query: Franklin D. Roosevelt started the development of a nuclear weapon.

pos: Franklin D. Roosevelt Franklin Delano Roosevelt ( -LSB- ˈroʊzəvəlt -RSB- , his own pronunciation , or -LSB- - en ˈroʊzəvɛlt -RSB- January 30 , 1882 -- April 12 , 1945 ) , commonly known as FDR , was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945 . A Democrat , he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century . He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and World War II . As a dominant leader of his party , he built the New Deal Coalition , realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century . He is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U.S. Presidents , along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln .   Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old , prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County , New York and attended Groton School . He went on to graduate from Harvard College in 1903 and attended Columbia Law School . At age 23 in 1905 , he married Eleanor Roosevelt , and the couple went on to have six children . He entered politics in 1910 , serving in the New York State Senate , and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson . In 1920 , presidential candidate James M. Cox selected Roosevelt as his running mate , but the Cox/Roosevelt ticket lost to the Republican ticket of Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge . In 1921 , Roosevelt was stricken with debilitating polio , which cost him the use of his legs . The disability put his future political career in jeopardy , but he attempted to recover from the illness and founded the treatment center in Warm Springs , Georgia for people with polio . Roosevelt returned to political life when he nominated Alfred E. Smith at the 1924 Democratic National Convention . At Smith 's behest , Roosevelt successfully ran for Governor of New York in 1928 . He was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor , promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time .   In the 1932 presidential election , Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency . Roosevelt took office while the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history . Energized by his personal victory over polio , FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit . During his first 100 days in office , Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal -- a variety of programs designed to produce relief ( government jobs for the unemployed ) , recovery ( economic growth ) , and reform ( through regulation of Wall Street , banks and transportation ) . He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers , and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance . His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity , helping him win re-election by a landslide in 1936 . The economy improved rapidly from 1933 -- 37 , but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 -- 38 . The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court , and blocked almost all proposals for major liberal legislation ( except the minimum wage , which did pass ) . When the war began and unemployment ended , conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs , the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) and Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) . However , they kept most of the regulations on business . Along with several smaller programs , major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission , the Wagner Act , the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security .   With World War II looming after 1938 with the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany , Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China and the United Kingdom , while remaining officially neutral . His goal was to make America the `` Arsenal of Democracy '' , which would supply munitions to the Allies . In March 1941 , Roosevelt , with Congressional approval , provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China . Following the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , which he famously called `` a date which will live in infamy '' , Roosevelt sought and obtained the quick approval on the following day for Congress to declare war on Japan and , a few days later , on Germany . Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins , and with very strong national support , he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leading the Allies against Nazi Germany , Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan in World War II . He supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort , and also ordered the internment of 100,000 Japanese American civilians . As an active military leader , Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers , and he initiated the development of the world 's first atomic bomb . His work also influenced the later creation of the United Nations and Bretton Woods . Roosevelt 's physical health seriously declined during the war years , and he died weeks into his fourth term . He was then succeeded by his vice president Harry S. Truman , and a few months after Truman 's inauguration , the United States bombed the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , leading to Japan 's surrender .

pos: Nuclear weapon A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions , either fission ( fission bomb ) or a combination of fission and fusion ( thermonuclear weapon ) . Both reactions release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter . The first test of a fission ( `` atomic '' ) bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tonTNT . The first thermonuclear ( `` hydrogen '' ) bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 e6tonTNT . A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2400 lb can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 e6tonTNT . A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast , fire , and radiation . Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction , and their use and control have been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut .   Nuclear weapons have been used twice in war , both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II . On August 6 , 1945 , the U.S. Army Air Forces detonated a uranium gun-type fission bomb nicknamed `` Little Boy '' over the Japanese city of Hiroshima ; three days later , on August 9 , the U.S. Army Air Forces detonated a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb codenamed `` Fat Man '' over the Japanese city of Nagasaki . The bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions . The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japan 's surrender are subjects of debate .   Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , nuclear weapons have been detonated over two thousand times for testing and demonstration . Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them . The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons -- and acknowledge possessing them -- are ( chronologically by date of first test ) the United States , the Soviet Union ( succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia ) , the United Kingdom , France , the People 's Republic of China , India , Pakistan , and North Korea . Israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons , though , in a policy of deliberate ambiguity , it does not acknowledge having them . Germany , Italy , Turkey , Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states . South Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons .   The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons , but its effectiveness has been questioned , and political tensions remained high in the 1970s and 1980s . Modernisation of weapons continues to occur .

neg: McCollum memo The McCollum memo , also known as the Eight Action Memo was a memorandum , dated October 7 , 1940 ( more than a year before the Pearl Harbor attack ) , sent by Lieutenant Commander Arthur H. McCollum , who `` provided the president with intelligence reports on -LSB- Japan -RSB- ... -LSB- and oversaw -RSB- every intercepted and decoded Japanese military and diplomatic report destined for the White House '' in his capacity as director of the Office of Naval Intelligence 's Far East Asia section . It was sent to Navy Captains Dudley Knox , who agreed with the actions described within the memo , and Walter Stratton Anderson .   The memo outlined the general situation of several nations in World War II and recommended an eight-part course of action for the United States to take in regard to the Japanese Empire in the South Pacific , suggesting the United States provoke Japan into committing an `` overt act of war '' . The memo illustrates several people in the Office of Naval Intelligence promoted the idea of goading Japan into war : `` It is not believed that in the present state of political opinion the United States government is capable of declaring war against Japan without more ado -LSB- ... -RSB- If by -LSB- the elucidated eight-point plan -RSB- Japan could be led to commit an overt act of war , so much the better . ''   The McCollum memo was first widely disseminated with the publication of Robert Stinnett 's book Day of Deceit : The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor . Stinnett presents the memo as part of his argument the Roosevelt Administration conspired to secretly provoke the Japanese to attack the United States in order to bring the United States into the European war without generating public contempt over broken political promises . Roosevelt had recently issued a campaign promise the United States would not become entangled in Europe 's war under his watch . Stinnett omits to mention McCollum never had contact with Roosevelt , and Stinnett 's claims to the contrary are false . Moreover , Stinnett attributes to McCollum a position the position , quoting directly from Stinnett ; `` Lieutenant Commander McCollum 's five-page memorandum of October 1940 ( hereafter referred to as the eight-action memo ) put forward a startling plan -- a plan intended to engineer a situation that would mobilize a reluctant America into joining Britain 's struggle against the German armed forces then overrunning Europe . Its eight actions called for virtually inciting a Japanese attack on American ground , air , and naval forces in Hawaii , as well as on British and Dutch colonial outposts in the Pacific region . '' Many hold that McCollum expressly repudiated this position , in both a publication and McCollum 's own sworn testimony .

