query: Many copies of Archimedes' written work survived through the Middle Ages.

pos: Archimedes )  | death_place = Syracuse , SicilyMagna Graecia  | field =  | known_for =  -RCB- -RCB-  Archimedes of Syracuse ( -LSB- ˌɑːkɪˈmiːdiːz -RSB- Ἀρχιμήδης ) was a Greek mathematician , physicist , engineer , inventor , and astronomer . Although few details of his life are known , he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity . Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time , Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems , including the area of a circle , the surface area and volume of a sphere , and the area under a parabola .   Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi , defining and investigating the spiral bearing his name , and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers . He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena , founding hydrostatics and statics , including an explanation of the principle of the lever . He is credited with designing innovative machines , such as his screw pump , compound pulleys , and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion .   Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed . Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes , which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder , which Archimedes had requested to be placed on his tomb , representing his mathematical discoveries .   Unlike his inventions , the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity . Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him , but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople , while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time . The relatively few copies of Archimedes ' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance , while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results .

neg: Skeireins The Skeireins ( -LSB- wiktionary : ð ð ºð ´ ð ¹ ð ð ´ ð ¹ ð 1/2 ð , ð ð ºð ´ ð ¹ ð ð ´ ð ¹ ð 1/2 ð -RSB- -LSB- ˈskiːriːns -RSB- ) is the longest and most important monument of the Gothic language after Ulfilas ' version of the Bible . It consists of eight fragments of a commentary on the Gospel of John which is commonly held to have originally extended over seventy-eight parchment leaves . It owes its title to the 19th-century German scholar Hans Ferdinand Massmann , who was the first to issue a comprehensive and correct edition of it : `` Skeireins '' means `` explanation '' in Gothic . The man   Currently it is housed at the Vatican Library ( Vat . lat . 5750 ) in Rome .   There are conflicting views on whether the Skeireins was written directly in Gothic by a native speaker or whether it was a translation from a Greek original . Schäferdiek ( 1981 ) observes striking similarities between the Gothic of the Skeireins and the Greek of Theodore of Heraclea 's commentary on the Gospel of John .

neg: Antiquity Antiquity may refer to any period before the Middle Ages ( 476 -- 1453 ) , but still within Western civilization-based human history or prehistory :  Ancient history , any historical period before the Middle Ages  Classical antiquity , the classical civilizations of the Mediterranean  Late Antiquity , the period between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages  Ancient Egypt , a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa , concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt  Ancient China  Ancient Somalia , ancient pyramidal structures , mausoleums , ruined cities and stone walls found in Somalia ( such as the Wargaade Wall ) are evidence of an old sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula  Ancient Greece , a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( c. 600 AD )  Ancient India  Ancient Iran  Ancient Israel and Judah  Ancient Japan  Ancient Near East , the home of early civilizations within roughly the modern Middle East  North Africa during Antiquity , the history of Egypt , Ancient Libya , Numidia and Mauretania  Poland in Antiquity , an era that dates from about 400 BC to 450 -- 500 AD  Romania in Antiquity , between the foundation of Greek colonies in present-day Dobruja and the withdrawal of the Romans from `` Dacia Trajana '' province  Ancient Rome  Ancient languages  Ancient music , music that developed in literate cultures , replacing prehistoric music  Antiquities , objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures

neg: Christine de Pizan Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan ; -LSB- kʁistin də pizɑ̃ -RSB- ; 1364 -- c. 1430 ) was an Italian French late medieval author . She served as a court writer for several dukes ( Louis of Orleans , Philip the Bold of Burgundy , and John the Fearless of Burgundy ) and the French royal court during the reign of Charles VI . She wrote both poetry and prose works such as biographies and books containing practical advice for women . She completed forty-one works during her 30-year career from 1399 to 1429 . She married in 1380 at the age of 15 , and was widowed 10 years later . Much of the impetus for her writing came from her need to earn a living to support her mother , a niece and her two surviving children . She spent most of her childhood and all of her adult life in Paris and then the abbey at Poissy , and wrote entirely in her adopted language , Middle French .   Her early courtly poetry is marked by her knowledge of aristocratic custom and fashion of the day , particularly involving women and the practice of chivalry . Her early and later allegorical and didactic treatises reflect both autobiographical information about her life and views and also her own individualized and humanist approach to the scholastic learned tradition of mythology , legend , and history she inherited from clerical scholars and to the genres and courtly or scholastic subjects of contemporary French and Italian poets she admired . Supported and encouraged by important royal French and English patrons , she influenced 15th-century English poetry . Her success stems from a wide range of innovative writing and rhetorical techniques that critically challenged renowned writers such as Jean de Meun , author of the Romance of the Rose , which she criticized as immoral .   In recent decades , Christine de Pizan 's work has been returned to prominence by the efforts of scholars such as Charity Cannon Willard , Earl Jeffrey Richards and Simone de Beauvoir . Certain scholars have argued that she should be seen as an early feminist who efficiently used language to convey that women could play an important role within society . This characterization has been challenged by other critics , who say that it is either an anachronistic use of the word or a misinterpretation of her writing and intentions .

neg: Old English literature Old English literature or Anglo-Saxon literature , encompasses literature written in Old English , in Anglo-Saxon England from the 7th century to the decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066 . `` Cædmon 's Hymn '' , composed in the 7th century , according to Bede , is often considered the oldest extant poem in English , whereas the later poem , The Grave is one of the final poems written in Old English , and presents a transitional text between Old and Middle English . The Peterborough Chronicle can also be considered a late-period text , continuing into the 12th century .   The poem Beowulf , which often begins the traditional canon of English literature , is the most famous work of Old English literature . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has also proven significant for historical study , preserving a chronology of early English history .   In descending order of quantity , Old English literature consists of : sermons and saints ' lives ; biblical translations ; translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers ; Anglo-Saxon chronicles and narrative history works ; laws , wills and other legal works ; practical works on grammar , medicine , geography ; and poetry . In all there are over 400 surviving manuscripts from the period , of which about 189 are considered `` major '' .   Besides Old English literature , Anglo-Saxons wrote a number of Anglo-Latin works .

neg: Medieval letter tile Medieval letter tiles are one-letter ceramic tiles that were employed in monasteries and churches of the late Middle Ages for the creation of Christian inscriptions on floors and walls . They were created by pressing stamps bearing a reverse image into soft clay , which was then baked hard , and they were used to form words by assembling single-letter tiles in the desired order .   The decoration technique is notable for being an early form of movable type printing which essentially is nothing but the stringing together of identically created individual letters for the purpose of producing an image . Compared to the conventional printing technique later established by Johannes Gutenberg , though , medieval tile alphabets were created in an inverse order : In a first step , the ( im ) printing was done , and only then the process of typesetting occurred , by spreading out the individual letter tiles onto the floor and composing them into words and lines of text .   The use of such movable letter tiles is documented for the English Chertsey Abbey , from whose ruins specimens dating to the second half of the 13th century were recovered , as well as for the early 14th‑century flooring of the Dutch Aduard Abbey . In Zinna Abbey south of Berlin , there is an extant Ave Maria embedded in the floor before the altar . Each letter appears as a relief print on an unglazed , red-brown terracotta tile measuring 14 x 14 cm . The Latin inscription dates to the 13th or 14th century and was composed in Gothic majuscule .   The Prüfening dedicatory inscription is a Latin church inscription on a single clay tablet using a different principle , apparently made by stamping out the words with individual letter stamps or types .  __ NOTOC __

neg: Epigenes of Byzantium Epigenes of Byzantium ( Έπιγένης unknown-circa 200 BC ) was a Greek astrologer . He seems to have been a strong supporter of astrology , which , though derided by many Greek intellectuals , had been accepted and adopted by many Greeks from the seventh century BC through commercial contact with the Chaldeans of Babylonia .   It is unclear when Epigenes lived - he may have lived about the time of Augustus ; some conjecture that he lived centuries earlier - but he is known to have refined the study of his chosen field , defining Saturn , for example , as `` cold and windy . '' Along with Apollonius of Myndus and Artemidorus of Parium , he boasted of having been instructed by the Chaldean priest-astrologers , many of whom infiltrated Greece when the ports of Egypt opened to Greek ships after 640 BC .   Epigenes ' claims to have been educated by the Chaldeans comes from the writings of Seneca . Pliny the Elder writes that Epigenes attests to the fact that the Chaldeans preserved astral observations in inscriptions upon brick tiles ( coctilibus laterculis ) extending to a period of 720 years . Pliny calls Epigenes a writer of first-rate authority ( gravis auctor imprimis ) . The 55-km lunar crater Epigenes is named after him .

