query: Central America contains countries.

pos: Central America Central America ( América Central or Centroamérica ) is the southernmost , isthmian portion of the North American continent , which connects with South America on the southeast . Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north , Colombia to the southeast , the Caribbean Sea to the east , and the Pacific Ocean to the west . Central America consists of seven countries : Belize , Costa Rica , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua , and Panama . The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 ( 2009 estimate ) and 42,688,190 ( 2012 estimate ) .   Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot , which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama . Due to the presence of several active geologic faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc , there is a great deal of seismic activity in the region . Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently ; these natural disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives and much property .   In the Pre-Columbian era , Central America was inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west and the Isthmo-Colombian peoples to the south and east . Soon after Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas , the Spanish began to colonize the Americas . From 1609 until 1821 , most of the territory within Central America -- except for the lands that would become Belize and Panama -- was governed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico City as the Captaincy General of Guatemala . After New Spain achieved independence from Spain in 1821 , some of its provinces were annexed to the First Mexican Empire , but soon seceded from Mexico to form the Federal Republic of Central America , which lasted from 1823 to 1838 . The seven states finally became independent autonomous states : beginning with Nicaragua , Honduras , Costa Rica , and Guatemala ( 1838 ) ; followed by El Salvador ( 1841 ) ; then Panama ( 1903 ) ; and finally Belize ( 1981 ) .

neg: Central American music Central America is dominated by the popular Latin music , or Black Caribbean trends , including salsa , cumbia , mariachi , reggae , calypso and nueva canción . The countries of Central America have produced their own distinct forms of these genres such as Panamanian salsa , among others . One of the well-known forms of Central American music is punta , a style innovated by the syncretic Garifunas who live across the region , in Honduras , Nicaragua , Guatemala and Belize . The marimba , a type of xylophone , is perhaps the most important folk instrument of Central America , and it is widespread throughout the region .

neg: 1930 Central American and Caribbean Games The 2nd Central American and Caribbean Games were held in Havana in Cuba from March 15 to April 5 , 1930 . The sports festival featured 606 athletes from nine countries ( Costa Rica , Cuba , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Jamaica , Mexico , Panama , and Puerto Rico ) , competing in ten sports . Women participated for the first time in this second edition . Football ( soccer ) was added .

neg: Human trafficking in Panama Panama is a source , transit , and destination country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons , specifically forced prostitution . Although some Panamanian women and girls are found in forced prostitution in other countries in Latin America and in Europe , most Panamanian trafficking victims are exploited within the country . Although statistics were lacking , both NGOs and government officials anecdotally reported that commercial sexual exploitation of children was greater in rural areas and in the city of Colon than in Panama City . NGOs report that some Panamanian children , mostly young girls , are subjected to involuntary domestic servitude . Most foreign sex trafficking victims are adult women from Colombia , the Dominican Republic , and neighboring Central American countries ; some victims migrate voluntarily to Panama to work but are subsequently forced into prostitution . Weak controls along Panama 's borders make the nation an easy transit point for irregular migrants , from Latin America , East Africa , and Asia , some of whom may fall victim to human trafficking .   The government of Panama does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking ; however , it is making significant efforts to do so . During the reporting period , authorities increased public awareness about the prostitution of children through seminars in schools and an outreach campaign with the tourism sector . Despite such efforts , the government showed little evidence of progress in combating human trafficking . Law enforcement efforts remained weak , the Panamanian penal code did not prohibit trafficking for forced labor , and the government failed to provide adequate assistance to victims and to identify trafficking victims among vulnerable populations ; therefore , Panama is placed on Tier 2 Watch List .

neg: Caribbean Sea The Caribbean Sea ( Mar Caribe Mer des Caraïbes Caraïbische Zee ) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere . It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and south west , to the north by the Greater Antilles starting with Cuba , to the east by the Lesser Antilles , and to the south by the north coast of South America .   The entire area of the Caribbean Sea , the numerous islands of the West Indies , and adjacent coasts , are collectively known as the Caribbean . The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km2 ( 1,063,000 sq mi ) . The sea 's deepest point is the Cayman Trough , between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica , at 7,686 m ( 25,220 ft ) below sea level . The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays : the Gulf of Gonâve , Gulf of Venezuela , Gulf of Darién , Golfo de los Mosquitos , Gulf of Paria and Gulf of Honduras .   The Caribbean Sea has the world 's second biggest barrier reef , the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef . It runs 1000 km along the coasts of Mexico , Belize , Guatemala , and Honduras .

neg: National Parks in the Chaco, Paraguay The great American Chaco is a plain of about 1.000.000 km2 . It covers parts of Bolivia , Paraguay , Brazil and Argentina .   It is a region with its own characteristics , which has very particular types of animals and plants . The Great South American Chaco is a plain and its formation , millions of years ago , is very closely related to the formation of the Andes and the erosive process afterwards . Originally the Chaco was a hole , which within time , was filled with sediments of aerial origin ( through the wind action ) and of pluvial nature ( through the rivers taking and depositing sediments along the Chaco ) .

neg: Andean states The Andean States ( Estados Andinos ) are a group of nations in South America connected by the Andes mountain range . `` Andean States '' is sometimes used to refer to all seven countries that the Andes runs through , regions with a shared culture primarily spread during the times of the Inca Empire ( such as the Quechua language and Andean cuisine ) , or it can be used in a geopolitical sense to designate countries in the region that are members of the Andean Community trade group and have a local ( as opposed to European ) cultural orientation .   The Andes extend through the western part of South America in following countries :        ( not considered to be geopolitically an Andean State )  ( not considered to be geopolitically an Andean State )   When grouped as `` the Andean states '' , the emphasis is on the mountainous regions of these countries . For example , the Argentine pampas are not part of the Andean region , but western Argentina along with Chile is part of the Andean region , and has cultural continuities with its Andean neighbors . Venezuela , Colombia , Peru , Ecuador and Bolivia are part of the Andean Community ( a trade grouping ) , and each contains Amazon Rainforest and Amazonian indigenous people as well as Andean mountains .

neg: Peru (disambiguation) Peru ( -LSB- Perú , links = no -RSB- ) is a country in South America .   Peru or El Peru may also refer to :

neg: List of heads of state of Federal Republic of Central America This is a list of heads of state of Federal Republic of Central America from its founding in 1821/1823 until its dissolution in 1840 .

neg: Currency of Spanish America This article provides an outline of the currency of Spanish America ( las Indias , the Indies ) from Spanish colonization in the 15th century until Spanish American independencies in the 19th . This great realm was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( capital : Mexico City ) , which came to include all Spanish territory north of Panama , the West Indies , Venezuela , and the Philippines , and the Viceroyalty of Peru ( capital : Lima ) , which included Panama and all Spanish territory in South America except Venezuela . The monetary system of Spanish America , originally identical to that of Spain , soon diverged and took on a distinctive character of its own , which it passed on to the independent nations that followed after .