neg: Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt The presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt began on March 4 , 1933 , when he was inaugurated as the 32nd President of the United States , and ended upon his death on April 12 , 1945 , a span of ( 4422 days ) . Roosevelt assumed the presidency in the midst of the Great Depression . Starting with his landslide victory over Republican President Herbert Hoover in the 1932 election . He won a record four presidential terms , and became a central figure in world affairs during World War II . His program for relief , recovery and reform , known as the New Deal , involved a great expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy . Under his steady leadership , the Democratic Party built a `` New Deal Coalition '' of labor unions , big city machines , white ethnics , African Americans , and rural white Southerners , that would significantly realign American politics for the next several decades in the Fifth Party System and also define modern American liberalism .   During his first hundred days in office , Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented major legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal -- a variety of programs designed to produce relief ( government jobs for the unemployed ) , recovery ( economic growth ) , and reform ( through regulation of Wall Street , banks and transportation ) . He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers , and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance . The repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity , helping him win re-election by a landslide in 1936 . The economy improved rapidly from 1933 to 1937 , but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 -- 38 . The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his attempted packing of the Supreme Court , and blocked most of his legislative proposals , aside from the Fair Labor Standards Act . When the war began and unemployment largely became a non-issue , conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs , the WPA and CCC , but kept most of the regulations on business . Along with several smaller programs , major surviving programs from the New Deal include the Securities and Exchange Commission , the Wagner Act , the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation , and Social Security .   A potential worldwide war loomed after 1937 , with the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany , which invaded Poland in September 1939 . Roosevelt remained officially neutral but gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China , the United Kingdom , Free France , and the Soviet Union via initiatives such as the Lend-Lease programs . Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , Roosevelt sought and obtained a declaration of war upon Japan . A few days later , he sought and obtained a declaration of war upon the other major Axis powers , Germany and Italy . Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins , and with very strong national support , he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leading the Allies during World War II . He supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort , and the war saw the end of the massive unemployment that characterized the Great Depression . Roosevelt sought to desegregate the federal workforce with the Fair Employment Practice Committee , but he also controversially ordered the internment of 100,000 Japanese American civilians . As an active military leader , Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and the development of the world 's first nuclear bomb . Though he died months before the end of the war , his work on the post-war order shaped the new United Nations and the Bretton Woods international financial system . Roosevelt 's health seriously declined during the war years , and he died three months into his fourth term . He was succeeded by Vice President Harry S. Truman . It was on Roosevelt 's watch that the Democratic Party was returned to dominance , prosperity returned , and two great military enemies were destroyed .   Scholars , historians and the public typically rank Roosevelt alongside Abraham Lincoln and George Washington as one of the three greatest U.S. Presidents .

neg: Geneva Conference (1932) The Second Geneva Naval Conference was a conference held to discuss naval arms limitation , held in Geneva , Switzerland , in 1932 . This is a separate conference from the previous disarmament conference , the Geneva Naval Conference of 1927 .   Apart from naval disarmaments , a reduction in land forces and limits on weapons were also discussed at the conference .   Thirty-one nations , including USA , USSR and Germany , came to the conference wanting a reduction in general arms . Some progress was made , but when Hitler came into power in 1933 he took Germany out of the Geneva Conference and the League of Nations , which was questionable on the basis of international agreements , but nothing was done about it .   As Gibson had observed not long after the London Conference , the United States had decreased interest in the new conference because treaties already limited its navy , its army was so small that reduction was ludicrous , and the proposed measures of air limitation were so vague that they meant little . Gibson wrote that the conference would `` probably meet in February or March 1932 and , discouraging as it may sound , it will probably go on and on . '' He had come to believe that armaments would never be abolished completely but that treaties could perhaps maintain military balances . Secretary Stimson later wrote that Americans regarded the Geneva Conference as `` a European peace conference with European political questions to be settled . The necessary work of settling them must be done by the leaders of Europe . '' Stimsom realized that Germany 's position in European affairs could not be ignored as it had been at Geneva in 1927 or at London in 1930 , but he did not know how to reconcile German military ambition with French fear of its neighbor . Stimson therefore hoped the Europeans might find a solution . The secretary also hesitated over further naval disarmament because of the Manchurian crisis ; in particular he worried whether the navy possessed enough carriers for possible action in the Far East .

neg: Wendell Willkie Wendell Lewis Willkie ( born Lewis Wendell Willkie ; February 18 , 1892 -- October 8 , 1944 ) was an American lawyer and corporate executive , and the 1940 Republican nominee for President . Willkie appealed to many convention delegates as the Republican field 's only interventionist : although the U.S. remained neutral prior to Pearl Harbor , he favored greater U.S. involvement in World War II to support Britain and other Allies . His Democratic opponent , incumbent President Franklin D. Roosevelt , won the 1940 election with about 55 % of the popular vote and took the electoral college vote by a wide margin .   Willkie was born in Indiana in 1892 ; both his parents were lawyers , and he also became one . He served in World War I but was not sent to France until the final days of the war , and saw no action . Willkie settled in Akron , Ohio , where he was initially employed by Firestone , but left for a law firm , becoming one of the leaders of the Akron bar . Much of his work was representing electric utilities , and in 1929 Willkie accepted a job in New York City as counsel for Commonwealth & Southern Corporation ( C&S ) , a utility holding company . He was rapidly promoted , and became corporate president in 1933 . Roosevelt was sworn in as U.S. president soon after Willkie became head of C&S , and announced plans for a Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) that would supply power in competition with C&S . Between 1933 and 1939 , Willkie fought against the TVA before Congress , in the courts , and before the public . He was ultimately unsuccessful , but sold C&S 's property for a good price , and gained public esteem .   A longtime Democratic activist , Willkie changed his party registration to Republican in late 1939 . He did not run in the 1940 presidential primaries , but positioned himself as an acceptable choice for a deadlocked convention . He sought backing from uncommitted delegates , while his supporters -- many youthful -- enthusiastically promoted his candidacy . As German forces under Hitler rampaged through western Europe in 1940 , many Republicans did not wish to nominate an isolationist like Thomas E. Dewey , and turned to Willkie , who was nominated on the sixth ballot over Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft . Willkie 's support for aid to Britain removed it as a major factor in his race against Roosevelt , and Willkie also backed the president on a peacetime draft . Both men took more isolationist positions towards the end of the race . Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term , taking 38 of the 48 states .   After the election , Willkie made two wartime foreign trips as Roosevelt 's informal envoy , and as nominal leader of the Republican Party gave the president his full support . This angered many conservatives , especially as Willkie increasingly advocated liberal or internationalist causes . Willkie ran for the Republican nomination in 1944 , but bowed out after a disastrous showing in the Wisconsin primary in April . He and Roosevelt discussed the possibility of forming , after the war , a liberal political party , but Willkie died in October 1944 before the idea could bear fruit . Willkie is remembered for giving Roosevelt vital political assistance in 1940 , which allowed the president to aid Britain in its time of crisis .