neg: Erasmus Reinhold Erasmus Reinhold ( October 22 , 1511 -- February 19 , 1553 ) was a German astronomer and mathematician , considered to be the most influential astronomical pedagogue of his generation . He was born and died in Saalfeld , Saxony .   He was educated , under Jacob Milich , at the University of Wittenberg , where he was first elected dean and later became rector . In 1536 he was appointed professor of higher mathematics by Philipp Melanchthon . In contrast to the limited modern definition , `` mathematics '' at the time also included applied mathematics , especially astronomy . His colleague , Georg Joachim Rheticus , also studied at Wittenberg and was appointed professor of lower mathematics in 1536 .   Reinhold catalogued a large number of stars . His publications on astronomy include a commentary ( 1542 , 1553 ) on Georg Purbach 's Theoricae novae planetarum . Reinhold knew about Copernicus and his heliocentric ideas prior to the publication of De revolutionibis and made a favourable reference to him in his commentary on Purbach . However , Reinhold ( like other astronomers before Kepler and Galileo ) translated Copernicus ' mathematical methods back into a geocentric system , rejecting heliocentric cosmology on physical and theological grounds .   Duke Albert of Brandenburg Prussia supported Reinhold and financed the printing of Reinhold 's Prutenicae Tabulae or Prussian Tables . These astronomical tables helped to disseminate calculation methods of Copernicus throughout the Empire , however , Gingerich notes that they showed a `` notable lack of commitment '' to heliocentricity and were `` carefully framed '' to be independent of the movement of the Earth . Both Reinholds 's Prutenic Tables and Copernicus ' studies were the foundation for the Calendar Reform by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 .   It was Reinhold 's heavily annotated copy of De revolutionibus in the Royal Observatory , Edinburgh , that started Owen Gingerich on his search for copies of the first and second editions which he describes in The Book Nobody Read . In Reinhold 's unpublished commentary on De revolutionibus , he calculated the distance from the Earth to the sun . He `` massaged '' his calculation method in order to arrive at an answer close to that of Ptolemy .   His name has been given to a prominent lunar impact crater that lies to the south-southwest of the crater Copernicus , on the Mare Insularum .

neg: Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici ( often abbreviated to MD ; `` Materials and discussions for the analysis of classical texts '' ) is an Italian periodical within the realm of classical philology founded in 1978 .   The periodical serves as a forum for exchange on different methodological approaches to ancient literature confronting historical-philological method and modern literary theory and investigating the language of culture as well as forms and techniques of literary communication .   MD was founded by a group of scholars around the editor Gian Biagio Conte in Pisa in 1978 . The editor is helped by an international scientific advisory board , to which belong : Alessandro Barchiesi , Maurizio Bettini , Maria Grazia Bonnanno , Mario Citroni , Marco Fantuzzi , R. Elaine Fantham , Rolando Ferri , Philip Hardie , Richard L. Hunter , Mario Labate , Glenn W. Most , Michael D. Reeve , Gianpiero Rosati , Luigi Enrico Rossi , Richard J. Tarrant . Publications are peer-reviewed .   The periodical appears twice a year at Fabrizio Serra editore in Pisa ( ISSN 0392-6338 ) . From issue 49 , 2002 onwards , it also appears in electronic guise ( ISSN elettronico 1724-1693 ) . In 2009 , a volume of indices was published for volumes 1 , 1978 to 60 , 2008 .   The periodical is accompanied by a book series Biblioteca di ` Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici ' edited by Maurizio Bettini and Gian Biagio Conte . It accepts philological and critical monographs which may vary in their approach to ancient literature , but are supposed to give a problematized framework of the analysis of their given text and to foster the development of critical instruments . So far , 20 volumes have been published .

neg: Medieval literature Medieval literature is a broad subject , encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe and beyond during the Middle Ages ( that is , the one thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire ca . AD 500 to the beginning of the Florentine Renaissance in the late 15th century ) . The literature of this time was composed of religious writings as well as secular works . Just as in modern literature , it is a complex and rich field of study , from the utterly sacred to the exuberantly profane , touching all points in-between . Works of literature are often grouped by place of origin , language , and genre .

neg: Oxyrhynchus Papyri The Oxyrhynchus Papyri are a group of manuscripts discovered during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by archaeologists including Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt at an ancient rubbish dump near Oxyrhynchus in Egypt ( , modern el-Bahnasa ) . The manuscripts date from the 1st to as late as the 7th century AD . They include thousands of Greek and Latin documents , letters and literary works . They also include a few vellum manuscripts , and more recent Arabic manuscripts on paper ( for example , the medieval P. Oxy . VI 1006 ) .   The Oxyrhynchus Papyri are currently housed in institutions all over the world . A substantial number are housed in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University .   Although the initial hope of finding many of the lost literary works of antiquity at Oxyrhynchus was not realized , many important Greek texts were found at the site . These include poems of Pindar , fragments of Sappho and Alcaeus , along with larger pieces of Alcman , Ibycus , and Corinna .   There were also extensive remains of the Hypsipyle of Euripides , fragments of the comedies of Menander , and a large part of the Ichneutae of Sophocles . Also found were the oldest and most complete diagrams from Euclid 's Elements . Fragments of Euclid discovered lead to a re-evaluation of the accuracy of ancient sources for The Elements , revealing that the version of Theon of Alexandria has more authority than previously believed , according to Thomas Little Heath . Another important find was the historical work known as the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia , whose author is unknown but may be Ephorus or , as many currently think , Cratippus . A life of Euripides by Satyrus the Peripatetic was also unearthed , while an epitome of seven of the 107 lost books of Livy was the most important literary find in Latin .   The classical author who has most benefited from the finds at Oxyrhynchus is the Athenian playwright Menander ( 342 -- 291 BC ) , whose comedies were very popular in Hellenistic times and whose works are frequently found in papyrus fragments . Menander 's plays found in fragments at Oxyrhynchus include Misoumenos , Dis Exapaton , Epitrepontes , Karchedonios , Dyskolos and Kolax . The works found at Oxyrhynchus have greatly raised Menander 's status among classicists and scholars of Greek theatre .   There is an on-line table of contents briefly listing the type of contents of each papyrus or fragment .

neg: Chivalric romance As a literary genre of high culture , romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe . They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures , often of a knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities , who goes on a quest , yet it is `` the emphasis on love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic , in which masculine military heroism predominates . '' Popular literature also drew on themes of romance , but with ironic , satiric or burlesque intent . Romances reworked legends , fairy tales , and history to suit the readers ' and hearers ' tastes , but by c. 1600 they were out of fashion , and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote . Still , the modern image of `` medieval '' is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre , and the word medieval evokes knights , distressed damsels , dragons , and other romantic tropes .   Originally , romance literature was written in Old French , Anglo-Norman , Occitan , and Provençal , and later in Portuguese , in Castilian , in English , in Italian ( particularly with the Sicilian poetry ) and German . During the early 13th century , romances were increasingly written as prose . In later romances , particularly those of French origin , there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love , such as faithfulness in adversity .

neg: Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : ελληνικά -LSB- eliniˈka -RSB- , elliniká , `` Greek '' , ελληνική γλώσσα -LSB- eliniˈci ˈɣlosa -RSB- , ellinikí glóssa , `` Greek language '' ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages , native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any living language , spanning 34 centuries of written records . Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history ; other systems , such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary , were used previously . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Armenian , Coptic , Gothic and many other writing systems .   The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world and Christianity ; the canon of ancient Greek literature includes seminal works in the Western canon such as the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science , especially astronomy , mathematics and logic , and Western philosophy , such as the Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle , are composed ; the New Testament of the Christian Bible was written in Koiné Greek . Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of Classics .   During antiquity , Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond . It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire and develop into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , the Greek language is the official language in two countries , Greece and Cyprus , a recognised minority language in seven other countries , and is one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . The language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece , Cyprus , Italy , Albania , Turkey , and the Greek diaspora .   Greek roots are often used to coin new words for other languages ; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary .

neg: Old master print An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition . The term remains current in the art trade , and there is no easy alternative in English to distinguish the works of `` fine art '' produced in printmaking from the vast range of decorative , utilitarian and popular prints that grew rapidly alongside the artistic print from the 15th century onwards . Fifteenth-century prints are sufficiently rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality . A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term .   The main techniques used , in order of their introduction , are woodcut , engraving , etching , mezzotint and aquatint , although there are others . Different techniques are often combined in a single print . With rare exceptions printed on textiles , such as silk , or on vellum , old master prints are printed on paper . This article is concerned with the artistic , historical and social aspects of the subject ; the article on printmaking summarizes the techniques used in making old master prints , from a modern perspective .   Many great European artists , such as Albrecht Dürer , Rembrandt , and Francisco Goya , were dedicated printmakers . In their own day , their international reputations largely came from their prints , which were spread far more widely than their paintings . Influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints ( and sometimes drawings ) , for the same reason . Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history . Today , thanks to colour photo reproductions , and public galleries , their paintings are much better known , whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited , for conservation reasons . But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection , sometimes only by appointment .

neg: Bible The Bible ( from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία , tà biblía , `` the books '' ) is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans .   Many different authors contributed to the Bible . What is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups ; a number of Bible canons have evolved , with overlapping and diverging contents . The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint ; the Hebrew Bible is known in Judaism as the Tanakh . The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians , believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ , written in first-century Koine Greek . These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives , letters , and apocalyptic writings . Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon , primarily the Apocrypha , a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect .   Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups . Roman Catholics , Anglicans and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of the Bible and sacred tradition , while Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura , or scripture alone . This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation , and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching .   With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies , the Bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time . It has estimated annual sales of 100 million copies , and has been a major influence on literature and history , especially in the West , where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type .

neg: Encyclopedia An encyclopedia or encyclopaedia is a reference work or compendium providing a comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or from a particular field or discipline .  Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are often arranged alphabetically by article name and sometimes by thematic categories . Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries . Generally speaking , unlike dictionary entries which focus on linguistic information about words , such as their meaning , pronunciation , use , and grammatical forms , encyclopedia articles focus on factual information concerning the subject named in the article 's title .   Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years and have evolved considerably since that time as to language ( written in a major international or a vernacular language ) , size ( few or many volumes ) , intent ( presentation of a global or a limited range of knowledge ) , cultural perceptions ( authoritative , ideological , didactic , utilitarian ) , authorship ( qualifications , style ) , readership ( education level , background , interests , capabilities ) , and the technologies available for their production and distribution ( hand-written manuscripts , small or large print runs , internet production ) . As a valued source of reliable information compiled by experts , printed versions found a prominent place in libraries , schools and other educational institutions .   The appearance of digital and open-source versions in the 20th century has vastly expanded the accessibility , authorship , readership , and variety of encyclopedia entries and called into question the idea of what an encyclopedia is and the relevance of applying to such dynamic productions the traditional criteria for assembling and evaluating print encyclopedias .

neg: Book of Fixed Stars The Book of Fixed Stars is an astronomical text written by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi ( Azophi ) around 964 . The book was written in Arabic , although the author himself was Persian . It was an attempt to create a synthesis of the comprehensive star catalogue in Ptolemy 's Almagest ( books VII and VIII ) with the indigenous Arabic astronomical traditions on the constellations .   The book was thoroughly illustrated along with observations and descriptions of the stars , their positions ( copied from Ptolemy 's Almagest with the longitudes increased by 12 ° 42 ' to account for the precession ) , their magnitudes ( brightness ) and their color . His results , as in Ptolemy 's Almagest , were set out constellation by constellation . For each constellation , he provided two drawings , one from the outside of a celestial globe , and the other from the inside .   The work was highly influential and survives in numerous manuscripts and translations . The oldest manuscript , kept in the Bodleian Library , dates to 1009 and is the work of the author 's son . There is a thirteenth-century copy in the British Library ( Or . 5323 ) .   He has the earliest known descriptions and illustrations of what he called `` a little cloud '' , which is actually the Andromeda Galaxy . He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish , an Arabic constellation . This `` cloud '' was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers , very probably before 905 .  The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given in the Book of Fixed Stars . These were the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth . The Great Andromeda Nebula he observed was also the first true nebula to be observed , as distinct from a star cluster .   He probably also cataloged the Omicron Velorum star cluster as a `` nebulous star '' , and an additional `` nebulous object '' in Vulpecula , a cluster now variously known as Al-Sufi 's Cluster , the `` Coathanger asterism '' , Brocchi 's Cluster or Collinder 399 . Moreover , he mentions the two Magellanic Clouds , and that they are not visible from Iraq nor Najd , but visible from Tihama , and that they are called al-Baqar ( the cows ) .   There has not been a published English translation of the book , though it was translated into French by Hans Schjellerup in 1874 . As of March 2012 , one is in preparation by Ihsan Hafez of James Cook University , Townsville .

neg: Cancionero de la Colombina The Cancionero de la Colombina or Cancionero Musical de la Colombina ( CMC ) is a Spanish manuscript ( Ms. 7-1-28 ) containing Renaissance music from the second half of the 15th century .   The manuscript was copied during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs , possibly between the 1460s and the 1480s . Therefore , it predates the more famous Cancionero de Palacio . The first half of the manuscript is the work of two main scribes , and the second half was completed by six other scribes . It originally comprised 106 folios , 8 of which are lost . The general condition of the remaining folios is less than satisfactory . A title added on a later period reads `` Cantilenas vulgares puestas en musica por varios Españoles '' ( Popular melodies set to music by various Spaniards ) .   In 1534 it was bought by the second son of Christopher Columbus , the bibliophile Ferdinand Columbus , who added it to his rich Sevillian library of more than 15,000 volumes known by the name of `` Columbine Library '' ( in Spanish , `` Biblioteca Colombina '' ) . After his death , the library was transferred to the Seville Cathedral , where it remained up to these days .   The Cancionero currently contains 95 musical settings , some of which are incomplete . Of this total , 53 remain anonymous . The authorship of several works could be established because they had been properly attributed in other cancioneros , especially the Cancionero de Palacio and the Cancionero de Montecassino .   The repertory in the manuscript is varied . Among the musical genres can be found canciones , villancicos , romances and ensaladas . Many of the villancicos and canciones are sacred , mostly Marian . Two of the works are in French and 12 are liturgical compositions in Latin . There are also two short versions in Castilian of the Song of the Sibyl ( `` El Cant de la Sibil · la '' ) , nos. 73 and 91 ( `` Juysio fuerte será dado '' ) .

neg: St Cuthbert Gospel The St Cuthbert Gospel , also known as the Stonyhurst Gospel or the St Cuthbert Gospel of St John , is an early 8th-century pocket gospel book , written in Latin . Its finely decorated leather binding is the earliest known Western bookbinding to survive , and both the 94 vellum folios and the binding are in outstanding condition for a book of this age . With a page size of only 138 x , the St Cuthbert Gospel is one of the smallest surviving Anglo-Saxon manuscripts . The essentially undecorated text is the Gospel of John in Latin , written in a script that has been regarded as a model of elegant simplicity .   The book takes its name from Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , North East England , in whose tomb it was placed , probably a few years after his death in 687 . Although it was long regarded as Cuthbert 's personal copy of the Gospel , to which there are early references , and so a relic of the saint , the book is now thought to date from shortly after Cuthbert 's death . It was probably a gift from Monkwearmouth -- Jarrow Abbey , where it was written , intended to be placed in St Cuthbert 's coffin in the few decades after this was placed behind the altar at Lindisfarne in 698 . It presumably remained in the coffin through its long travels after 875 , forced by Viking invasions , ending at Durham Cathedral . The book was found inside the coffin and removed in 1104 when the burial was once again moved within the cathedral . It was kept there with other relics , and important visitors were able to wear the book in a leather bag around their necks . It is thought that after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in England by Henry VIII between 1536 and 1541 , the book passed to collectors . It was eventually given to Stonyhurst College , the Jesuit school in Lancashire .   From 1979 it was on long-term loan from the British province of the Jesuit order to the British Library , catalogued as Loan 74 . On 14 July 2011 the British Library launched a fundraising campaign to buy the book for # 9 million , and on 17 April 2012 announced that the purchase had been completed and the book was now British Library Additional MS 89000 .   The library plans to display the Gospel for equal amounts of time in London and Durham . It describes the manuscript as `` the earliest surviving intact European book and one of the world 's most significant books '' . The Cuthbert Gospel returned to Durham to feature in exhibitions in 2013 and 2014 . In 2017 it was `` resting '' off display , but it will be in British Library 's Anglo-Saxon exhibition in autumn 2018 . A new book on the gospel was published in 2015 , incorporating the results of research since the purchase ; among other things this pushed the likely date from the late 7th to the early 8th century , perhaps as late as 730 .