neg: Balloon effect The balloon effect is an often-cited criticism of United States drug policy . The name draws an analogy between efforts to eradicate the production of illegal drugs in South American countries and the phenomenon of the same name when a latex balloon is squeezed : The air is moved , but does not disappear , instead moving into another area of less resistance .   Examples of this displacement in drug traffic include :  Fumigation of marijuana in Mexico caused production to migrate to Colombia .  Marijuana crackdowns in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta moved activity to Cauca .  In the late 1990s , coca was largely eradicated in Peru and Bolivia , only to be replaced by new crops in Colombia .  Recently , with the intense spraying in the Colombian Putumayo Department , coca has been planted in other departments including Arauca , Cauca , Caquetá , Guaviare , Huila , Meta , Nariño , and Santander .   As described in The Economist :   Brazil and the Southern Cone ( Chile , Uruguay , Paraguay , Argentina ) neglected their respective drug trafficking issues and due to the concentration on the Andean region , these were neglected by the United States as well . These nations ignored the problem primarily due to its slow introduction and penetration into their society , the insistence from the U.S. that the sources of the drugs was the only problem and because the governments at the time were more concerned with foreign debt , inflation , economic growth , civil-military relations and political survival . The United States continued to increase their anti-drug operations in the Andean region resulting in displacement . This means that the U.S. tactics forced the drug traffickers to search for safer areas with less government pressure to eliminate the flow of narcotics . The drug traffickers took advantage of the neglected Southern Cone and began shifting their routes , locations for cocaine laboratories and money laundering centres . These shifts have also created growing drug consumption issues among the Southern Cone countries . While the role of the Southern Cone had been that of a transhipment point for cocaine produced in the Andean region , further evidence appeared to indicate that in fact since 1984 the region had been used extensively by Colombian and Bolivian drug traffickers . Cocaine labs were found in Northern and Western Brazil and in Argentina . It was also found that Uruguay and Chile had become major financial centres for money laundering after the invasion of Panama . Uruguay was particularly attractive as it has one of the most open banking systems in the Western hemisphere and the government has always put great emphasis on having tight bank secrecy laws .

neg: Central American Minors Program The Central American Minors Program ( CAM ) is an American immigration policy established by the Obama administration on November 2014 . The program allows lawfully present parents in the United States the opportunity to request a refugee or parole status for their children who reside in the Northern Triangle : El Salvador , Guatemala , and Honduras .   Due to an influx of unaccompanied minors entering the United States from Central America and being victims of violent crimes during the journey , the Obama administration initiated programs that partnered with Central American governments to combat the violence that influences minors to migrate to the United States . However , the violence in the Northern Triangle only escalated in 2015 , prompting the Obama administration to expand The Central American Minors Program in 2016 .

neg: Guatemala (disambiguation) Guatemala is a country in Central America .   Guatemala may also refer to :  Guatemala City , the capital of Guatemala  Guatemala Department , a department of Guatemala  Guatemala , Cuba , a village in the Holguín Province  Captaincy General of Guatemala , was an administrative division of the Spanish Empire in Central America

neg: New Spain New Spain ( Nueva España ) was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire , in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama . It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 , and following additional conquests , it was made a viceroyalty ( Spanish : virreinato ) in 1535 . The first of four viceroyalties Spain created in the Americas , it comprised Mexico , Central America , much of the Southwestern and Central United States , and Spanish Florida as well as the Philippines , Guam , Mariana and Caroline Islands .   After 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain , an appointed minister of the King of Spain , who ruled as monarch over the colony . The capital of New Spain was Mexico City .   New Spain lost parts of its territory to other European powers and independence , but the core area remained under Spanish control until 1821 , when it achieved independence as the Mexican Empire -- when the latter dissolved , it became modern Mexico and Central America . It developed highly regional divisions , which reflect the impact of climate , topography , the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations , and the presence or absence of mineral resources . The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social , political , and economic organization . The northern area of Mexico , a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations , was not generally conducive to dense settlements , but the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the 1540s drew settlement there to exploit the mines . Silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain , but vastly enriched Spain , and transformed the global economy . New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade , making the viceroyalty a vital link between Spain 's New World empire and its Asian empire .

neg: Community of Latin American and Caribbean States The Community of Latin American and Caribbean States ( Comunidad de Estados Latinoamericanos y Caribeños , CELAC Comunidade de Estados Latino-Americanos e Caribenhos Communauté des États Latino-Américains et Caribéens Gemeenschap van Latijns-Amerikaanse en Caraïbische Staten ) is a regional bloc of Latin American and Caribbean states thought out on February 23 , 2010 , at the Rio Group -- Caribbean Community Unity Summit , and created on December 3 , 2011 , in Caracas , Venezuela , with the signature of The Declaration of Caracas . It consists of 33 sovereign countries in the Americas representing roughly 600 million people . Due to the focus of the organization on Latin American and Caribbean countries , other countries and territories in the Americas , Canada and the United States , as well as the overseas territories in the Americas of France ( Overseas departments and territories of France ) , the Netherlands ( Dutch Caribbean ) , Denmark ( Greenland ) and the United Kingdom ( British Overseas Territories ) are not included .   CELAC is an example of a decade-long push for deeper integration within Latin America . CELAC was created to deepen Latin American integration and by some to reduce the significant influence of the United States on the politics and economics of Latin America . It is seen as an alternative to the Organization of American States ( OAS ) , the regional body that was founded by United States and 21 other Latin American nations originally as a countermeasure to potential Soviet influence in the region .   CELAC is the successor of the Rio Group and the Latin American and Caribbean Summit on Integration and Development ( CALC ) . In July 2010 , CELAC selected President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez and President of Chile Sebastián Piñera , as co-chairs of the forum to draft statutes for the organization .

neg: 1978 Central American and Caribbean Games The 13th Central American and Caribbean Games were held in Medellín , Colombia from July 7 to July 28 , 1978 , and included 2.605 athletes from eighteen nations .

neg: Human trafficking in Colombia The country of Colombia is a major source country for women and girls subjected to trafficking in persons , specifically forced prostitution in Latin America , the Caribbean , Western Europe , Asia , and North America , including the United States . Within Colombia , some men are found in conditions of forced labor , but the forced prostitution of women and children from rural areas in urban areas remains a larger problem . Individual cases of forced marriage -- a risk factor for trafficking -- involuntary domestic servitude , and forced begging have been reported . Some children are subjected to forced labor in mines and quarries , in the agricultural sector or as domestic servants . Groups at high risk for internal trafficking include displaced persons , poor women in rural areas , and relatives of members of criminal organizations . Continued armed violence in Colombia has displaced many communities , making them vulnerable to human trafficking . Guerillas and new illegal armed groups forcibly recruit children to join their ranks ; the government estimates thousands of children are exploited under such conditions . Members of gangs and organized criminal networks force their relatives and acquaintances , and displaced persons -- typically women and children -- into conditions of forced prostitution and forced labor , including forced work in the illegal drug trade . Colombia also is a destination for foreign child sex tourists , particularly coastal cities such as Cartagena and Barranquilla . Migrants from South America , Africa , and China transit Colombia en route to the United States and Europe ; some may fall victim to traffickers .   The Government of Colombia fully complies with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons . During the reporting period , the government increased law enforcement actions against trafficking offenders , enhanced prevention efforts , and continued to offer victim services through an interagency trafficking operations center and through partnerships with NGOs and international organizations . The significant number of Colombians trafficked abroad , however , reflects the need for increased prevention efforts and victim services .

neg: Territorial evolution of the Caribbean This is a timeline of the territorial evolution of the Caribbean and nearby areas of North , Central , and South America , listing each change to the internal and external borders of the various countries that make up the region .   The region covered is the Caribbean , its islands ( most of which enclose the sea ) , and the surrounding coasts , as well as the southern part of the Gulf of Mexico , Florida , Central America , and the northern region of South America .   The political evolution of the land surrounding the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers since Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492 . In the 20th century the Caribbean was again important during World War II , in the decolonization wave in the post-war period , and in the tension between Communist Cuba and the United States ( U.S. ) . Genocide , slavery , immigration and rivalry between world powers have given Caribbean history an impact disproportionate to the size of this small region .   At the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean , three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands : the Taíno in the Greater Antilles , The Bahamas and the Leeward Islands ; the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands ; and the Ciboney in western Cuba . The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos , who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico , Western Taínos , who occupied Cuba , Jamaica , and the Bahamian archipelago , and the Eastern Taínos , who occupied the Leeward Islands . Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak-speaking groups .