neg: Nuclear Posture Review The Nuclear Posture Review is a process `` to determine what the role of nuclear weapons in U.S. security strategy should be . ''   The first NPR of 2002 was the second of these quadrennial reviews of United States nuclear forces undertaken by the United States Department of Defense . The first took place in 1994 . The final report is National Security Classified and submitted to the Congress of the United States .   The 2002 Nuclear Posture Review also included components requiring the `` Pentagon to draft contingency plans for the use of nuclear weapons against at least seven countries , naming not only Russia and the `` axis of evil '' -- Iraq , Iran , and North Korea -- but also China , Libya and Syria . ''   President Barack Obama 's 2010 Nuclear Posture Review was preceded by high expectations because of his 2009 speech in Prague , Czech Republic where he prominently outlined a vision of a world without nuclear weapons . His NPR was hoped by observers to make concrete moves toward this goal . The finished 2010 policy renounces development of any new nuclear weapons such as the bunker-busters proposed by the Bush administration , and for the first time rules out a nuclear attack against non-nuclear-weapon states who are in compliance with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty . This rule pointedly excludes Iran and North Korea .   As part of the implementation of the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review , the U.S. Government is reviewing its nuclear deterrence requirements and nuclear plans to ensure that they are aligned to address today 's threats . Rose Gottemoeller , U.S. Acting Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security , said in early June 2012 that the United States was considering what forces the United States needed to maintain for strategic stability and deterrence , including extended deterrence and assurance to U.S. Allies and partners . Based on this analysis the United States would develop proposals for potential further reductions in its nuclear stockpile .

neg: Silverplate Silverplate was the code reference for the United States Army Air Forces ' participation in the Manhattan Project during World War II . Originally the name for the aircraft modification project which enabled a B-29 Superfortress bomber to drop an atomic weapon , `` Silverplate '' eventually came to identify the training and operational aspects of the program as well . The original directive for the project had as its subject line `` Silver Plated Project '' but continued usage of the term shortened it to `` Silverplate '' .   Testing began with scale models at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia , in August 1943 . Modifications began on a prototype Silverplate B-29 known as the `` Pullman '' in November 1943 , and it was used for bomb flight testing at Muroc Army Air Field in California commencing in March 1944 . The testing resulted in further modifications to both the bombs and the aircraft .   Seventeen production Silverplate aircraft were ordered in August 1944 to allow the 509th Composite Group to train with the type of aircraft they would have to fly in combat , and for the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit to test bomb configurations . These were followed by 28 more aircraft that were ordered in February 1945 for operational use by the 509th Composite Group . This batch included the aircraft which were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 . Including the Pullman B-29 , a total of 46 Silverplate B-29s were produced during and after World War II . An additional 19 Silverplate B-29s were ordered in July 1945 , which were delivered between the end of the war and the end of 1947 . Thus , a total of 65 Silverplate B-29s were made .   The use of the Silverplate codename was discontinued after the war , but modifications continued under a new codename , Saddletree . Another 80 aircraft were modified under this program . The last group of B-29s was modified in 1953 , but never saw further service .

neg: Mark 21 nuclear bomb The Mark 21 nuclear bomb was a United States nuclear gravity bomb first produced in 1955 . It was based on the TX-21 `` Shrimp '' prototype that had been detonated during the Castle Bravo test in March 1954 . While most of the Operation Castle tests were intended to evaluate weapons intended for immediate stockpile , or which were already available for use as part of the Emergency Capability Program , Castle Bravo was intended to test a design which would drastically reduce the size and costs of the first generation of air-droppable atomic weapons ( the Mk 14 , Mk 17 & Mk 24 ) . At 12 ft long , 56 in in diameter , and weighing 15000 lb , the Mk-21 was half the length and one-third the weight of the Mk-17 / 24 weapons it replaced . Its minimum yield was specified at four megatons .   Quantity production of the Mk-21 started in December 1955 and ran until July 1956 . Three marks were produced ; the Mk-21C was proof tested as the Operation Redwing Navajo shot , with a yield of 4.5 megatons . Starting in June 1957 all Mk-21 bombs were converted to the more powerful Mk-36 , which was removed from service in 1962 .