neg: Ancient Egyptian literature Ancient Egyptian literature was written in the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt 's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination . It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature . Along with Sumerian literature , it is considered the world 's earliest literature .   Writing in ancient Egypt -- both hieroglyphic and hieratic -- first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of predynastic Egypt . By the Old Kingdom ( 26th century BC to 22nd century BC ) , literary works included funerary texts , epistles and letters , hymns and poems , and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials . It was not until the early Middle Kingdom ( 21st century BC to 17th century BC ) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created . This was a `` media revolution '' which , according to Richard B. Parkinson , was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of scribes , new cultural sensibilities about individuality , unprecedented levels of literacy , and mainstream access to written materials . However , it is possible that the overall literacy rate was less than one percent of the entire population . The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise , monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling pharaoh . However , there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ancient Egyptian literature on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts .   Middle Egyptian , the spoken language of the Middle Kingdom , became a classical language during the New Kingdom ( 16th century BC to 11th century BC ) , when the vernacular language known as Late Egyptian first appeared in writing . Scribes of the New Kingdom canonized and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian , which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts . Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature , such as `` teachings '' and fictional tales , remained popular in the New Kingdom , although the genre of prophetic texts was not revived until the Ptolemaic period ( 4th century BC to 1st century BC ) . Popular tales included the Story of Sinuhe and The Eloquent Peasant , while important teaching texts include the Instructions of Amenemhat and The Loyalist Teaching . By the New Kingdom period , the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature , yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres . The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres , while texts of the `` teaching '' genre were pseudonymous and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures .   Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media . This includes papyrus scrolls and packets , limestone or ceramic ostraca , wooden writing boards , monumental stone edifices and coffins . Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material . The area of the floodplain of the Nile is under-represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions . On the other hand , hidden caches of literature , buried for thousands of years , have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization .

neg: Poem of Almería The Poem of Almería ( Spanish Poema de Almería ) is a medieval Latin epic poem in 385 1/2 leonine hexameters . It was appended to the end of the Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris , an account of the reign of Alfonso VII of León and Castile , and narrates the victorious military campaign of 1147 that culminated in the conquest of the port of Almería . The poem , as it survives , is unfinished , abruptly ending mid-line before recounting the actual siege of Almería itself . Of its surviving lines , 293 consist of `` dénombrement épique , a stirring roll-call of the chief members and contingents of the army '' .   The Poem has aroused interest among scholars and critics for the light it may shed on the origins and development of vernacular epic ( the cantares de gesta ) and on the nature of Iberian aristocratic and military customs . It has been described as `` a relict of incomparable interest for the cultural archaeology of the twelfth century '' and `` a splendid reflection of its time and , in this regard , full of gold also as literature '' . Stylistically , the Poem is indebted to the parallelism of the poetry of the Hebrew Bible and to the classical models of Virgil and Ovid .


query: Seinfeld was a movie.

pos: Seinfeld Seinfeld is an American sitcom that originally ran for nine seasons on NBC , from 1989 to 1998 . It was created by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld , the latter starring as a fictionalized version of himself . Set predominantly in an apartment building in Manhattan 's Upper West Side in New York City , the show features a handful of Jerry 's friends and acquaintances , particularly best friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) , former girlfriend Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis-Dreyfus ) , and neighbor across the hall Cosmo Kramer ( Michael Richards ) . It is often described as being `` a show about nothing '' , as many of its episodes are about the minutiae of daily life .   Seinfeld was produced by Castle Rock Entertainment . In syndication , the series has been distributed by Sony Pictures Television since 2002 . It was largely written by David and Seinfeld with script writers who included Larry Charles , Peter Mehlman , Gregg Kavet , Carol Leifer , David Mandel , Jeff Schaffer , Steve Koren , Jennifer Crittenden , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Dan O'Keefe , Charlie Rubin , Marjorie Gross , Alec Berg , Elaine Pope , and Spike Feresten . A favorite among critics , the series led the Nielsen ratings in seasons six and nine , and finished among the top two ( with NBC 's ER ) every year from 1994 to 1998 .   Seinfeld is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms ever made . It has been ranked among the best television shows of all time in publications such as Entertainment Weekly , Rolling Stone , and TV Guide . The show 's most renowned episodes include `` The Chinese Restaurant '' , `` The Parking Garage '' , and `` The Contest '' . In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America voted it the No. 2 Best Written TV Series of All Time ( second to The Sopranos ) . E! named the series the `` number 1 reason the '90s ruled '' , and quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture .

neg: Wiener Film Wiener Film ( German ; plural : Wiener Filme ; literally , `` Viennese film '' ) is an Austrian film genre , consisting of a combination of comedy , romance and melodrama in an historical setting , mostly , and typically , the Vienna of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The Wiener Film genre was in production between the 1920s and the 1950s , with the 1930s as its high period .

neg: Sleeper (1973 film) Sleeper is a 1973 American futuristic science fiction comedy film , directed by Woody Allen and written by Allen and Marshall Brickman . The plot involves the adventures of the owner of a health food store who is cryogenically frozen in 1973 and defrosted 200 years later in an ineptly led police state . The film contains many elements which parody notable works of science fiction and was made as a tribute to comedians Groucho Marx and Bob Hope .

neg: The Maid (Seinfeld) `` The Maid '' is the 175th episode of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld . This was the 19th episode of the ninth and final season . It aired on April 30 , 1998 . The working title for this episode was `` The Long-Distance Relationship . ''

neg: Howard West Howard West ( 1931 -- December 3 , 2015 ) was an American TV producer , best known for his work with long-term partner George Shapiro , in producing and managing Jerry Seinfeld .   Together with his childhood friend from Brooklyn , George Shapiro , he was a partner in Shapiro/West and Associates .

neg: Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan ( born September 23 , 1959 ) , known by his stage name Jason Alexander , is an American actor , voice actor , comedian and director .   Alexander is best known for his prominent role as George Costanza in the television series Seinfeld . Other well-known roles include Phillip Stuckey in the film Pretty Woman ( 1990 ) and the title character in the animated series Duckman ( 1994 -- 1997 ) .   Alexander has had an active career on stage , appearing in several Broadway musicals including Jerome Robbins ' Broadway in 1989 , for which he won the Tony Award as Best Leading Actor in a Musical . He appeared in the Los Angeles production of The Producers . He was the Artistic Director of `` Reprise ! Broadway 's Best in Los Angeles '' , where he has directed several musicals .

neg: Hello, Dolly! (film) Hello , Dolly ! is a 1969 American romantic comedy musical film based on the Broadway production of the same name . Directed by Gene Kelly and adapted and produced by Ernest Lehman , the cast includes Barbra Streisand , Walter Matthau , Michael Crawford , Danny Lockin , Tommy Tune , Fritz Feld , Marianne McAndrew , E. J. Peaker and Louis Armstrong ( whose recording of the title tune had become a number-one single in May 1964 ) . The film follows the story of Dolly Levi ( a strong-willed matchmaker ) , as she travels to Yonkers , New York , to find a match for the miserly `` well-known unmarried half-a-millionaire '' Horace Vandergelder . In doing so she convinces his niece , his niece 's intended , and Horace 's two clerks to travel to New York City .   The film won three Oscars for Best Art Direction , Best Score of a Musical Picture , and Best Sound Mixing and was nominated for a further four Academy Awards , including Best Picture . Although the film eventually broke even , it was not a commercial success .