neg: Latin America and the League of Nations Nine Latin American nations became charter members of the League of Nations when it was founded in 1919 . The number grew to fifteen states by the time the first League Assembly met in 1920 and later , several others joined in the decade that followed . Although only Brazil had any participation in World War I ( and a minor role at that ) , these nations supported the idealistic principles of the League and felt it offered some measure of juridical protection from the interventionist policies of the United States in the period between the Spanish American War ( 1898 ) and the proclamation of the non-interventionist Good Neighbor Policy by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 . Latin American nations also felt that being members of the League would bring prestige and notoriety to Latin America . All twenty Latin American countries were members of the League at one point , yet they were never all members at the same time .   To guarantee Latin American representatives in the Assembly and Council , an unofficial bloc was established early on . This movement , in turn led to the creation of a special Latin American Liaison Bureau . Latin American delegates emphasized their contributions and hopes for world peace which eventually would anticipate their actions in the United Nations .   The Latin American nations became increasingly disillusioned with the League in the 1920s . This was partly due to the failure of the United States to join the League , and partly because the major powers in the League paid little attention to Latin America 's problems . The League did have some role in two conflicts in South America in the 1930s : the Leticia dispute between Colombia and Peru , and the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay .

neg: Culture of Chile The culture of Chile reflects the relatively homogeneous population as well as the geographic isolation of the country in relation to the rest of South America . Since colonial times , the Chilean culture has been a mix of Spanish colonial elements with indigenous ( mostly Mapuche ) culture .   The Huasos of Central Chile and their folk music and dance are central to Chilean folk culture . Even though the folk traditions the Central Chile are central to Chilean cultural and national identity , Chile is both geographically and culturally diverse with both the North and the South having their own folk music and dance due to different indigenous peoples and immigrant groups settling there . Additionally , while some regions of Chile have very strong indigenous heritage , such as Araucanía Region , Easter Island , and Arica y Parinacota Region , some regions lacks considerable indigenous communities and a few other regions have noteworthy non-Spanish European immigrant heritage .

neg: List of companies of Colombia Colombia is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America , with territories in Central America . Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama , to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru . It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Honduras , Jamaica , the Dominican Republic and Haiti . It is a unitary , constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments .   Colombia is the third most populous country in Latin America . Its major industries include textiles , food processing , petroleum , clothing and footwear , consumer appliances , beverages , chemicals , cement , automobiles , gold , coal , and emeralds   For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations , see `` Business entities in Colombia '' .


query: Philadelphia is home to the first U.S. library.

pos: Philadelphia Philadelphia ( -LSB- ˌfɪləˈdɛlfi.ə -RSB- ) is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the sixth-most populous city in the United States , with an estimated population of 1,567,872 and more than 6 million in the seventh-largest metropolitan statistical area , . Philadelphia is the economic and cultural anchor of the Delaware Valleya region located in the Northeastern United States at the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers with 7.2 million people residing in the eighth-largest combined statistical area in the United States .   In 1682 , William Penn , an English Quaker , founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony . Philadelphia played an instrumental role in the American Revolution as a meeting place for the Founding Fathers of the United States , who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the Constitution in 1787 . Several other key Philadelphia events during the Revolution include the First and Second Continental Congress , the preservation of the Liberty Bell , the Battle of Germantown , the Siege of Fort Mifflin , and the Philadelphia Convention . Philadelphia was one of the nation 's capitals in the Revolutionary War , and served as temporary U.S. capital while Washington , D.C. , was under construction . In the 19th century , Philadelphia became a major industrial center and railroad hub that grew from an influx of European immigrants . The majority of European immigrants have come from Ireland , Italy and Germany -- the three largest reported ancestry groups in the city . The city became a prime destination for African Americans during the Great Migration of the 20th century , as well as Puerto Ricans , surpassing two million occupants by 1950 .   The area 's many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination , as the city has evolved into an educational and economic hub . With a gross domestic product of $ 388 billion , Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation . Philadelphia is the center of economic activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies . The Philadelphia skyline is growing , with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several nationally prominent skyscrapers . The city is known for its arts , culture , and rich history , attracting over 41 million domestic tourists alone in 2015 . Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city . Fairmount Park , when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the same watershed , is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States . The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $ 10 billion generated by tourism . Philadelphia is the birthplace of the United States Marine Corps , and is also the home of many U.S. firsts , including the first library ( 1731 ) , first hospital ( 1751 ) and medical school ( 1765 ) , first Capital ( 1777 ) , first stock exchange ( 1790 ) , first zoo ( 1874 ) , and first business school ( 1881 ) . Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States .

neg: List of tallest buildings in Philadelphia Philadelphia , the largest city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania , is home to 389 completed high-rises , 32 of which stand taller than 400 ft. The tallest building in the city is currently the 58-story Comcast Center , which rises 975 ft in Center City . Comcast Center is also the tallest building in Pennsylvania and the 20th-tallest building in the United States . The second-tallest building is One Liberty Place , which rises 61 floors and 945 ft. One Liberty Place stood as the tallest building in Pennsylvania for over 20 years until the completion of Comcast Center in 2008 . Overall , seven of the ten tallest buildings in Pennsylvania are in Philadelphia , with the remainder being in Pittsburgh . Philadelphia is one of only five American cities with two or more completed buildings over 900 ft tall .   Philadelphia 's history of tall buildings is generally thought to have begun with the 1754 addition of the steeple to Christ Church , which was one of America 's first high-rise structures . Through most of the 20th century , a `` gentlemen 's agreement '' prevented buildings from rising higher than the 548-ft ( 167-m ) Philadelphia City Hall . Despite this , Philadelphia amassed a large collection of high-rise buildings . The completion of One Liberty Place in 1987 broke the agreement , and Philadelphia has since seen the construction of eight skyscrapers that eclipse City Hall in height .   Philadelphia has twice held the tallest habitable building in North America , first with Christ Church , then with City Hall . The latter reigned as the world 's tallest building from 1894 to 1908 , and is currently the world 's second-tallest masonry building , only 1.6 ft shorter than Mole Antonelliana in Turin . Like other large American cities , Philadelphia went through a massive building boom in the 1970s and 1980s , resulting in the completion of over 20 high-rise buildings .   , there are several major high-rise construction projects underway in Philadelphia . The largest of these projects is the Comcast Innovation and Technology Center , which began construction in 2014 and will rise 1121 ft upon completion . The Comcast Innovation and Technology Center will surpass Comcast Center by over 100 ft to become the tallest skyscraper in Pennsylvania and the tallest building in the country outside of New York and Chicago .   __ TOC __

neg: Kassel University Library The Universitätsbibliothek Kassel ( or Kassel University Library ) is a library located in the city of Kassel , Germany . Composed of the collections of the former Landesbibliothek ( state library ) and Murhardsche Bibliothek der Stadt Kassel ( Murhard Library of the City of Kassel ) as well as that of the Kassel University library , amongst the library 's holdings is the manuscript of the 9th-century German poem , the Hildebrandslied .   The first component of the library , the Landesbibliothek , evolved from the collection of the Kassel Court Library of the Landgraves of Hesse , and was officially made a `` state library '' with the Hesse Constitution of 1831 . Its collection was housed at the Fridericianum , continental Europe 's first public museum , and specialized in the fields of history , philology , archaeology , art , geography , theology , and law .   The second component library , the Murhardsche Bibliothek der Stadt Kassel long served as the city 's second research library . Founded in 1845 by the brothers Friedrich and Karl Murhard , sons of an old Hessian merchant dynasty , it specialized in political science , economics , and pedagogy .   The third component library comprised the holdings of Kassel University , founded in it modern incarnation in 1970 .   The three libraries were merged into a single system in 1976 .