neg: William Raborn William Francis Raborn , Jr. , United States Navy ( June 8 , 1905 -- March 6 , 1990 ) was a United States Navy officer , the leader of the project to develop the Polaris missile system , and the 7th Director of Central Intelligence as well as the 5th Director of the Central Intelligence Agency .   Born in Decatur , Texas , he graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1928 . During World War II he directed the Gunnery Training Section at the Bureau of Aeronautics . He also served in the Pacific on aircraft carriers : Raborn was the executive officer of the carrier when her deck was damaged by a kamikaze attack . He had the deck repaired in four hours , allowing the ship 's aircraft ( which had been airborne when the kamikaze struck ) to land safely - for this Raborn was awarded the Silver Star . He later commanded the carriers and .   Raborn was a rear admiral when he was appointed , on November 8 , 1955 , as Director of Special Projects at the Bureau of Weapons . His task was to develop a submarine-launched ballistic missile . He reported directly to Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke and the Secretary of the Navy Charles Thomas . Raborn was told the new system had to achieve interim capability by early 1963 and full capability by early 1965 . The , the first ballistic missile submarine , was commissioned December 30 , 1959 , fired its first test missile July 20 , 1960 , and departed on the Navy 's first deterrent patrol on November 15 , 1960 . Raborn received the Distinguished Service Medal and was appointed Vice Admiral in 1960 . The same year he was awarded the Collier Trophy for his work on Polaris .   Raborn had delivered Polaris three years ahead of schedule , due in part to his application of the PERT methodology . He became Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Development in 1962 . Raborn retired from the Navy in 1965 and on April 28 of that year , despite his having no intelligence experience , President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Raborn as the seventh Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) . As DCI , one of his primary responsibilities was to direct the Central Intelligence Agency .   Time magazine wrote that his organizational skills would be invaluable in a CIA that admitted it was in danger of being `` drowned in data '' , but his tenure was not successful : author David Barrett described Raborn as `` incompetent at CIA , not understanding the agency or the intelligence business '' , and even the CIA 's own historians said `` Raborn did not ` take ' to the DCI job '' . A later CIA director , William Colby , described Raborn as focused on intelligence technology and not sufficiently attuned to the cultural issues involved in dealing with foreign nationals and governments .   Raborn resigned on June 30 , 1966 , having served for only fourteen months as DCI . He was replaced by his deputy , Richard Helms .   He was involved , during his time at the CIA , in its early activities against Ramparts magazine and its editors .   Raborn is buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery in Annapolis , Maryland .   Raborn was also :  Vice Admiral ( United States Navy )  Director , U.S. Navy Special Projects Office  Deputy Chief of Naval Operations

neg: Origins of the Cold War The Origins of the Cold War are widely regarded to lie most directly in the relations between the Soviet Union and the allies ( the United States , Great Britain and France ) in the years 1945 -- 1947 . Those events led to the Cold War that endured for just under half a century .   Events preceding the Second World War , and even the Russian Revolution of 1917 , underlay pre -- World War II tensions between the Soviet Union , western European countries and the United States . A series of events during and after World War II exacerbated tensions , including the Soviet-German pact during the first two years of the war leading to subsequent invasions , the perceived delay of an amphibious invasion of German-occupied Europe , the western allies ' support of the Atlantic Charter , disagreement in wartime conferences over the fate of Eastern Europe , the Soviets ' creation of an Eastern Bloc of Soviet satellite states , western allies scrapping the Morgenthau Plan to support the rebuilding of German industry , and the Marshall Plan .

neg: Surrender of Japan The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2 , 1945 , bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close . By the end of July 1945 , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) was incapable of conducting major operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent . Together with the British Empire and China , the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26 , 1945 -- the alternative being `` prompt and utter destruction '' . While publicly stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end , Japan 's leaders ( the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War , also known as the `` Big Six '' ) were privately making entreaties to the still-neutral Soviet Union to mediate peace on terms more favorable to the Japanese . Meanwhile , the Soviets were preparing to attack Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea ( in addition to South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands ) in fulfillment of promises they had secretly made to the United States and the United Kingdom at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences .   On August 6 , 1945 , at 8:15 AM local time , the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima . Sixteen hours later , American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japan 's surrender , warning them to `` expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth . '' Late in the evening of August 8 , 1945 , in accordance with the Yalta agreements , but in violation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact , the Soviet Union declared war on Japan , and soon after midnight on August 9 , 1945 , the Soviet Union invaded the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo . Later in the day , the United States dropped a second atomic bomb , this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki . Following these events , Emperor Hirohito intervened and ordered the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War to accept the terms the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration for ending the war . After several more days of behind-the-scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'état , Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15 . In the radio address , called the , he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies .   On August 28 , the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began . The surrender ceremony was held on September 2 , aboard the United States Navy battleship , at which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender , thereby ending the hostilities . Allied civilians and military personnel alike celebrated V-J Day , the end of the war ; however , some isolated soldiers and personnel from Imperial Japan 's far-flung forces throughout Asia and the Pacific islands refused to surrender for months and years afterwards , some even refusing into the 1970s . The role of the atomic bombings in Japan 's unconditional surrender , and the ethics of the two attacks , is still debated . The state of war formally ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28 , 1952 . Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which formally brought an end to their state of war .

neg: Strategic Defense Initiative The Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons ( intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine-launched ballistic missiles ) . The system , which was to combine ground-based units and orbital deployment platforms , was first publicly announced by President Ronald Reagan on March 23 , 1983 . The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction ( MAD ) . The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization ( SDIO ) was set up in 1984 within the United States Department of Defense to oversee the Strategic Defense Initiative .   Reagan was a vocal critic of MAD doctrine . SDI was an important part of his defense policy intended to end MAD as a nuclear deterrence strategy , as well as a strategic initiative to neutralize the military component of the Soviet Union 's nuclear defenses .   The ambitious initiative was criticized for allegedly threatening to destabilize the MAD-approach and to possibly re-ignite `` an offensive arms race '' . SDI was nicknamed largely in the mainstream media as `` Star Wars '' , after the popular 1977 film by George Lucas . In 1987 , the American Physical Society concluded that a global shield such as `` Star Wars '' was extremely ambitious and with existing technology not directly feasible for operational status , and that about ten more years of research was needed to learn about such a comprehensive and complex system to set up and make it fully operational .   Under the SDIO 's Innovative Sciences and Technology Office , headed by physicist and engineer Dr. James Ionson , the investment was predominantly made in basic research at national laboratories , universities , and in industry ; these programs have continued to be key sources of funding for top research scientists in the fields of high-energy physics , supercomputing/computation , advanced materials , and many other critical science and engineering disciplines -- funding which indirectly supports other research work by top scientists , and which was most politically viable to fund within the budget environment .   Laser research funded by the SDI office was disclosed at laser conferences that also included panel discussions on the subject with the participation of James Ionson , Edward Teller , and other prominent advocates of SDI .   During the administration of President Bill Clinton in 1993 , the SDIO 's name was changed to the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization ( BMDO ) and its focus shifted from national missile defense to theater missile defense ; and its scope from global to more regional coverage . It was never truly developed or deployed , though certain aspects of SDI research and technologies paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today . BMDO was renamed to the Missile Defense Agency in 2002 . This article covers defense efforts under the SDIO .   Today , the United States holds a significant advantage in the field of comprehensive advanced missile defense systems through years of extensive research and testing . The US and the UK also have both laser weapons and 360 degree laser shields in development , which are expected to be ready for military use as early as 2020 . Many of the obtained technological insights were transferred to subsequent programs and would find use in follow-up programs .