neg: The CBS Late Movie The CBS Late Movie is a CBS television series ( later known as CBS Late Night ) during the 1970s and 1980s . The program ran in most American television markets from 11:30 p.m. ( EST ) until 2:30 a.m. or later , on weeknights . A single announcer ( in the early years , CBS staff announcer Norm Stevens ) voiced the introduction and commercial bumpers for each program , but there was no host per se , or closing credits besides those of the night 's presentation . ( The bumpers announcing the stars of the movie notably rotated names , two or three at a time , so more of the players would be mentioned . )   The program was launched following the cancellation of The Merv Griffin Show , CBS 's late-night talk show from 1969 to 1972 . The show went on to have a long run in first-run syndication following CBS 's cancellation .   The CBS Late Movie theme music was `` So Old , So Young '' by Morton Stevens , which also served as the theme music for CBS 's prime-time movies until 1978 .   A memorable aspect to the show 's commercial breaks was the frequent appearance of public service announcements , from the Ad Council and other organizations , that often dealt with `` mature '' topics such as venereal disease , sexual and violent crimes , and abuse of hard drugs . Announcements also ran in much greater proportion than during prime time , with commercial breaks lasting longer ; it was not uncommon for the second portion of the show to start at 12:05 AM or 12:40 AM .   The CBS Late Night block , however , was not always cleared by every affiliate of the network ; in several markets , the block was either delayed by one hour from its regularly-scheduled time ( most notably in the Central and Mountain time zones ) , picked up by a local independent station ( including those that later affiliated with the Fox television network ) , or not seen at all in certain cities . Those stations that did not carry CBS Late Night instead broadcast movies from their own libraries and/or their own lineup of off-network syndicated sitcoms , drama reruns and first-run syndication products . A large factor in the programming decisions of many CBS affiliates electing not to clear CBS Late Night ( or delaying it ) was due to head-to-head competition with NBC 's The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , and later entering the 1980s , ABC News ' Nightline . It was not until 1993 , when the Late Show with David Letterman debuted , that CBS ' late night programming ( excluding Nightwatch/Up to the Minute ) was cleared across the entire network .

neg: The Slicer `` The Slicer '' is the 163rd episode of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld . This was the seventh episode of the ninth and final season . It first aired on November 13 , 1997 .

neg: Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee is an American web series talk show created , directed and hosted by comedian Jerry Seinfeld , distributed by digital network Crackle . The series premiered on July 19 , 2012 .   Episodes feature Seinfeld introducing a vintage car selected for a guest comedian , followed by a drive to a pre-selected café or restaurant for coffee . Episodes diverge from the format spontaneously , as when Michael Richards implores Seinfeld to take a side street , when Seinfeld returns after coffee with Carl Reiner to join him for dinner with Mel Brooks -- or when car trouble arises . As of May 2015 , the series had been streamed nearly 100 million times .   The show 's ninth season premiered on January 5 , 2017 . That same month it was announced that the series would migrate from Crackle to Netflix , with the ninth season being the final one to premiere on Crackle . Twenty-four new episodes will stream on Netflix in 2017 and 2018 , with all previous episodes made available on the streaming service .

neg: Seinfeld: A XXX Parody Seinfeld : A XXX Parody is a 2009 American pornographic situation comedy film that parodies the American television sitcom Seinfeld which ran from 1989 until 1998 . Like other porn parodies , it has the same characters , settings and other production elements of the original show but adds an explicitly sexual element that was not present in the series . Written by A.J. Slater and directed by Lee Roy Myers , the plot is based on the episode `` The Soup Nazi '' . The film stars James Deen , Kristina Rose , Eric John , Steve Pomerantz , Evan Stone , Ashlynn Brooke , London Keyes , Natalie Horton , Tony Disergio , Sasha Grey , Sadie West and Cassandra Calogera . Released to DVD on June 29 , 2009 , the movie received positive reviews from critics , who enjoyed the acting , casting , sexual content and comedy . In addition to the positive reception , it also earned ten nominations at the 27th AVN Awards .

neg: When Jews Were Funny When Jews Were Funny is a 2013 documentary film by Canadian director Alan Zweig , which explores the role of Jewish comedians in the history of North American comedy and humour from the Borscht Belt to the present day .   The film features interviews with and/or performance clips of a wide variety of Jewish comedy performers and writers of the 20th and 21st centuries , including Howie Mandel , Gilbert Gottfried , Rodney Dangerfield , Eugene Mirman , Marc Maron , Bob Einstein , Andy Kindler , Shelley Berman , Alan King , Judy Gold , Elon Gold , David Steinberg , Jackie Mason , Jack Carter , Norm Crosby , Henny Youngman , David Brenner , Shecky Greene , Mark Breslin , Cory Kahaney , Harrison Greenbaum , Simon Rakoff , Lisa Lambert , Larry Josephson and Michael Wex .   The film premiered on September 10 , 2013 at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival . It subsequently won the festival award for the year 's best Canadian feature film .

neg: Alec Berg Alec Berg is an American comedy writer , best known as a writer for the sitcom Seinfeld . He also co-wrote the screenplays for the films The Cat in the Hat , EuroTrip and The Dictator . In addition , Berg is an executive producer of and has directed numerous episodes of Larry David 's Curb Your Enthusiasm , and also executive produces Silicon Valley .   In the Seinfeld episode `` The Face Painter '' , Berg 's name is given to an attorney friend of Jerry 's who gives Jerry some New York Rangers playoff tickets . When Jerry fails to thank Berg 's character for the tickets , Berg does not offer Jerry tickets for another game that week . In that episode , Jerry jokes that Berg has a great `` John Houseman name '' , pronouncing it jokingly in Houseman 's accent .   Berg is of Swedish descent . In the Season 8 of Curb Your Enthusiasm episode `` The Divorce , '' Larry David fires his divorce attorney Andrew Berg ( played by Paul F. Tompkins ) after he finds out that Berg is not Jewish -- as he had presumed from the name -- but , like Alec Berg , is a Catholic of Swedish heritage .

neg: When You Wish Upon a Weinstein `` When You Wish Upon a Weinstein '' is the twenty-second episode of Family Guys third season , and the original series finale . It originally aired on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim on November 9 , 2003 , and on Fox on December 10 , 2004 . In the episode , Peter prays for a Jew to help him with his financial woes . After befriending a Jewish accountant , Max Weinstein , and discovering the wonders of their religion , Peter gets the idea of converting Chris to Judaism so he will be successful in life . Lois attempts to stop him , believing that success is not based on religion .   `` When You Wish Upon a Weinstein '' was written by Ricky Blitt and directed by Dan Povenmire . The episode was intended to air in 2000 as the beginning of the third season way after production was made years ago , but Fox executives were concerned about its content , believing it could be interpreted as anti-Semitic , and did not allow it to air on television . Due to popular demand , it was instead aired on Adult Swim in 2003 . This episode features guest performances from Andrea Beutener , Mark Hamill , Phil LaMarr , Ed McMahon , Peter Riegert , Mary Scheer , Ben Stein , and Nicole Sullivan .

neg: B movie A B movie is a low-budget commercial movie , but one that is not an arthouse film . In its original usage , during the Golden Age of Hollywood , the term more precisely identified films intended for distribution as the less-publicized bottom half of a double feature . Although the U.S. production of movies intended as second features largely ceased by the end of the 1950s , the term B movie continues to be used in the broader sense it maintains today . In its post -- Golden Age usage , there is ambiguity on both sides of the definition : on the one hand , the primary interest of many inexpensive exploitation films is prurient ; on the other , many B movies display a high degree of craft and aesthetic ingenuity .   In either usage , most B movies represent a particular genre -- the Western was a Golden Age B movie staple , while low-budget science-fiction and horror films became more popular in the 1950s . Early B movies were often part of series in which the star repeatedly played the same character . Almost always shorter than the top-billed films they were paired with , many had running times of 70 minutes or less . The term connoted a general perception that B movies were inferior to the more handsomely budgeted headliners ; individual B films were often ignored by critics .   Latter-day B movies still sometimes inspire multiple sequels , but series are less common . As the average running time of top-of-the-line films increased , so did that of B pictures . In its current usage , the term has somewhat contradictory connotations : it may signal an opinion that a certain movie is ( a ) a genre film with minimal artistic ambitions or ( b ) a lively , energetic film uninhibited by the constraints imposed on more expensive projects and unburdened by the conventions of putatively `` serious '' independent film . The term is also now used loosely to refer to some higher-budgeted , mainstream films with exploitation-style content , usually in genres traditionally associated with the B movie .   From their beginnings to the present day , B movies have provided opportunities both for those coming up in the profession and others whose careers are waning . Celebrated filmmakers such as Anthony Mann and Jonathan Demme learned their craft in B movies . They are where actors such as John Wayne and Jack Nicholson first became established , and they have provided work for former A movie actors , such as Vincent Price and Karen Black . Some actors , such as Bela Lugosi , Eddie Constantine and Pam Grier , worked in B movies for most of their careers . The term B actor is sometimes used to refer to a performer who finds work primarily or exclusively in B pictures .