neg: Philadelphia campaign The Philadelphia campaign ( 1777 -- 1778 ) was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia , which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress . British General William Howe , after unsuccessfully attempting to draw the Continental Army under General George Washington into a battle in northern New Jersey , embarked his army on transports , and landed them at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay . From there , he advanced northward toward Philadelphia . Washington prepared defenses against Howe 's movements at Brandywine Creek , but was flanked and beaten back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 , 1777 . After further skirmishes and maneuvers , Howe was able to enter and occupy Philadelphia . Washington then unsuccessfully attacked one of Howe 's garrisons at Germantown before retreating to Valley Forge for the winter .   Howe 's campaign was controversial because , although he successfully captured the American capital of Philadelphia , he proceeded slowly and did not aid the concurrent campaign of John Burgoyne further north , which ended in disaster at Saratoga for the British , and brought France into the war . General Howe resigned during the occupation of Philadelphia and was replaced by his second-in-command , General Sir Henry Clinton . Clinton evacuated the troops from Philadelphia back to New York City in 1778 in order to increase that city 's defenses against a possible Franco-American attack . Washington harried the British army all the way across New Jersey , and successfully forced a battle at Monmouth Court House that was one of the largest battles of the war .   At the end of the campaign the two armies were roughly in the same positions they were at its beginning .

neg: Charles Evans (librarian) Charles Evans ( November 13 , 1850 -- February 8 , 1935 ) was an American librarian and bibliographer .   Evans was named one of American Libraries ' 100 most important library and information science leaders of the 20th century . Evans is most well known as the bibliographer and compiler of the first 12 volumes of his book , American Bibliography : A Chronological Dictionary of All Books , Pamphlets , and Periodical Publications Printed in the United States of America from the Genesis of Printing in 1639 Down to and Including the Year 1830 , with Bibliographical and Biographical Notes . He was also a founder of the American Library Association along with Melvil Dewey .

neg: History of Springfield, Massachusetts The history of Springfield , Massachusetts ( est. 1636 ) springs in large part from its favorable geography , situated on a steep bluff overlooking the Connecticut River 's confluence with three tributaries . It was an ancient Indian crossroad for two major trade routes : Boston-to-Albany and New York City-to-Montreal . Springfield also sits on some of the northeastern United States ' most fertile soil .   Springfield was founded in 1636 as Agawam , the northernmost settlement of the Connecticut Colony . The settlement defected from Connecticut after four years , however , later joining forces with the coastal Massachusetts Bay Colony . The town changed its name to Springfield , and changed the political boundaries among what later became New England States .   Springfield flourished as a trading post and agricultural center until 1675 's King Philip 's War , when a coalition of Indians laid siege to Springfield and later burned it to the ground . Its prosperity waned for the next hundred years but , in 1777 , United States Revolutionary War leaders made it a National Armory to store weapons , and in 1795 it began manufacturing muskets .   Until 1968 , the Armory made small arms . Its first American muskets ( 1794 ) were followed by the famous Springfield rifle and the revolutionary M1 Garand and M14s . The Springfield Armory attracted generations of skilled laborers to the city , making it the United States ' longtime center for precision manufacturing ( comparable to a Silicon Valley of the Industrial Revolution ) . The Armory 's near-capture during Shays Rebellion of 1787 was among the troubles that prompted the U.S. Constitutional Convention later that year .   Innovations in the 19th and 20th centuries include the first American English dictionary ( 1805 , Noah Webster ) , the first use of interchangeable parts and the assembly line in manufacturing ( 1819 , Thomas Blanchard ) , the first American horseless car ( 1825 , again Thomas Blanchard ) , vulcanized rubber ( 1844 , Charles Goodyear ) , the first American gasoline-powered car ( 1893 , Duryea Brothers ) , the first American motorcycle company ( 1901 , `` Indian '' ) , an early commercial radio station ( 1921 , WBZ , and most famously , the world 's third-most-popular sport of basketball ( 1891 , Dr. James Naismith ) .   Throughout the latter half of the 20th century , Springfield endured a protracted decline , accelerated by the decommission of the Springfield Armory in 1969 . Springfield became increasingly like the declining , second tier Northeastern U.S. cities from which it had long been set apart . During the 1980s and 1990s , Springfield developed a new reputation for crime , political corruption , and cronyism . Seeking to overcome its downgrade , the city undertook several large ( but unfinished ) projects , including a $ 1 billion high-speed rail ( New Haven-Hartford-Springfield high-speed rail ) , a proposed $ 1 billion MGM Casino , and others .

neg: Building Little Italy Building Little Italy : Philadelphia 's Italians before Mass Migration is a 1998 nonfiction book by Richard N. Juliani , published by Penn State University Press . The book discusses Italian immigration to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania from its beginnings in the 1750s through the 1870s . The book discusses the individual Italian Americans and the social issues the early Italian American community faced .   John Zucchi of McGill University wrote that Building Little Italy was against the practice of being filiopietistic , or members of an ethnic group emphasizing `` the presence of their `` tribe '' in a particular locale from the early history of a European presence in that locus '' in order `` to bolster the community or to respond to a perceived self-disesteem of their ethnic group '' . Stefano Luconi of the University of Florence wrote that this book differed from a trend of most research of Italian Americans being `` a hagiographic defense of Italian immigrants ' contributions to the cultural , political , and economic development of American society to counter negative stereotypes of Italians as foreigners incapable of assimilation into their adoptive country . ''

neg: Literary Hall Literary Hall is a mid-19th-century brick library building and museum in Romney , West Virginia . It is located at the intersection of North High Street ( West Virginia Route 28 ) and West Main Street ( U.S. Route 50 ) . Literary Hall was constructed between 1869 and 1870 by the Romney Literary Society .   Founded in 1819 , the Romney Literary Society was the first literary organization of its kind in the present-day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . In 1846 , the society constructed a building which housed the Romney Classical Institute and its library . The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute both flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . During the war , the contents of the society 's library were plundered by Union Army forces , and many of its 3,000 volumes were either scattered or destroyed . After a reorganization in 1869 , the society commenced construction of the present Literary Hall in downtown Romney . It transferred ownership of its Romney Classical Institute campus to the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind in 1870 and in that year completed Literary Hall , where the society reconstituted its library collection and revived its literary activities .   The Romney Literary Society 's last meeting was held at Literary Hall in 1886 . From 1886 to 1973 the building was used as a meeting space by the Clinton Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons and the Order of the Eastern Star . In 1973 , the building was purchased by prominent Romney lawyer Ralph Haines , who used it as a law office and museum . From 1937 to the early 1940s the building also housed a community library . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 .   Literary Hall 's basic design incorporates Federal and Greek Revival styles along with Victorian details . Architectural historian Michael J. Pauley described Literary Hall as `` one of Romney 's and Hampshire County 's most notable landmarks , and one in which this community is justifiably proud '' .

neg: Cuisine of Philadelphia The cuisine of Philadelphia was shaped largely by the city 's mixture of ethnicities , available foodstuffs and history . Certain foods have become iconic to the city . Invented in Philadelphia in the 1930s , the cheesesteak is the most well known icon of the city , and soft pretzels have become a part of Philadelphia culture . The late 19th century saw the creation of two Philadelphia landmarks , the Reading Terminal Market and Italian Market . After a dismal restaurant scene during the post-war era of the 20th century , the 1970s brought a restaurant renaissance that has continued into the 21st century .   Many foods and drinks associated with Philadelphia can also commonly be linked with the Pennsylvania Dutch .

neg: New Philadelphia Town Site The New Philadelphia Town Site is the original site of the now-vanished town of `` New Philadelphia '' , Illinois . It is located near the city of Barry , in Pike County . Founded in 1836 , it was the first town in the United States platted and registered by an African American before the American Civil War . The founder Free Frank McWorter was a former slave who was able to save money from work and his own business to purchase the freedom of his wife , himself and 13 members of his family in Kentucky .   The town site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005 , and designated a National Historic Landmark in 2009 .