neg: 1939 State of the Union Address The 1939 State of the Union Address was given to the United States Congress , on January 4 , 1939 , by Franklin D. Roosevelt , the 32nd United States President . Foreseeing World War II , he said , `` In Reporting on the state of the nation , I have felt it necessary on previous occasions to advise the Congress of disturbance abroad and of the need of putting our own house in order in the face of storm signals from across the seas . As this Seventy-sixth Congress opens there is need for further warning .  A war which threatened to envelop the world in flames has been averted ; but it has become increasingly clear that world peace is not assured . '' In September 1939 , the War in Europe began .

neg: First 100 days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency During the first hundred days of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's presidency , President Franklin D. Roosevelt planned to end the Great Depression . When Roosevelt took office on March 4 , 1933 , he immediately addressed the effects of the depression . His main four priorities were to get Americans back to work , protect their savings and create prosperity , provide relief for the sick and elderly , and get industry and agriculture back on their feet . 15 major laws were enacted in Roosevelt 's first 100 days .

neg: We begin bombing in five minutes On August 11 , 1984 , United States President Ronald Reagan , while running for re-election , was preparing to make his weekly Saturday radio address on National Public Radio . During a sound check before the address , Reagan made the following joke to the radio technicians : `` My fellow Americans , I 'm pleased to tell you today that I 've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever . We begin bombing in five minutes . '' The joke was a parody of the opening line of that day 's speech : `` My fellow Americans , I 'm pleased to tell you that today I signed legislation that will allow student religious groups to begin enjoying a right they 've too long been denied -- the freedom to meet in public high schools during nonschool hours , just as other student groups are allowed to do . ''   Contrary to popular misconception , this microphone gaffe was not broadcast over the air , but rather leaked later to the general populace . But the Tokyo newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun reported in October 1984 that the Soviet Far East Army was placed on alert after word of the statement got out and that the alert was not withdrawn until 30 minutes later . An unnamed aide to US Representative Michael Barnes ( D-Md . ) confirmed that the Pentagon was aware of the alert . There was no report of any change in the DEFCON level for the United States . The Soviet reaction , and mild confusion it created , was covered by NBC news anchor Tom Brokaw .   This was not the first time Reagan had joked before giving a speech or address . The Soviet official news agency , TASS , condemned the joke , declaring that `` The USSR condemns this unprecedented and hostile attack by the US President '' and that `` this kind of behavior is incompatible with the great responsibility borne by heads of nuclear states for the destinies of their own people and mankind '' .

neg: German–Soviet Axis talks In October and November 1940 , German -- Soviet Axis talks occurred concerning the Soviet Union 's potential entry as a fourth Axis Power in World War II . The negotiations , which occurred during the era of the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact and the German-Soviet Commercial Agreement , included a two-day Berlin conference between Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov , Adolf Hitler and German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop , followed by both countries trading written proposed agreements . After two days of negotiations from 12 to 14 November 1940 , Germany presented the Soviets with a draft written Axis pact agreement defining the world spheres of influence of the four proposed Axis powers ( Japan , Germany , Soviet Union , Italy ) . Hitler , Ribbentrop and Molotov tried to set German and Soviet spheres of influence ; Hitler encouraged Molotov to look south to Iran and eventually India while preserving German access to Finland 's resources , and to remove Soviet influence in the Balkans . Molotov remained firm , seeking to remove German troops from Finland and gain a warm water port in the Balkans . Soviet foreign policy calculations were predicated by the idea that the war would be a long - term struggle and therefore German claims that Britain would be defeated swiftly were treated with scepticism . In addition Stalin sought to remain influential in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia . These factors resulted in Molotov taking a firm line . According to a Columbia University academical source , on 25 November 1940 , the Soviets presented a Stalin-drafted written counterproposal where they would accept the four power pact , but it included Soviet rights to Bulgaria and a world sphere of influence centered on the area around modern Iraq and Iran . Germany did not respond , leaving the negotiations unresolved . Regarding the counterproposal , Hitler remarked to his top military chiefs that Stalin `` demands more and more '' , `` he 's a cold-blooded blackmailer '' and that `` a German victory has become unbearable for Russia '' so that `` she must be brought to her knees as soon as possible . '' Germany ended the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in June 1941 by invading the Soviet Union .

neg: History of nuclear weapons Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive power from nuclear fission or combined fission and fusion reactions . Starting with scientific breakthroughs made during the 1930s , the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada collaborated during World War II in what was called the Manhattan Project to counter the suspected Nazi German atomic bomb project . In August 1945 , two fission bombs were dropped on Japan , and stands to date as the only use of nuclear weapons in combat . The Soviet Union started development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project , and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons known as `` hydrogen bombs '' .