neg: Groundhog Day (film) Groundhog Day is a 1993 American fantasy-comedy film directed by Harold Ramis , starring Bill Murray , Andie MacDowell , and Chris Elliott . It was written by Ramis and Danny Rubin , based on a story by Rubin . Murray plays Phil Connors , an arrogant Pittsburgh TV weatherman who , during an assignment covering the annual Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney , Pennsylvania , finds himself caught in a time loop , repeating the same day again and again . After indulging in hedonism and committing suicide numerous times , he begins to re-examine his life and priorities .   On its release , Groundhog Day was a modest success and garnered generally positive reviews . It gained stronger appreciation among critics and film historians over time , and is now often listed among the best comedy films ever . It further entered into the public consciousness , where the term `` Groundhog Day '' can represent a situation that seems to repeat over and over in government and military arenas , as well as influencing other entertainment . In 2006 , the film was added to the United States National Film Registry as being deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . A stage musical version of the film premiered in 2016 .

neg: List of Saturday Night Live episodes Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) is a late-night sketch comedy and variety show created by Lorne Michaels . It premiered on NBC , a terrestrial television network , on October 11 , 1975 under the title NBC 's Saturday Night . The show often satirizes contemporary American popular culture and politics . Saturday Night Live features a two-tiered cast : the repertory members , also known as the `` Not Ready for Prime-Time Players , '' and newer cast members , known as `` Featured Players . '' Each week , the show features a host , often a well-known celebrity , who delivers an opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast . A musical guest is also invited to perform several sets ( usually two , and occasionally more ) . Every so often a host or musical guest will fill both roles , such as was the case with Britney Spears in 2000 and 2002 , Jennifer Lopez in 2001 and 2010 , Justin Timberlake in 2003 , 2006 and 2013 , Taylor Swift in 2009 , Bruno Mars in 2012 , Lady Gaga in 2013 , Miley Cyrus in 2013 and 2015 , Drake in 2014 and 2016 , Blake Shelton in 2015 , and Ariana Grande in 2016 . With the exception of Season 7 and several other rare cases , the show has begun with a cold open that ends with someone breaking character and proclaiming `` Live from New York , it 's Saturday Night ! ''   Saturday Night Live is one of the longest running network programs in American television history , with over 800 episodes broadcast over the span of 42 seasons . A number of the show 's sketches have been developed into feature films , including The Blues Brothers , Wayne 's World , A Night at the Roxbury , Superstar , Coneheads , and MacGruber .   Seasons 1 through 5 are available on DVD in Region 1 . Various Saturday Night Live sketches are available in several new media formats , including streaming on Hulu and Netflix . Selected sketches and segments are also available for purchase at the iTunes Store to download and playback on home computers and certain iPod and iPhone models .

neg: Halloween (children's book) Halloween is a 2002 children 's book written by Jerry Seinfeld and illustrated by James Bennett .   It is a humorous description of an American Halloween from a child 's point of view , from bad trick-or-treat candy to pajama-like costumes , based on the author 's childhood experiences .

neg: Hollywood or Bust Hollywood or Bust is a 1956 film comedy starring the team of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis . The picture was filmed from April 16 to June 19 , 1956 and released on December 6 , 1956 by Paramount Pictures , almost five months after the Martin and Lewis partnership split up .

neg: National Lampoon's Movie Madness National Lampoon 's Movie Madness is an American comedy film produced by National Lampoon as the second film from the magazine . The film was originally produced under the title National Lampoon Goes to the Movies ; completed in 1981 , the film was not released until 1983 , and was reedited and retitled as Movie Madness .   Movie Madness consists of three short segments which satirize personal growth films , glossy soap operas , and police stories . The first two segments of the film , Growing Yourself and Success Wanters , were directed by Bob Giraldi , while the film 's final segment , Municipalians , was directed by Henry Jaglom . Its title song , `` Going to the Movies '' , was sung by Dr. John . The film was a critical failure .

neg: The Simpsons Movie The Simpsons Movie is a 2007 American animated comedy film based on the Fox television series The Simpsons . The film was directed by David Silverman , and stars the regular television cast of Dan Castellaneta , Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , Yeardley Smith , Hank Azaria , Harry Shearer , Tress MacNeille , Pamela Hayden , Marcia Wallace , and Russi Taylor with guest appearances by Tom Hanks , Green Day , and Albert Brooks . The film follows Homer Simpson , whose irresponsibility gets the better of him when he pollutes the lake in Springfield after the town has cleaned it up following receipt of a warning from the Environmental Protection Agency . As the townspeople exile him and eventually his family abandons him , Homer works to redeem his folly by stopping Russ Cargill , the fictional head of the EPA , when he intends to destroy Springfield .   Previous attempts to create a The Simpsons film failed due to the lack of a script of appropriate length and production crew members . Eventually , producers James L. Brooks , Matt Groening , Al Jean , Richard Sakai , and Mike Scully began development of the film in 2001 . A writing team consisting of Brooks , Groening , Jean , Scully , Ian Maxtone-Graham , George Meyer , David Mirkin , Mike Reiss , Matt Selman , John Swartzwelder , and Jon Vitti was assembled . They conceived numerous plot ideas , with Groening 's being the one developed into a film . The script was re-written over a hundred times , and this creativity continued after the animation had begun in 2006 . This meant hours of finished material was cut , which included cameo roles from Erin Brockovich , Minnie Driver , Isla Fisher , Kelsey Grammer , and Edward Norton . Hanks and Green Day appeared in the final cut as themselves .   Tie-in promotions were made with several companies , including Burger King and 7-Eleven , the latter which transformed selected stores into Kwik-E-Marts . The film premiered in Springfield , Vermont , which had won the right to hold it through a competition organized by Fox . The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 527 million worldwide .


query: Jack Paar was the author of The Lord of the Rings.

pos: Jack Paar Jack Harold Paar ( May 1 , 1918 -- January 27 , 2004 ) was an American author , radio and television comedian and talk show host , best known for his stint as host of The Tonight Show from 1957 to 1962 . Time magazine 's obituary of him noted that : `` His fans would remember him as the fellow who split talk show history into two eras : Before Paar and Below Paar . ''

neg: House of Telcontar In the fictional universe of J. R. R. Tolkien , the House of Telcontar , previously the House of Elendil , is the Royal House of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor . The House was founded by Aragorn II during the War of the Ring , who was the last surviving Heir of Elendil , and took the throne under the name Elessar .   The name of the House finds its origin in Quenya , one of the Elvish languages . During the War of the Ring , Peregrin Took , a companion of Aragorn 's in The Fellowship of the Ring , became a member of the elite Citadel Guard at Minas Tirith , capital of Gondor . When Lord Aragorn entered the city , Peregrin persisted in familiarly referring to Aragorn by the nickname he had garnered as a Ranger of the North : `` Strider '' , even in front of foreign dignitaries such as King Éomer of Rohan . Aragorn was amused , and decided that the name of the lineage he founded would be `` Telcontar '' , which translates as `` Strider '' in Quenya . Members of the House of Telcontar are referred to as the `` Telcóntari '' ( Striders ) , the plural of Telcontar in Quenya .   Aragorn then took the royal name `` Elessar '' ( translated as Elfstone in Quenya ) .   With Queen Arwen , King Elessar reigned for 120 years , before finally surrendering his life . This long reign is attributed to Elessar 's descent from the Men of Númenor , who are blessed with long life ( he was 88 when he took the throne ) . He rebuilt the old capital Annúminas in Arnor and later ruled from this northern capital , although the old capital Minas Tirith was still of great political importance .   Elessar had one known son , Eldarion , and an unspecified number of daughters . King Elessar was buried with great honour in Minas Tirith . King Eldarion ( his name meaning `` from the Elves '' in reference to his mother Arwen ) was `` full ripe for kingship '' at the time , and ruled for an unspecified amount of time well into the Fourth Age of Men . Little is known of Eldarion , save that he left heirs to continue the House of Telcontar after him .

neg: Barahir Barahir is a fictional character in the Middle-earth universe of the English author J. R. R. Tolkien . He appears in The Silmarillion , the epic poem The Lay of Leithian and the Grey Annals .