neg: Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant ( 1746 -- October 8 , 1793 ) was an American lawyer from Princeton , New Jersey . He represented New Jersey in the Second Continental Congress in 1776 and 1777 . He later served as Attorney General for the state of Pennsylvania .   Sergeant was born in Newark , New Jersey in 1746 , but moved with his parents to Princeton . He completed his initial studies and attended the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) , receiving his degree in 1762 . His maternal grandfather , Jonathan Dickinson , had been the first president of the college at its founding in 1747 . After Sergeant 's graduation from the College of Philadelphia ( now the University of Pennsylvania ) in 1763 with an A.B. degree , he read for the law and entered practice in Princeton in 1767 .   From 1774 to 1776 he was a member of the revolutionary New Jersey Provincial Congress . In early 1776 he went as a delegate to the Continental Congress , but he resigned in June to return home and serve on the committee that drafted New Jersey 's first constitution . In November he returned again to the national congress .   In September 1777 he resigned from Congress a second time , this time to accept office as the attorney general of Pennsylvania . He permanently moved to Philadelphia and opened a law practice there on his return to private life in 1780 .   Sergeant died in Philadelphia in 1793 and was originally buried in the Old Presbyterian Churchyard at Fourth and Pine Streets . In 1878 , he was re-interred in the Laurel Hill Cemetery .   His son John Sergeant later represented Pennsylvania in the U.S. Congress . Another son , Thomas Sergeant , served as Pennsylvania secretary of state , attorney general and on the state Supreme Court .

neg: Jefferson Memorial The Jefferson Memorial is a presidential memorial in Washington , D.C. , dedicated to Thomas Jefferson ( 1743 -- 1826 ) , one of the most important of the American Founding Fathers as the main drafter and writer of the Declaration of Independence , member of the Continental Congress , governor of the newly independent Commonwealth of Virginia , American minister to King Louis XVI and the Kingdom of France , first U.S. Secretary of State under the first President George Washington , the second Vice President of the United States under second President John Adams , and also the third President ( 1801 -- 1809 ) , as well as being the founder of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville , Virginia .   The neoclassical Memorial building on the Tidal Basin off the Washington Channel of the Potomac River was designed by the architect John Russell Pope and built by the Philadelphia contractor John McShain . Construction of the building began in 1939 and was completed in 1943 . The bronze statue of Jefferson was added in 1947 .   The Jefferson Memorial is managed by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior under its National Mall and Memorial Parks division . In 2007 , it was ranked fourth on the `` List of America 's Favorite Architecture '' by the American Institute of Architects .

neg: Philadelphia Bulletin For the 2004 resurrection of the Bulletin , see The Bulletin ( newspaper ) .   The Philadelphia Bulletin was a daily evening newspaper published from 1847 to 1982 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . It was the largest circulation newspaper in Philadelphia for 76 years and was once the largest evening newspaper in the United States . Its widely known slogan was : `` In Philadelphia , nearly everybody reads The Bulletin . ''   Describing the Bulletin 's style , publisher William L. McLean once said : `` I think the Bulletin operates on a principle which in the long run is unbeatable . This is that it enters the reader 's home as a guest . Therefore , it should behave as a guest , telling the news rather than shouting it . '' As Time magazine later noted : `` In its news columns , the Bulletin was solid if unspectacular . Local affairs were covered extensively , but politely . Muckraking was frowned upon . ''

neg: Merchants' Exchange Building (Philadelphia) The Merchants ' Exchange Building is a historic building located on the triangular site bounded by Dock Street , Third Street , and Walnut Street in the Old City neighborhood of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . It was designed by architect William Strickland , in the Greek Revival style , the first national American architectural style and built between 1832 and 1834 . It operated as a brokerage house in the nineteenth century , but by 1875 the Philadelphia Stock Exchange had taken the place of the Merchants ' Exchange .   The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2001 . It is the oldest existing stock exchange building in the United States , but is now used as the headquarters of the Independence National Historical Park .

neg: Historical Society of Pennsylvania The Historical Society of Pennsylvania is a historical society founded in 1824 and based in Philadelphia . The Society 's building , designed by Addison Hutton and listed on Philadelphia 's Register of Historical Places , houses some 600,000 printed items and over 19 million manuscript and graphic items . The Society maintains printed collections on Pennsylvania and regional history and manuscript collections covering 17th - , 18th - , and 19th-century history . The holdings of the Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies were added in 2002 and those of the Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania in 2006 . The Historical Society has recently undertaken efforts to appeal to a younger demographic , including having open bar events .

neg: Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike The Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike , first used in 1795 , is the first long-distance paved road built in the United States , according to engineered plans and specifications . It links Lancaster , Pennsylvania , and Philadelphia at 34th Street , stretching for sixty-two miles . However , the western terminus was actually at the Susquehanna River in Columbia . The route is designated PA 462 from the western terminus to US 30 , where that route takes over for the majority of the route . The US 30 designation ends at Girard Avenue in the Parkside neighborhood of Philadelphia , where State Route 3012 takes it from there to Belmont Avenue . At Belmont Avenue , State Route 3005 gets the designation from Belmont Avenue until the terminus at 34th Street .   It was the first turnpike of importance , and because the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania could not afford to pay for its construction , it was privately built by the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Road Company . Credited as the country 's first engineered road , its ground was broken in 1792 . By the 1840s , the use of railroads and canals dealt a serious blow to the companies who specialized in the manufacture of wagons and coaches . During the next fifty years , the road suffered from lack of use and maintenance , but later saw recovery with the invention of the automobile .   In 1876 , the parallel Pennsylvania Railroad bought the turnpike from 52nd Street in Philadelphia west to Paoli for $ 20,000 ( equal to $ today ) to prevent competing streetcar companies from building along it . In 1913 , the turnpike became part of the transcontinental Lincoln Highway , and tolls continued to be collected until 1917 , when the State Highway Department bought it for $ 165,000 , equal to $ today . In 1926 it was designated as part of U.S. Route 30 along with the rest of the original United States Numbered Highways .

neg: Philadelphia Metro Metro is a free daily newspaper in Philadelphia which began publishing on January 24 , 2000 . Its main competition is The Philadelphia Daily News . In 2004 , Metro surpassed The Daily News in circulation , 143,798 to 141,868 , to move into second behind 372,297 for The Philadelphia Inquirer '' 's . It was the first Metro '' edition published in North America and the ninth edition since the first in Stockholm in 1995 .

neg: First Amendment to the United States Constitution The First Amendment ( Amendment I ) to the United States Constitution prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion , ensuring that there is no prohibition on the free exercise of religion , abridging the freedom of speech , infringing on the freedom of the press , interfering with the right to peaceably assemble , or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances . It was adopted on December 15 , 1791 , as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights .   The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification . Initially , the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress , and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today . Beginning with Gitlow v. New York ( 1925 ) , the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states -- a process known as incorporation -- through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment .   In Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for `` a wall of separation between church and State '' , though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute . Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th and 21st-century court decisions which protected various forms of political speech , anonymous speech , campaign financing , pornography , and school speech ; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections . The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits , most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) . Commercial speech , however , is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech , and is therefore subject to greater regulation .   The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions , and applies to a wide variety of media . In Near v. Minnesota ( 1931 ) and New York Times v. United States ( 1971 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases . The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action . In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause , the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association .

