is instead a play on the terms `` soap opera '' and `` horse opera '' , the latter of which was coined during the 1930s to indicate clichéd and formulaic Western movies . Space operas emerged in the 1930s and they continue to be produced in literature , film , comics , and video games .   Notable space opera novels include the Foundation series ( 1942 -- 1999 ) by Isaac Asimov , the Lensman series ( 1948-1954 ) by E. E. Smith and the Ender 's Game series ( 1985 -- present ) by Orson Scott Card . An early notable space opera film was Flash Gordon ( 1936 -- present ) created by Alex Raymond . In the late 1970s , the Star Wars franchise ( 1977 -- present ) created by George Lucas brought a great deal of attention to the subgenre .

neg: Sonic the Hedgehog is a video game franchise created and produced by Sega . The franchise centers on a series of speed-based platform games . The protagonist of the series is an anthropomorphic blue hedgehog named Sonic , whose peaceful life is often interrupted by the series ' main antagonist , Doctor Eggman . Typically , Sonic -- usually along with some of his friends , such as Tails , Amy , and Knuckles -- must stop Eggman and foil any plans of world domination . The first game in the series , released in 1991 , was conceived by Sega 's Sonic Team division after Sega requested a mascot character . The title was a success , it spawned many sequels , and it transformed Sega into a leading video game company during the 16-bit era in the early to mid -- 1990s .   While the first games in the series were side-scrolling platform games , later games expanded the series into various other genre and sub-series , such as Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games and the Sonic Boom series . By 2016 , the series had sold over 80 million physical copies of games , and over 350 million units when combining packaged game software with mobile phone downloads . Outside of video games , the franchise has also been spun out into other media , including cartoons , anime , and a long-running comic book series , recognized as the longest running based on a video game by Guinness World Records .

neg: Events from the Modern Age of Comic Books One of the key aspects of the Modern Age of Comic Books was that it was the beginning of big events . In 1984 , Marvel Comics debuted the first large crossover , Secret Wars , a storyline featuring the company 's most prolific superheroes , which overlapped into a 12-issue limited series and many monthly comic books . A year later , DC Comics introduced its first large scale crossover , Crisis on Infinite Earths , which had long-term effects on the `` DC Universe '' continuity .   In the early and mid-1990s , big events were regularly published by Marvel and DC , often leading to extra publicity and sales . These events helped fend-off competition from Image Comics , and such events were more likely to become `` collector 's items . '' Some events , such as DC 's `` Zero Hour '' and Marvel 's `` Onslaught saga '' spanned a publisher 's entire line while others only affected a `` family '' of interrelated titles . The X-Men and Batman franchises featured crossovers almost annually .   Some of the most significant mid-1990s events , such as Spider-Man 's `` Clone Saga , '' Batman 's `` Batman : Knightfall '' and particularly , `` The Death of Superman '' caused dramatic changes to long-running characters and received coverage in the mainstream media .   These events led to significant sales boosts and publicity , but many fans began to criticize them as excessive and lacking compelling storytelling . They also complained that monthly series had become inaccessible because one had to follow a number of comics to understand the full storyline . By the end of the 1990s , the number of large crossovers decreased , but they were still launched sporadically .

neg: Abyss (comics) Abyss is a name used for three distinct characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics .

neg: Hoggoth Hoggoth is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics .

neg: Image Comics Image Comics is an American comic book publisher . It was founded in 1992 by several high-profile illustrators as a venue where comics creators could publish their material without giving up the copyrights to the characters they created , as creator-owned properties . It was immediately successful , and remains one of the largest comic book publishers in North America . Its output was originally dominated by superhero and fantasy series from the studios of the Image partners , but now includes comics in many genres by numerous independent creators . Its best-known series include Spawn , Savage Dragon , Witchblade , The Darkness , Invincible , The Walking Dead , Saga , and Chew .

neg: Infinite Comics Infinite Comics is an imprint of comic books published by Marvel Comics , featuring original , made-for-digital stories about the company 's superhero characters , including Spider-Man , Wolverine , the Guardians of the Galaxy , the Silver Surfer , the X-Men and the Avengers . The imprint was launched in 2012 with the publication of Avengers vs. X-Men # 1 : Infinite featuring Nova .  Infinite Comics are designed for horizontal , on-screen reading . Rather than telling a story over a series of static pages that are divided into panels , Infinite Comics present screens of content that `` take advantage of the digital format with techniques that would not be possible in a print comic , like dynamic panel transitions and captions or dialogue boxes that appear sequentially on an image at the prompting of the reader . '' The user retains control over the pace of the reading experience , advancing the story with each swipe -- sometimes staggering elements into the existing screen ( for example , a new word balloon ) and at other times revealing an entirely new screen .   This narrative technique was inspired by the work of a French comic book artist , Yves Bigerel ( alias `` Balak '' ) , who was recruited by Marvel as artistic consultant , storyboarder and artist .

neg: Death's Head Death 's Head is a fictional character appearing in British comics and American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is depicted as a robotic bounty hunter ( or rather , as he calls himself , a `` freelance peace-keeping agent '' ) . The character was created by writer Simon Furman and artist Geoff Senior for the company 's Marvel UK imprint . Furman decided to use Death 's Head in his Transformers stories , but believed that characters appearing in Transformers `` were prone to be absorbed into that title 's catchall copyright '' ( allowing Hasbro to contest their ownership ) and led to a one-page strip titled `` High Noon Tex '' ( which was subsequently published in various Marvel UK titles ) being hastily created to establish Marvel 's ownership of the character . Furman has stated that he chose the name Death 's Head for the character while unaware of the `` Nazi-connotations of the name '' .   The character was later redesigned and relaunched as Death 's Head II , acting as one of the flagship characters for Marvel UK 's 1990s expansion . This version of Death 's Head also inspired two spin-off characters , Death Wreck and Death Metal , each of which starred in its own limited series .   Later , in 2005 , fans used a poll on Marvel 's website to vote for the character 's return . This led to a third version of Death 's Head , Death 's Head 3.0 , created by original Death 's Head writer Simon Furman . Simon Furman said in 2011 that the character was still popular because `` he 'll never change or compromise or grow or repent or agonise like most comic book characters . He 's this unchanging , uncompromising rock that other characters bounce off . But you still kind of love him . Weird . ''