neg: The Railway Series The Railway Series is a set of story books about a railway system located on the fictional Island of Sodor . There are 42 books in the series , the first being published in 1945 . Twenty-six were written by the Rev. Wilbert Awdry , up to 1972 . A further 16 were written by his son , Christopher Awdry ; 14 between 1983 and 1996 , and two more in 2007 and 2011 .   Nearly all of The Railway Series stories were based upon real-life events . As a lifelong railway enthusiast , Awdry was keen that his stories should be as realistic as possible . The engine characters were almost all based upon real classes of locomotive , and some of the railways themselves were directly based upon real lines in the British Isles .   Characters and stories from the books formed the basis of the children 's television series Thomas and Friends .   Audio adaptations of The Railway Series have been recorded at various times under the title The Railway Stories .

neg: Angmar Angmar ( Sindarin : ` Iron-home ' ; pronounced -LSB- - artˈaŋmar -RSB- ) is a fictional kingdom in J. R. R. Tolkien 's continent of Middle-earth , at the north end of the Misty Mountains . It was used by the Lord of the Ringwraiths as a base from which to attack the kingdoms of the Dúnedain in the North , all of which were eventually destroyed . Angmar itself was subsequently destroyed by combined armies of men and elves shortly thereafter .

neg: Jack Staff Jack Staff is a British superhero created by comic book writer/artist Paul Grist . Billed as `` Britain 's Greatest Hero '' , it is known for being in the style of an anthology title and for its multi-linear plotlines .   He first saw print in comics published by Paul Grist 's Dancing Elephant Press , and is now published by Image Comics . Comics International began exclusive publication of a monthly four-page strip featuring the supporting character Ben Kulmer ( the Claw ) ; this started in # 185 of the magazine and was set to run for twelve episodes . These strips have since been reprinted by Image Comics in a special .

neg: Christopher Tolkien Christopher John Reuel Tolkien ( born 21 November 1924 ) is the third son of the author J. R. R. Tolkien ( 1892 -- 1973 ) , and is best known as the editor of much of his father 's posthumously published work . He drew the original maps for his father 's The Lord of the Rings , which he signed C. J. R. T.

neg: Lego The Lord of the Rings (video game) Lego The Lord of the Rings is a Lego-themed action-adventure video game developed by Traveller 's Tales , that was released on Nintendo 3DS , Nintendo DS , PlayStation Vita , Microsoft Windows , Wii , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . The OS X version of the game , published by Feral Interactive , was released on 21 February 2013 .   Based on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , the game follows the original but spoofed storylines of The Fellowship of the Ring , The Two Towers , and The Return of the King , taking players through the epic story events , `` re-imagined with the humour and endless variety of Lego play '' . The game utilises music and voice acting taken from all three films of the film trilogy . Developer Traveller 's Tales has stated they toned down the slapstick humor found in other Lego-licensed titles . The game follows the events in the films ; however , like the Lego Star Wars series , some scenes from the films have been altered to become more family friendly or just provide comic relief to the player .

neg: Tolkien's legendarium Tolkien 's legendarium is the term for the  entirety of J. R. R. Tolkien 's mythopoetic writing that forms the background to his The Lord of the Rings .  Tolkien worked and re-worked the components of his legendarium throughout his adult life , or during a period of more than 50 years ; the earliest drafts , published in The Book of Lost Tales ( 1983 ) dating to 1916 .   Colloquially , `` Middle-earth '' is popularly used as a shorthand for a `` canonical '' or mature form of Tolkien 's narrative , Middle-earth being Tolkien 's term for the inhabited part of the world in which most of his published stories were set .   The mythological and cosmological background of Tolkien 's published works was sketched in the posthumously-published The Silmarillion ( 1977 ) , and in Tolkien studies as a field as it has developed since the 1980s .

neg: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen is a story written by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien . It can be found in Appendix A of Tolkien 's most famous book , The Lord of the Rings . It takes place in the Third Age of the author 's fictional universe , Middle-earth . The tale tells the story of the love of the mortal Man Aragorn and the immortal Elf-maiden Arwen .   In Tolkien 's fictional universe , the tale was written by Faramir and Éowyn 's grandson Barahir after Aragorn 's death . An abbreviated version of the tale was included in the copy of the Thain 's Book made by Findegil in .   The tale tells of Aragorn 's first meeting with Arwen at Rivendell and of their later meeting in Lothlórien , where Arwen chose a mortal life and pledged her love to Aragorn . It also tells of Aragorn 's death in and of Arwen 's death a year later . The short version of `` The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen '' can be found in Appendix A of The Lord of the Rings .

neg: The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late is the imagined original ditty that is recorded in ` our time ' as the simplified nursery rhyme `` Hey Diddle Diddle '' . The supposed original was invented ( by back formation ) by J. R. R. Tolkien . The title of this version is given in The Adventures of Tom Bombadil .   In the Inn at Bree ( `` At the Sign of the Prancing Pony '' , The Fellowship of the Ring Chapter 9 ) Frodo jumps on a table and recites `` a ridiculous song '' invented by Bilbo . `` Here it is in full , '' said Tolkien . `` Only a few words of it are now , as a rule , remembered . ''   There follows the tale , in thirteen ballad-like five-line stanzas , introducing each element in turn : `` the Man in the Moon '' himself , the ostler 's `` tipsy cat / that plays a five-stringed fiddle '' , the little dog , the `` hornéd cow '' and the silver dishes and spoons .   Note that the cow is able to jump over the Moon with ease because the Man in the Moon has temporarily brought it down to Earth .   Tom Shippey cites this 1923 poem and its mate , `` The Man in the Moon Came Down Too Soon '' ( also from 1923 , also subsequently included in The Adventures of Tom Bombadil ) as typical examples of Tolkien 's working strategy for reconstructing philological information about sources now lost . In this case the question is : what lies behind the abbreviated version of this poem that survives as a well-known but nonsensical nursery rhyme ? By imagining a text that might reasonably have left the surviving rhyme , one can deduce clues that might have left other artifacts in surviving literature . Shippey argues that many of the scenarios in Tolkien 's more serious work are similar recreations ( '' ` asterisk ' poems '' in Shippey 's phrase ) , attempting to explain abstruse passages in surviving Old English and Old Norse texts , especially from Beowulf .   The Extended Edition of The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey has Bofur singing this song at Elrond 's feast . According to screen writer Philippa Boyens the song could either being made up by Bilbo and taught it to Bofur or the other way around .

neg: Parzival Parzival is a medieval German romance written by the poet Wolfram von Eschenbach in Middle High German . The poem , commonly dated to the first quarter of the 13th century , centers on the Arthurian hero Parzival ( Percival in English ) and his long quest for the Holy Grail following his initial failure to achieve it .   Parzival begins with the knightly adventures of Parzival 's father , Gahmuret , his marriage to Herzeloyde ( Middle High German herzeleide , `` heart 's sorrow '' ) , and the birth of Parzival . The story continues as Parzival meets three elegant knights , decides to seek King Arthur , and continues a spiritual and physical search for the Grail . A long section is devoted to Parzival 's friend Gawan and his adventures defending himself from a false murder charge and winning the hand of the maiden Orgeluse . Among the most striking elements of the work are its emphasis on the importance of humility , compassion , sympathy and the quest for spirituality . A major theme in Parzival is love : heroic acts of chivalry are inspired by true love , which is ultimately fulfilled in marriage .  The romance was the most popular vernacular verse narrative in medieval Germany , and continues to be read and translated into modern languages around the world . Wolfram began a prequel , Titurel , which was later continued by another writer , while two full romances were written adapting Wolfram 's story of Loherangrin . Richard Wagner based his famous opera Parsifal , finished in 1882 , on Parzival .

neg: Huorn The Huorns are fictional characters from J. R. R. Tolkien 's Middle-earth legendarium . They are described as `` trees '' that can speak to Ents and are capable of locomotion .

neg: The Lord of the Rings: War of the Ring The Lord of the Rings : War of the Ring is a 2003 real-time strategy game ( RTS ) developed by Liquid Entertainment , the makers of the previous Battle Realms and its expansion , Winter of the Wolf , and published by Sierra Entertainment . Set in J. R. R. Tolkien 's fictional Middle-earth , it expands upon the events of the War of the Ring as told in his fantasy novel , The Lord of the Rings .   Unlike the later RTS The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle-earth by Electronic Arts , War of the Ring is unrelated to the films by Peter Jackson . The game is officially licensed by Tolkien Enterprises , as are other book-based ( as opposed to film-based ) Tolkien games such as The Fellowship of the Ring and The Hobbit ( 2003 ) .