neg: Philadelphia Society The Philadelphia Society is a membership organization the purpose of which is `` to sponsor the interchange of ideas through discussion and writing , in the interest of deepening the intellectual foundation of a free and ordered society , and of broadening the understanding of its basic principles and traditions '' . The membership of the Society tends to be composed of persons holding conservative or libertarian political views , and many of those associated with the Society have exercised considerable influence over the development of the conservative movement in the United States .   It was founded in 1964 by Donald Lipsett in conjunction with Bill Buckley , Milton Friedman , Frank Meyer , and Ed Feulner , and the former Presidents of the Society include Henry Regnery , Edwin J. Feulner , Russell Kirk , Mel Bradford , Forrest McDonald , T. Kenneth Cribb , M. Stanton Evans , Ellis Sandoz , Edwin Meese , Claes G. Ryn , Midge Decter , Roger Ream , Steven F. Hayward , Lee Edwards , William F. Buckley , and George H. Nash .   Notable speakers at past meetings of the Society have included Larry Arnhart , Andrew Bacevich , Wendell Berry , Robert Bork , Mel Bradford , Warren T. Brookes , William F. Buckley , Vladimir Bukovsky , Ronald Coase , T. Kenneth Cribb , Midge Decter , M. Stanton Evans , Edwin J. Feulner , Milton Friedman , George Gilder , Victor Davis Hanson , William Hague , S. I. Hayakawa , Friedrich von Hayek , Henry Hazlitt , W.H. Hutt , Herman Kahn , Russell Kirk , Irving Kristol , Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , Forrest McDonald , Edwin Meese , Frank Meyer , Charles Murray , Robert Nisbet , Michael Novak , Richard Pipes , Norman Podhoretz , Henry Regnery , William A. Rusher , Paul Ryan , Ellis Sandoz , Shelby Steele , George J. Stigler , Terry Teachout , Edward H. Teller , and Eric Voegelin .

neg: Old City Hall (Philadelphia) Old City Hall located at Chestnut Street at 5th Street in the Independence Hall complex of Independence National Historical Park in Center City , Philadelphia , was built in 1790-91 in the Federal style . The architect was David Evans , Jr. . Although originally intended as Philadelphia 's City Hall , it served as the home of the U.S. Supreme Court from completion of its construction in 1791 until 1800 , when the national capital was moved to Washington , D.C.   Afterward , the building continued to serve as Philadelphia 's City Hall until 1854 . It is a contributing property to Independence National Historical Park . The owner is the City of Philadelphia , which leases the building to the National Park Service .

neg: Birmingham Public Library The Birmingham Public Library , a well-respected and one of the largest library systems in the southeastern United States , consists of 19 branches and a main or central library located in downtown Birmingham , Alabama . The main library is composed of two buildings , the East Building , with its dramatic atrium , and the Linn-Henley Research Library , with its fine wall murals , the Tutwiler Collection of Southern History , and the Rucker Agee Map Collection .


query: Views had zero singles.

pos: Views (album) Views is the fourth studio album by Canadian rapper Drake . It was released on April 29 , 2016 , by Young Money Entertainment , Cash Money Records and Republic Records . Recording sessions took place from 2015 to 2016 , with both Drake and his longtime collaborator and record producer 40 serving as the records executive producers . 40 also primarily handled the production on the album alongside each of these several other record producers such as Nineteen85 , Maneesh Bidaye , Kanye West and Jordan Ullman , among others . The album contains the elements of genres such as R&B , dancehall , hip hop and pop , among others .   The album was supported by five singles : `` Hotline Bling '' ( which was included as a bonus track ) , `` One Dance '' featuring Wizkid and Kyla , `` Pop Style '' featuring The Throne ( Jay Z and Kanye West ) , `` Controlla '' and `` Too Good '' featuring Rihanna . `` One Dance '' became Drake 's first number-one single in 10 countries as the lead artist , including Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom and the United States . The single spent 10 weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and 15 weeks on the UK Singles Chart .   Views was met with lukewarm reviews from critics , many of whom found it to be an overlong retread of Drake 's previous work . Despite this , it spent 13 non-consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 . Views became the first album to accumulate one-billion streams on Apple Music . On December 1 , 2016 , Views was certified Quadruple Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of January 2017 , Views sold 1.61 million copies and a total of 4.14 million album-equivalent units in the United States . Views was nominated for Album of the Year and Best Rap Album at the 59th Grammy Awards . Additionally , `` Hotline Bling '' won for Best Rap/Sung Performance and Best Rap Song , respectively . The single version of `` Pop Style '' featuring The Throne was nominated for Best Rap Performance .

neg: One shot (music video) A `` one-shot '' is any music video which consists of action , continuous in time and space , from the perspective of a single camera -- a single long take . In order to be able to make one-shot videos several special techniques are used . Most commonly the stage props which are not currently caught on cameras are changed during the shot . For other videos some parts are filmed before the final shot and then replayed on screens in the video .   One of the most famous music video directors for this genre is Michel Gondry , who has done many of his videos in this style .   This differs from the meaning of two shot , etc. .

neg: View model A view model or viewpoints framework in systems engineering , software engineering , and enterprise engineering is a framework which defines a coherent set of views to be used in the construction of a system architecture , software architecture , or enterprise architecture . A view is a representation of a whole system from the perspective of a related set of concerns .   Since the early 1990s there have been a number of efforts to prescribe approaches for describing and analyzing system architectures . These recent efforts define a set of views ( or viewpoints ) . They are sometimes referred to as architecture frameworks or enterprise architecture frameworks , but are not usually called `` view models '' .   Usually a view is a work product that presents specific architecture data for a given system . However , the same term is sometimes used to refer to a view definition , including the particular viewpoint and the corresponding guidance that defines each concrete view . The term view model is related to view definitions .

neg: Viewable Impression In the online advertising industry , a Viewable Impression is a metric of ads which were actually viewable when served ( in part , entirely or based on other conditional parameters ) . The first system to deliver reports based on a Viewable Impression metric for standard IAB ( Interactive Advertising Bureau ) Display ad units , called RealVu , was developed by Rich Media Worldwide and accredited by the Media Rating Council on March 9 , 2010 . Other companies to offer viewable impressions include DMA-Institute OnScroll , C3 Metrics , Comscore , and AdYapper , while MSNBC utilizes ServeView , a proprietary system in use since 2010 .   The definition of a Viewable Impression may depend on the type of the ad units and the reporting system . For example , a Viewable Impression for ads of pre-defined size delivered to pre-defined space on the content page is registered by RealVu when the Ad Content is loaded , rendered , and at least 60 % of the ad surface area is within the visible area of a viewer 's browser window on an in focus web page for at least one second . Click-through is enabled at the moment of the `` viewable impression '' .   Viewable Impressions were developed as an improvement of the online impression metrics measured by first ad servers developed in the mid-1990s , which analyze HTTP requests in a server log and can not provide information on events fired by a viewer 's browser ; thus , they can not measure whether ad content was actually visible to a viewer .

neg: Korean Wave The Korean Wave ( , , a neologism literally meaning `` flow of Korea '' ) is the increase in global popularity of South Korean culture since the 1990s . First driven by the spread of K-dramas and K-pop across East , South and Southeast Asia during its initial stages , the Korean Wave evolved from a regional development into a global phenomenon , carried by the Internet and social media and the proliferation of K-pop music videos on YouTube .   Since the turn of the 21st century , South Korea has emerged as a major exporter of popular culture and tourism , aspects which have become a significant part of its burgeoning economy . The growing popularity of Korean pop culture in many parts of the world has prompted the South Korean government to support its creative industries through subsidies and funding for start-ups , as a form of soft power and in its aim of becoming one of the world 's leading exporters of culture along with Japanese and British culture , a niche that the United States has dominated for nearly a century . During this time the Korean society began to be recognized as a developed country similar to that of the Western world .   Part of the success of the Korean Wave owes in part to the development of social networking services and online video sharing platforms such as YouTube , which have allowed the Korean entertainment industry to reach a sizable overseas audience . Use of these media in facilitating promotion , distribution and consumption of various forms of Korean entertainment ( and K-pop in particular ) has contributed to their surge in worldwide popularity since the mid-2000s .

neg: ViewMinder ViewMinder is a computer application for managing content , rights and usage of digital images using structured metadata . The program was first published in August 2003 . The freeware version , ViewMinder Express , had the same features but could organize no more than 250 pictures .   Version 4.01 supported Windows XP and Windows 2000 . In October 2007 its publisher , ViewMinder Limited of Cambridge , England announced that consumer versions of the program had been discontinued .