neg: Cash and carry (World War II) Cash and carry was a policy requested by US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21 , 1939 , subsequent to the outbreak of war in Europe . It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936 . The revision allowed the sale of materiel to belligerents , as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash , assuming all risk in transportation . However , the sale of war materials was not allowed .   Though `` Cash and Carry '' concepts had been introduced in the Neutrality Act of 1936 , it only pertained to materials that could not be used in war efforts , which allowed them to aid warring countries . Originally presented to Congress by Senator Key Pittman ( D-NV ) earlier in 1939 , the bill was designed to replace the Neutrality Act of 1937 , which had lapsed in May 1939 . The bill had been defeated repeatedly by the Senate and the House on more than one occasion as Isolationists feared that passing the bill would draw the US into the conflict in Europe . However , President Roosevelt felt that further help was needed in Europe after Germany invaded Poland in September 1939 . The bill passed in late October , gaining approval from the House on November 5 , 1939 . The President gave his signature the same day .   The purpose of this policy was to maintain neutrality between the United States and European countries while giving aid to Britain by allowing them to buy non war materials . Various policies , such as the Neutrality Acts of 1935 , 1936 , and 1937 , forbade selling implements of war or lending money to belligerent countries under any terms . The U.S. economy was rebounding at this time , following the Great Depression , but there was still a need for industrial manufacturing jobs . The cash and carry program helped to solve this issue and in turn Great Britain benefited from the purchase goods .   This program also prevented US businesses interests backing the success or failure of any warring nation . Because of the conclusion of the Nye Committee , which asserted that United States involvement in World War I was driven by private interests from arms manufacturers , many Americans believed that investment in a belligerent would eventually lead to American participation in war .   U.S. shipping interests were forbidden from entering into conflict zones and US passengers traveling on foreign ships did so at their own risk .   The `` cash and carry '' legislation enacted in 1939 effectively ended the arms embargo that had been in place since the Neutrality Act of 1936 . It paved the way for Lend-Lease .

neg: The Night Letter The Night Letter is a 1978 book by Paul Spike , with a double-layered structure : an anti-Nazi spy thriller on the background of the early part of the Second World War , and an exposure of cynical and machiavellian maneuverings in the American corridors of power .   The book belongs to the subgenre of secret history -- i.e. with a plot in which real historical figures play a substantial part , doing things which are the author 's invention but which supposedly ( for reasons given in the plot ) remained secret and did not come to the knowledge of the public .   In the book , a British doctor meets in 1936 with President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who is unaware that the doctor is a Nazi sympathizer . The visitor manages to secretly photograph the President in a compromising position with his secretary , Missy LeHand ( whom historians widely assume to have been indeed Roosevelt 's mistress ) .   By 1940 , senior Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich possesses the picture and intends to use the photo for blackmail and prevent Roosevelt from running for a third term -- in the hope that whoever gets elected instead would be more likely to keep the US out of the Second World War .   The President must recover the photo before the Democratic Party Convention which is about to nominate him . What makes the situation more difficult is that Roosevelt also needs to bypass the FBI -- for apprehension that should the photo fall into the hands of J. Edgar Hoover , the FBI Director might use it for his own brand of blackmail . Instead , Roosevelt employs former FBI Agent Jackson , who had left the Bureau under a cloud and incurred Hoover 's personal enmity , and who is completely loyal to the President .   The bulk of the book follows Jackson 's chase after the photo , starting from Paris at the very eve of its fall to the Wehrmacht and concluding with a cataclysmic confrontation at a secret Michigan base of the `` Silver Shirts '' -- a murderous , power-mad American Fascist militia ( which truly existed , though not necessarily doing all that the book describes it as doing ) . The chase ends with a mixed result -- the Nazi agents have been killed or captured , but the negative did fall into the hands of the FBI who caught the scent of what was going on .   The book ends on a cynical note : Hoover meets the President at the White House , claims to have destroyed the negatives ( which is manifestly untrue ) and proceeds to imperiously demand the sacking of Jackson -- obviously he is under the impression that he now holds Roosevelt 's fate in his hand . Upon being shown this , the President presents a photo of his own , showing Hoover in a compromising position with a handsome young FBI agent . Roosevelt and Hoover would henceforth be tied to each other , `` like convicts in chain gang '' , each able to destroy the other but only at the cost of his own destruction .   Category :1978 books  Category : Corruption  Category : Secret histories  Category : Thriller novels

neg: Anti-nuclear groups in the United States More than eighty anti-nuclear groups are operating , or have operated , in the United States . These include : Abalone Alliance , Clamshell Alliance , Greenpeace USA , Institute for Energy and Environmental Research , Musicians United for Safe Energy , Nevada Desert Experience , Nuclear Control Institute , Nuclear Information and Resource Service , Public Citizen Energy Program , Shad Alliance , and the Sierra Club . These are direct action , environmental , health , and public interest organizations who oppose nuclear weapons and/or nuclear power . In 1992 , the chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission said that `` his agency had been pushed in the right direction on safety issues because of the pleas and protests of nuclear watchdog groups '' .   Some of the most influential groups in the anti-nuclear movement have had members who included Nobel Laureates ( e.g. , Linus Pauling and Hermann Joseph Muller ) . These scientists have belonged primarily to two groups : the Federation of American Scientists , and the Committee for Nuclear Responsibility .

neg: Nuclear weapons and Israel Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons and to be the sixth country in the world to have developed them , allegedly having built its first deliverable nuclear weapon in December 1966 based on scientific and industrial cooperation with pre-nuclear France . It is one of four nuclear-armed countries not recognized as a Nuclear Weapons State by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT ) ; the others being India , Pakistan , and North Korea . Israel maintains a policy known as `` nuclear ambiguity '' ( also known as `` nuclear opacity '' ) . Israel has never officially denied nor admitted to having nuclear weapons , instead repeating over the years that it would not be the first country to `` introduce '' nuclear weapons to the Middle East , leaving ambiguity as to whether it means it will not create , will not disclose , will not make first use of the weapons or possibly some other interpretation of the phrase . The `` not be the first '' formulation goes back to the Eshkol-Comer ( sic ) memorandum of understanding made between Israel and the United States on March 10 , 1965 , which contained Israel 's written assurance for the first time that it would not be the first to introduce nuclear weapons in the Middle East . Israel has refused to sign the NPT despite international pressure to do so , and has stated that signing the NPT would be contrary to its national security interests .   Additionally , Israel has made extensive efforts to deny other regional actors the ability to acquire their own nuclear weapons . The counter-proliferation , preventive strike Begin Doctrine added another dimension to Israel 's existing nuclear policy . Israel remains the only country in the Middle East believed to possess them .   Israel started investigating the nuclear field soon after its founding in 1948 and with French support secretly began building the Negev Nuclear Research Center , a facility near Dimona housing a nuclear reactor and reprocessing plant in the late 1950s . Israel is alleged to have built its first nuclear weapon in December 1966 , but it is not publicly confirmed . In 1986 , Mordechai Vanunu , a former Israeli nuclear technician , provided explicit details and photographs to The Sunday Times of a nuclear weapons program in which he had been employed for nine years , `` including equipment for extracting radioactive material for arms production and laboratory models of thermonuclear devices . '' In 1987 , an unclassified US DoD report ( released in February 2015 in response to a FOIA request ) stated that `` As far as nuclear technology is concerned , the Israelis are roughly where the U.S. -LSB- w -RSB- as in the fission weapon field in about 1955 to 1960 . It should be noted that the Israelis are developing the kind of codes which will enable them to make hydrogen bombs . ''   Estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal vary between 75 and 400 nuclear warheads . It is estimated that the Israel nuclear deterrent force has the ability to deliver them by intermediate-range ballistic missile , intercontinental ballistic missile , aircraft , and submarine-launched cruise missile . The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates that Israel has approximately 80 intact nuclear weapons , of which 50 are for delivery by Jericho II medium-range ballistic missiles and 30 are gravity bombs for delivery by aircraft . Former U.S. officials Jimmy Carter and Colin Powell have stated that Israel has 200 ( Powell ) or more than 300 ( Carter ) nuclear warheads .