neg: Inheritance Cycle The Inheritance Cycle is a young adult tetralogy of epic fantasy novels written by American author Christopher Paolini . Set in the fictional world of Alagaësia ( -LSB- æləˈɡeɪziə -RSB- ) , the novels focus on the adventures of a teenage boy named Eragon and his dragon , Saphira , as they struggle to overthrow the evil king Galbatorix . The series was originally intended to be a trilogy ( named the `` Inheritance Trilogy '' ) until Paolini announced on October 30 , 2007 , while working on the third novel , that he believed the story was too complex to conclude in just three books .   The book series as a whole received mostly mixed to negative reviews by critics , but has gained both popularity and commercial success . The first book in the series , Eragon , was originally self-published by Paolini in 2001 , and subsequently re-published by Alfred A. Knopf Books for Young Readers on June 25 , 2003 . The second book in the series , Eldest , was published by Knopf on August 23 , 2005 . Both were New York Times bestsellers . The third book in the series , Brisingr , was published by Knopf on September 20 , 2008 . The fourth and final book in the series , Inheritance , was published by Knopf on November 8 , 2011 . The series has sold 33.5 million copies worldwide .   In 2006 , a feature film was released based on the first book in the cycle , Eragon , starring Ed Speleers , Jeremy Irons , John Malkovich and Djimon Hounsou . The film received generally negative reviews and closed as the 13th highest grossing fantasy-live action film within the United States .

neg: Music Inspired by Watership Down Music Inspired by Watership Down is a progressive rock album by Swedish musician Bo Hansson . The album is Hansson 's fourth solo album and is , as its name suggests , built around musical ideas inspired by Richard Adams ' heroic fantasy novel Watership Down . It was the second album of Hansson 's to have been based on a novel ; his first solo album , Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings , had likewise been based on J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Hansson had already composed and released a musical suite inspired by Watership Down on his previous album Attic Thoughts . However , beyond its title , the Music Inspired by Watership Down album contains few overt references to the novel and instead features excerpts from the works of various poets , such as John Keats and Alexander Pope .   Music Inspired by Watership Down was originally released in Sweden as El-Ahrairah by YTF Records in 1977 . This title was taken directly from the pages of Watership Down , with El-Ahrairah being the name of a trickster , folk hero-deity rabbit , known as `` The Prince with a Thousand Enemies '' . The album was subsequently released with its English title by Charisma Records in the United Kingdom and Sire Records in the United States , but it failed to chart on either side of the Atlantic . Music Inspired by Watership Down was reissued on CD in 2004 by Virgin Records .

neg: Jack Upland Jack Upland or Jack up Lande ( c. 1389 -- 96 ? ) is a polemical , probably Lollard , literary work which can be seen as a `` sequel '' to Piers Plowman , with Antichrist attacking Christians through corrupt confession . Jack asks a `` flattering friar '' ( cf. Piers Plowmans `` Friar Flatterer '' ) nearly seventy questions attacking the mendicant orders and exposing their distance from scriptural truth .   Two extant works respond to Jack 's questions : Responsiones ad Questiones LXV ( before 1396 ) and Friar Daw 's Reply ( Digby 41 , c. 1420 ) . The latter text blasts John Wycliffe as one of history 's major heretics . Responding to Friar Daw , an unknown author wrote Upland 's Rejoinder , which survives in Digby 41 , in the margins surrounding Friar Daw 's Reply . Upland 's Rejoinder intensifies the level of invective : Daw is said to recruit the young sons of true-living plowmen to become ( paradoxically ) `` worldly beggars , '' apostates against true rule , and sodomites .   Jack Upland was printed by itself in an octavo edition c. 1536 -- 40 by John Gough ( STC 5098 ) . John Foxe 's Acts and Monuments ( 1563 , 1570 ) reprinted Jack Upland and attributed it to Geoffrey Chaucer . Thomas Speght 's 1602 edition of Chaucer 's Works ( STC 5080 ) included Jack Upland .

neg: The History of The Lord of the Rings The History of The Lord of the Rings is a 4-volume work by Christopher Tolkien that documents the process of J. R. R. Tolkien 's writing of The Lord of the Rings . The History is also numbered as volumes 6 to 9 of The History of Middle-earth ( `` HoME '' , as below ) . Some information concerning the appendices and a soon-abandoned sequel to the novel can also be found in volume 12 , The Peoples of Middle-earth .

neg: Novel in Scotland The novel in Scotland includes all long prose fiction published in Scotland and by Scottish authors since the development of the literary format in the eighteenth century . The novel was soon a major element of Scottish literary and critical life . Tobias Smollett 's picaresque novels , such as The Adventures of Roderick Random and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle mean that he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . Other Scots who contributed to the development of the novel in the eighteenth century include Henry Mackenzie and John Moore .   There was a tradition of moral and domestic fiction in the early nineteenth century that included the work of Elizabeth Hamilton , Mary Brunton and Christian Johnstone . The outstanding literary figure of the early nineteenth century was Walter Scott , whose Waverley is often called the first historical novel . He had a major worldwide influence . His success led to a publishing boom in Scotland . Major figures that benefited included James Hogg , John Galt , John Gibson Lockhart , John Wilson and Susan Ferrier . In the mid-nineteenth century major literary figures that contributed to the development of the novel included David Macbeth Moir , John Stuart Blackie , William Edmondstoune Aytoun and Margaret Oliphant . In the late nineteenth century , a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations , including Robert Louis Stevenson and Arthur Conan Doyle , whose Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction . In the last two decades of the century the `` kailyard school '' ( cabbage patch ) depicted Scotland in a rural and nostalgic fashion , often seen as a `` failure of nerve '' in dealing with the rapid changes that had swept across Scotland in the industrial revolution . Figures associated with the movement include Ian Maclaren , S. R. Crockett and J. M. Barrie , best known for his creation of Peter Pan , which helped develop the genre of fantasy , as did the work of George MacDonald .   Among the most important novels of the early twentieth century was The House with the Green Shutters by George Douglas Brown , which broke with the Kailyard tradition . John Buchan played a major role in the creation of the modern thriller with The Thirty-Nine Steps and Greenmantle . The Scottish literary Renaissance attempted to introduce modernism into art and create of a distinctive national literature . It increasingly focused on the novel . Major figures included Neil Gunn , George Blake , A. J. Cronin , Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon . There were also a large number of female authors associated with the movement , who included Catherine Carswell , Willa Muir , Nan Shepherd and Naomi Mitchison . Many major Scottish post-war novelists , such as Robin Jenkins , Jessie Kesson , Muriel Spark , Alexander Trocchi and James Kennaway spent most of their lives outside Scotland , but often dealt with Scottish themes . Successful mass-market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett . A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Allan Massie , Shena Mackay and Alan Spence . Working class identity continued to be explored by Archie Hind , Alan Sharp , George Friel and William McIlvanney .   From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival , with figures including Alasdair Gray , James Kelman , Irvine Welsh , Alan Warner , Janice Galloway , A. L. Kennedy , Iain Banks , Candia McWilliam , Frank Kuppner and Andrew O'Hagan . In genre fiction Iain Banks , writing as Iain M. Banks , produced ground-breaking science fiction and Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Frederic Lindsay , Quintin Jardine , Val McDermid , Denise Mina , Christopher Brookmyre , and particularly Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels . The most successful author of Scottish origins in recent years has been J. K. Rowling , author of the Harry Potter series .

neg: Eru Ilúvatar Eru Ilúvatar is a fictional character in J.R.R. Tolkien 's Middle-earth legendarium . He is introduced in The Silmarillion as the supreme being of the universe , creator of all existence . In Tolkien 's invented Elvish language Quenya , Eru means `` The One '' , or `` He that is Alone '' and Ilúvatar signifies `` Father of All '' . The names appear in Tolkien 's work both in isolation and paired ( Eru Ilúvatar ) .

neg: Layamon Layamon or Laghamon ( -LSB- ˈleɪəmən -RSB- -LSB- - enmˈlaɣamon -RSB- ) - spelled Laȝamon or Laȝamonn in his time , occasionally written Lawman - was a poet of the late 12th/early 13th century and author of the Brut , a notable work that was the first to present the legends of Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table in English poetry .   J. R. R. Tolkien valued him as a transmitter of early English legends in a fashion comparable to the role played with respect to Icelandic legend by Snorri Sturluson .