neg: List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2007 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States . Published by Billboard magazine , the data are compiled by Nielsen SoundScan based collectively on each single 's weekly physical and digital sales , and airplay . In 2007 , 17 singles reached the top spot on the chart . An 18th single , Beyoncé Knowles ' `` Irreplaceable '' , began a run at the top in 2006 which continued into 2007 .   In 2007 , eight acts achieved their first US number-one single , either as a lead artist or featured guest : Maroon 5 , Avril Lavigne , Mims , Plain White T 's , Sean Kingston , Soulja Boy Tell 'Em , T-Pain , and Yung Joc . Producer Timbaland earned his first number-one single as lead artist with `` Give It to Me '' ; he had previously appeared as featured guest on singer Nelly Furtado 's number-one single `` Promiscuous '' . T-Pain , Justin Timberlake , Nelly Furtado and Fergie each earned two number-one singles , either as a lead artist or featured guest .   Three number-one singles tied for the longest run on the chart in 2007 : Knowles ' `` Irreplaceable '' , Rihanna 's `` Umbrella '' , and Soulja Boy Tell 'Em 's `` Crank That ( Soulja Boy ) '' all topped the chart for seven weeks ; the last of these was non-consecutive . However , `` Irreplaceable '' , which started its peak position in three issues the previous year , is credited to by Billboard magazine as 2006 's longest-running single . To this effect , `` Umbrella '' and `` Crank That ( Soulja Boy ) '' are the longest-running singles of 2007 . Other singles with extended chart runs include singer Alicia Keys ' `` No One '' which stayed at number one for five straight weeks .   `` Irreplaceable '' is the best-performing single of the calendar year , topping the Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2007 for seven consecutive weeks . Band Maroon 5 's `` Makes Me Wonder '' is noted for its jump from 64th to 1st place on the Billboard Hot 100 , making it the largest leap of 2007 . `` Umbrella '' , which occupied the top slot for seven of summer 's thirteen weeks , has been credited by the music press as 2007 's Song of the Summer .

neg: Midnight Memories Midnight Memories is the third studio album by British-Irish boy band One Direction , released on 25 November 2013 by Columbia Records , Syco Music and Sony Music . The album was described as having a `` slightly rockier tone '' than their previous efforts . It has become the fastest-selling album in Amazon UK 's history , breaking the record set by One Direction 's previous release , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , making One Direction the first group in history to debut at number one in the US with their first three albums . The album was preceded by the release of the singles `` Best Song Ever '' and `` Story of My Life '' .   Upon the album 's release , Midnight Memories received mixed reviews from music critics . Many critics praised the lyrical depth and musical composition on the album , as well as the group 's level of involvement in the production process . However , others argued that the material was less memorable than their previous work and felt the themes were not as mature as expected . Despite being released five weeks before the year 's end , Midnight Memories nevertheless became the best-selling album of 2013 as listed by the IFPI , with sales of four million copies .

neg: Free Free `` Free Free '' ( stylized as `` FREE FREE '' ) is a song by Japanese recording artist Ami Suzuki and producer Yasutaka Nakata , taken from her sixth studio album Dolce ( 2008 ) . It was released on August 22 , 2007 through Avex Trax and was distributed into three physical formats and for digital consumption . Additionally , the track appeared as a double A-side to `` Super Music Maker '' , another recording by Suzuki and Nakata . Suzuki first started working with the producer in late 2006 after her staff at Avex noticed the singers engagement with dance-oriented music whilst performing at night clubs , and wanted to pair her with a musician that dealt with electronic dance music .   Musically , `` Free Free '' is the creation of a newly-founded genre by Nakata titled Eropop , which he generated by combining 1980s pop , house and disco music ; furthermore , the single also incorporates influences of contemporary EDM . The lyrical content is based on the theme of freedom and having fun . With that said , erotica is another factor that inspired the tracks lyrics and Suzuki 's image for the track . Backed by synthesizers and keyboards , it is Suzuki 's first English language recording and her vocals are processed through pro-tools such as autotune and vocoder .   Upon its release , `` Free Free '' received positive reviews from music critics , many whom commended Suzuki 's new musical approach that tracks mixture of electronic genres . Additionally , it was selected by some publications as one of her best moments in her career . Commercially , the single experienced moderate success on the Oricon Singles Chart , reaching number 32 and was present for four weeks . Despite this , Oricon tallied the sales and revealed it to be one of her highest selling releases after a string of unsuccessful comebacks .   In order to promote the track , an accompanying music video was released in July 2008 ; it depicted Suzuki in a small four-by-four room lit with LED lights and television screens bearing Nakata 's face . Furthermore , she hosted a release party at Tower Records in Shibuya , and went on to performing the number at various events such as A-nation and other intimate gigs . Since its release , `` Free Free '' has been included on Suzuki 's greatest hits compilation , Ami Selection ( 2011 ) and her EP Ami Suzuki Best Selection ( 2014 ) .

neg: Singles 1971–2006 Singles 1971 -- 2006 is a box set compilation of singles by The Rolling Stones spanning the years 1971 to 2006 . It covers their output with both Rolling Stones Records and Virgin Records labels .   A sequel of sorts to ABKCO 's three boxes of singles replicas from the mid-2000s ( Singles 1963 -- 1965 , Singles 1965 -- 1967 , Singles 1968 -- 1971 ) , Universal 's The Singles : 1971 -- 2006 is a 45-disc box set that offers single replicas of every 45 the Rolling Stones released between Sticky Fingers and A Bigger Bang .   This first edition of the set contained a skip around the 4-second mark on the B-side , `` I Think I 'm Going Mad '' . The error was fixed in a subsequent edition .

neg: I See You (The xx album) I See You is the third studio album by English indie pop band the xx . It was released worldwide on 13 January 2017 through the Young Turks label . It is the follow-up to Coexist , and is their first release in more than four years .   The band announced the album while announcing frequent collaborator Rodaidh McDonald for its production and reportedly working on it in May 2014 . Group member Jamie Smith released his solo debut In Colour in May 2015 and reflected that it would influence the sound and aesthetic of I See You .   The xx has stated that the record has a more distinctive sound and a more positive , open and `` expansive '' concept than the previous two albums . The lead single , `` On Hold '' , was released on 12 November 2016 . I See You received widespread acclaim from critics and became the band 's second number-one album in the United Kingdom .

neg: Unfinished Sympathy `` Unfinished Sympathy '' is a song by English trip hop group Massive Attack , released under the temporary group name of Massive . It was written by the three band members Robert `` 3D '' Del Naja , Andrew `` Mushroom '' Vowles and Grant `` Daddy G '' Marshall , the song 's vocalist Shara Nelson and the group 's co-producer Jonathan `` Jonny Dollar '' Sharp . The song was released as the second single from the band 's debut album Blue Lines , on the band 's Wild Bunch label distributed through Circa Records on 11 February 1991 . The choice of using the name `` Massive '' was done to avoid a radio ban as its release coincided with the Gulf War . Produced by Massive Attack and Dollar , the song incorporates various musical elements into its arrangement , including vocal and percussion samples , drum programming , and string orchestration by arranger Wil Malone .   Upon release as a single , `` Unfinished Sympathy '' topped the Dutch Top 40 and became a top twenty hit on the singles charts of countries including Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The single was accompanied by a memorable music video , directed by Baillie Walsh , featuring a single continuous shot of Nelson walking through a Los Angeles neighbourhood , oblivious of her surroundings . Recognised as a pioneering song in the development of British dance music , `` Unfinished Sympathy '' was acclaimed by music critics for its distinctive production and Nelson 's vocals . It ranked highly on several publications ' year-end lists of the best singles of 1991 , and has since featured in many polls of the best singles of all time of both music critics and the public worldwide . The song later appeared on the soundtrack to the 1993 film Sliver .