query: Kick-Ass is a film of the black comedy genre.

pos: Kick-Ass (film) Kick-Ass is a 2010 British-American superhero black comedy film based on the comic book of the same name by Mark Millar and John Romita , Jr. . The film was directed by Matthew Vaughn , who produced with Brad Pitt and co-wrote the screenplay with Jane Goldman . Its general release was on 25 March 2010 in the United Kingdom and on 16 April 2010 in the United States . It is the first installment of the Kick-Ass film series .   It tells the story of an ordinary teenager , Dave Lizewski ( Aaron Johnson ) , who sets out to become a real-life superhero , calling himself `` Kick-Ass '' . Dave gets caught up in a bigger fight when he meets Big Daddy ( Nicolas Cage ) , a former cop who , in his quest to bring down the crime boss Frank D'Amico ( Mark Strong ) and his son ( Christopher Mintz-Plasse ) ( Red Mist ) , has trained his eleven-year-old daughter ( Chloë Grace Moretz ) to be the ruthless vigilante Hit-Girl .   Despite having generated some controversy for its profanity and violence performed by a child , Kick-Ass was well received by both critics and audiences . In 2011 it won the Empire Award for Best British Film . The film has gained a strong cult following since its release on DVD and Blu-ray . A sequel , written and directed by Jeff Wadlow and produced by Vaughn , was released in August 2013 , with Johnson , Mintz-Plasse , and Moretz reprising their roles .

neg: Black Banana The Black Banana was a nightclub in Philadelphia . It began as La Banane Noire at 534 South 4th Street in 1970 by Garrick Melmeck and Xavier ( ZaZa ) Hussenet .   In the late 1970s it moved to 3rd and Race Street and became a private club for members only ( `` The Crusaders Community Club '' ) . Cafe Zaza served food while the Black Banana was known as the most decadent after-hours nightclub in town , with glass-walled unisex bathrooms featuring two-way mirrors , a private and exclusive party space on the third floor , and various nooks and crannies where mischievous customers could have their fun .   The club thrived through the 80s being on the cutting edge of fashion and music : styles came and went and the Black Banana 's very diverse staff and sophisticated clientele rolled with the punches . This period was marked by such legendary talent as Josh Wink , Robbie Tronco , King Britt , Dj Dozia , Jeff Gross ( DJ Rush ) , Richie Rosati , Willyum , Stango , Suzi Miller and her Bananettes along with local legends like performers : Natasha and Coco , video artist : Nick London , Nick and Gigi Meoli , Toni Thomas , and uber Philly It-Girl , Kim Kelly .   The Black Banana suffered a devastating fire in 1991 . Much of the staff worked day and night demolishing and rebuilding the club . All the while , loyal patrons held vigils out on its sidewalks . The club 's founder , Garrick Melmeck would succumb to AIDS in the months following the successful relaunch of the club . As the fabric of the Old City Philadelphia neighborhood changed and larger nightclubs opened in other ( less populated ) areas , The Black Banana played its last record and flashed its last strobe and closed its doors for good in 1998 .   The building now houses Wexler Fine Arts Gallery .

neg: Black Reel Awards The Black Reel Awards , or `` BRAs '' , is an annual American awards ceremony hosted by the Foundation for the Augmentation of African-Americans in Film ( FAAAF ) to recognize excellence in African-American , as well as those of African diaspora 's cinematic achievements in the around the world film industry as assessed by the Academy 's voting membership . The various category winners are awarded a copy of a statuette , officially called the Black Reel Award . The awards , first presented in 2000 in Washington , DC , are overseen by FAAAF .   The awards ceremony was initially awarded online their first two years before the first live show in 2002 . The awards have broadcast to radio since 2014 . Currently , the Black Reel Awards is the oldest cinema-exclusive awards ceremony for African-Americans .   The 16th Annual Black Reel Awards ceremony was held on February 18 , 2016 . A total of 315 Black Reel Awards have been presented since the inception of the award through the 16th .

neg: Hip Hop Galsen Following an historical process of appropriation of American popular music by Senegal , For e.g. Jazz as well as Latin American music such as salsa or pachanga were popular in Senegalese cities from the 1940s and until recently . Hip Hop emerged in the Senegalese capital city in the early mid - 1980s . Although Hip Hop Galsen is now famous for its diverse musical productions , the movement there spread out from its dancing appeal rather than from its musical one . Indeed , Senegalese hip hop artists initially participated in this movement as smurfer , breakdancer , B-Boy in general performing during organised podiums . Schools , nightclubs and other temporary public stages thus played an essential role in amplifying this movement in Dakar . Besides , and in contrast to American Hip Hop , which grew from the youth in the inner city ghettos , Hip Hop in Dakar began among a somehow middle-class youth who was able to access and/or introduce in their home place new ideas and new cultural expressions coming from abroad . Indeed , Hip Hop became popular in the capital city through the intensive though informal circulation of VH7 cassettes and recorded videos , which were imported from USA ( Africa Bambaataa ) or France ( hip hop dance TV show ` HIPHOP ' animated by Sydney ) by diaspora people .   Quickly , podiums enlarged their performances from dancers only to rappers as well . It was a time when soon-to-be hip hop artists were still mimicking American artists they actively used to listen to such Africa Bambaataa , Grandmaster Flash , Furious Five , Delight , Doug E. Fresh or Public Enemy for the most well-known . Indeed , rap , the MC performance , was still then a phonetic repetition , a copycatting of either American rappers or , with Hip Hop booming in France in the 1980s , of French hip hop artists such as Assassin , NTM , IAM or Mc Solaar . Without the real capacity for translating the movement and its expressions in Senegalese terms yet , the mid-1980s in Dakar were however definitively hip hop . And whenever the classical hip hop film Beat Street was circulating in local cinemas , young people were following the movie from showroom to showroom in order to view it again and again and to know by heart the famous lyrics of Grandmaster Flash .