neg: List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom A million-selling single is regarded by the Official Charts Company ( OCC ) as one that has sold at least 1 million copies since the start of the UK Singles Chart in November 1952 . As well as a traditional purchase of a physical record , a sale can represent one permanent digital download of a track ( physical singles usually consist of two songs , although both are only included in sales figures for double A sides or where both receive a high level of interest and airplay ) . Both British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) - certified awards ( Silver , Gold and Platinum ) and the weekly charts now include audio streaming but these are not included in the sales figures published by the OCC . Certified awards can also include shipments ( sales to trade ) . The OCC and Music Week regularly announce when a record becomes a million seller .   , 167 singles have sold 1 million copies in the UK . Of these , 108 were originally released in the 20th century ( 70 of them selling 1 million before the year 2000 ) and the remainder were released between 2000 and 2014 . The most recently released single to become a million-seller is `` Uptown Funk '' by Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars , which was released in December 2014 and passed a million sales ten weeks later in February 2015 . Bing Crosby 's `` White Christmas '' is the earliest release : originally 1942 , although only sales from 1952 onwards are counted . The year in which the most million-sellers were released is 2011 , with twelve ; while a record 36 releases from both the 1990s and the 2010s have sold a million copies . Only two million sellers have failed to reach the top 5 on the UK Singles Chart : Snow Patrol 's `` Chasing Cars '' and Journey 's `` Do n't Stop Believin ' '' , both of which peaked at number 6 .

neg: C\C (Cinderella\Complex) is the debut ( and to date only ) single by Hello ! Project group High-King . It was released on June 11 , 2008 on the Zetima label in two editions - a normal edition ( EPCE-5561 ) , containing only the normal CD , and a limited edition ( EPCE-5559 - 60 ) , containing a bonus DVD with an alternate version of the PV on it . The limited edition and first press of the normal edition also included a bonus serial number card , used in a promotional draw . The single peaked at # 6 on the weekly Oricon chart , charting for five weeks , selling 26,805 copies in its first week . The song , like the unit itself , was created specially for Morning Musume 's second collaboration with the Takarazuka Revue , Cinderella The Musical , for which it served as the theme song . The Single V ( EPBE-5294 ) was released on June 25 , 2008 .   The PV for the single was released on Dohhh Up ! , a video streaming site , a week prior to the single 's release . Due to guidelines drawn up by NHK and the NAB to reduce negative health effects ( including photosensitive seizures ) from animation and other video , the cut initially shown on the site has been replaced with a re-edited version . The video on the single V is the re-edited cut .

neg: Buttons (song) `` Buttons '' is a song by American girl group the Pussycat Dolls from their debut studio album PCD ( 2005 ) . It was written by Sean Garrett , Jamal Jones , Jason Perry and Nicole Scherzinger and produced by the former two alongside Ron Fair , Tal Herzberg and Young Smoke . It was remixed with additional vocals from American rapper Snoop Dogg and was released as a digital download on April 11 , 2006 as the album 's fourth single . `` Buttons '' contains elements of Middle Eastern music , while the song 's lyrics speaks of a woman 's desire to be undressed .   Critics were divided on `` Buttons '' with some complimenting the song 's production , however , others criticized it followed the same formula of their previous singles . The song reached the top-five in countries such as Australia , Germany , and the United Kingdom . The song reached number one in Austria and in New Zealand , where it became their fourth consecutive number one single on the chart . It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and sold over two million copies in the United States , making The Pussycat Dolls the first female group in digital history to have three singles pass the two million mark in digital sales .   The sepia-toned music video directed by Francis Lawrence features The Pussycat Dolls in various dance sequences . Other scenes include Scherzinger by herself singing the verses . Since its release , `` Buttons '' has become a staple in Scherzinger 's live performances . It was part of the set lists of the group 's two major tours , PCD World Tour ( 2006 -- 07 ) , Doll Domination Tour ( 2009 ) and Scherzinger 's own Killer Love Tour ( 2012 ) . It was nominated for two awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Dance Video and Best Choreography ; it won the former award .

neg: Satellaview The is a satellite modem peripheral for Nintendo 's Super Famicom system that was released in Japan in 1995 . Available for pre-release orders beginning February 13 , 1995 , the Satellaview retailed for between ¥ 14,000 and 18,000 ( at the time between USD$ 141 and 182 ) and came bundled with the BS-X Game Pak and an 8M Memory Pak .   The Satellaview system was developed and released by Nintendo to receive signals broadcast from satellite TV station WOWOW 's satellite radio subsidiary , St.GIGA . St.GIGA was responsible for file server management , maintenance , and vocalization for `` SoundLink '' games . Nintendo data broadcasts were given a fixed time slot known as the during which scrambled Satellaview-related data was streamed via radio waves to be unscrambled by St.GIGA 's . As a subscription-based station for ambient and New Age music , St.GIGA listeners were already equipped with `` BS tuners '' prior to St.GIGA 's contract with Nintendo . Satellaview owners who lacked a `` BS tuner '' had to purchase one separately from St.GIGA at a price of ¥ 33,000 , as well as sign up for Nintendo 's and St.GIGA 's monthly joint membership fees . Alternatively , users could rent `` BS tuners '' from St.GIGA for a 6-month period at a price of ¥ 5,400 . Even at this premium price , St.GIGA reported subscriptions peaking at 116,378 households by March 1997 , and dropping to around 46,000 by June 2001 .

neg: Viewster Viewster is a global video on demand service that was founded in 2007 and has its headquarters in Zurich , Switzerland .  Viewster offers a wide range of ad-supported free TV shows and movies .   To watch movies and series on Viewster neither external software nor registration is required .

neg: Alone (B'z song) Alone is the ninth single by B ` z , released on October 10 , 1991 . This song is one of B ' z many number-one singles in Oricon chart . The single was re-released in 2003 , and re-entered at # 8 . It sold over 1,127,000 copies according to Oricon . It was used as the drama Hotel Woman 's theme song . The song was the 10th best selling single of 1991 and the 56th best selling single of 1992 , making their only single to chart for two years in the yearly charts .   In 2011 , the song was certified digitally by the RIAJ as a gold single for being downloaded more than 100,000 times to cellphones since its release as a digital download in early 2005 .

neg: Nothing to Lose (Vassy song) `` Nothing to Lose '' is an Dance-pop/electronic single recorded by Australian singer/songwriter Vassy , and co-produced with Tiësto . The track became her third number one single in the United States on Billboard 's Dance Club Songs chart , reaching the summit in its February 4 , 2017 issue .

neg: Unknown Pleasures Unknown Pleasures is the debut studio album by English rock band Joy Division , released on 15 June 1979 on Tony Wilson 's Factory Records . It followed an abandoned session for RCA Records , and was recorded and mixed over three weekends at Strawberry Studios , Stockport in April 1979 with record producer Martin Hannett . The cover artwork was designed by artist Peter Saville . It is the only Joy Division album released during lead singer Ian Curtis 's lifetime .   Factory did not release any singles from the album , and it did not chart despite the relative success of the group 's non-album debut single `` Transmission '' . Unknown Pleasures has since received sustained critical acclaim as a pioneering and influential post-punk album . It has been named as one of the best albums of all-time by publications such as NME , AllMusic , and Select .

neg: Solo (American band) Solo is an American R&B musical group from New York , New York . The original members were Robert Anderson , Darnell Chavis , Eunique Mack and Daniel Stokes .   The group recorded their eponymous debut album in Minneapolis and released it in 1995 . Released on Perspective Records , the album featured production primarily by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis .  The album produced four singles ( `` Heaven '' , `` Where Do U Want Me to Put It '' , `` He 's Not Good Enough '' and `` Blowin ' My Mind '' ) and was eventually certified gold .   Solo released their second album , 4 Bruthas & a Bass , in 1998 . The album produced only one single , `` Touch Me '' , which peaked at # 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 .