neg: Art film An art film is typically a serious , independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience . An art film is `` intended to be a serious artistic work , often experimental and not designed for mass appeal '' ; they are `` made primarily for aesthetic reasons rather than commercial profit '' , and they contain `` unconventional or highly symbolic content '' .   Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film as possessing `` formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films '' , which can include , among other elements , a sense of social realism ; an emphasis on the authorial expressiveness of the director ; and a focus on the thoughts , dreams , or motivations of characters , as opposed to the unfolding of a clear , goal-driven story . Film scholar David Bordwell describes art cinema as `` a film genre , with its own distinct conventions '' .   Art film producers usually present their films at specialty theatres ( repertory cinemas , or , in the U.S. , `` arthouse cinemas '' ) and film festivals . The term art film is much more widely used in the United States , the UK and Australia than in Europe , where the term is more associated with `` auteur '' films and `` national cinema '' ( e.g. , German national cinema ) . Because they are aimed at small niche market audiences , they can rarely get the financial backing that will permit large production budgets , expensive special effects , costly celebrity actors , or huge advertising campaigns , as are used in widely released mainstream blockbuster films . Art film directors make up for these constraints by creating a different type of film , which typically uses lesser-known film actors ( or even amateur actors ) and modest sets to make films that focus much more on developing ideas or exploring new narrative techniques or film-making conventions .   A certain degree of experience and knowledge are required to fully understand or appreciate such films . One mid-1990s art film was called `` largely a cerebral experience '' that one enjoys `` because of what you know about film '' . This contrasts sharply with mainstream `` blockbuster '' films , which are geared more towards escapism and pure entertainment . For promotion , art films rely on the publicity generated from film critics ' reviews , discussion of their film by arts columnists , commentators and bloggers , and `` word-of-mouth '' promotion by audience members . Since art films have small initial investment costs , they only need to appeal to a small portion of the mainstream viewing audiences to become financially viable .

neg: Bicycle Kick (film) Bicycle Kick ( 2013 ) , is a Bengali film . The film is directed by Debasish Sen Sharma , Sumit Das and produced by Success Creation Pvt. Ltd. . Music of the film has been composed by Joy Sarkar . The film is named after the popular acrobatic skill used in association football , the bicycle kick .

neg: Black M Alpha Diallo better known by his stage name Black Mesrimes or more commonly Black M ( born 27 December 1984 ) , is a French rapper and singer-songwriter of Guinean descent . He grew up in the 7th and 13th arrondissements of Paris . He is famous for his membership in the French rap and hip hop collective Sexion d'Assaut in addition to his solo work and collaborations with various artists . His moniker Mesrimes is a reference to French criminal known as `` The Man of a Thousand Faces '' and French anti-establishment `` Robin Hood '' Jacques Mesrine . Black M uses many punch lines and onomatopoeias in his works .   In 2006 , he had a joint released Bakry & Black Mesrimes presente Le Pact . In 2013 , he released `` Ailleurs '' as an early release from his solo album titled Les yeux plus gros que le monde that followed in 2014 , becoming his first official studio album . Black M states in his latest music video a famous punch line ; `` Alexandre de L A , il est super stylé '' . Follow-up big hits from the album included `` Mme Pavoshko '' , `` Sur ma route '' and `` La légende black '' . He later rereleased the album with eight additional tracks , renaming the new special release Le monde plus gros que mes yeux

neg: Combat Shock Combat Shock is a 1986 action war drama film written and directed by Buddy Giovinazzo and distributed by Troma Entertainment .   The plot of the film takes place in Staten Island , and follows an unemployed Vietnam veteran living in total poverty with his nagging wife , his deformed baby due to Ricky having been exposed to Agent Orange that the US was spraying as a defoliant over Vietnam , and junkie friends . Unable to get a job and surrounded by the depravity of urban life and crime , he begins to lose his grip on sanity .  The film received mixed reviews when it was released . Film Threat 's Christopher Curry praised the film for its gritty realism , and Troma president Lloyd Kaufman calls it one of the company 's true `` masterpieces '' ; however , shockcinemamagazine.com called it `` one of the ugliest , nastiest , most depressing movies of the decade '' ( though the review itself was a positive one ) , and Videohound described the film as `` relentlessly bleak ... you wo n't find a more depressing film outside an art-house cinema '' .   Tagline : Fighting , killing , maiming ... Agent Orange and the torture cages were the easy part !

neg: Dub music Dub is a genre of music that grew out of reggae in the 1960s , and is commonly considered a subgenre , though it has developed to extend beyond the scope of reggae . Music in this genre consists predominantly of instrumental remixes of existing recordings and is achieved by significantly manipulating and reshaping the recordings , usually by removing the vocals from an existing music piece , and emphasizing the drum and bass parts ( this stripped-down track is sometimes referred to as a riddim ) . Other techniques include dynamically adding extensive echo , reverb , panoramic delay , and occasional dubbing of vocal or instrumental snippets from the original version or other works . It was an early form of popular electronic music .   Dub was pioneered by Osbourne `` King Tubby '' Ruddock , Lee `` Scratch '' Perry , Errol Thompson and others in the late 1960s . Augustus Pablo is credited with bringing the melodica to dub , and is also among the pioneers and creators of the genre . Similar experiments with recordings at the mixing desk outside of the dancehall environment were also done by producers Clive Chin and Herman Chin Loy . These producers , especially Ruddock and Perry , looked upon the mixing console as an instrument , manipulating tracks to come up with something new and different .  Dub has influenced many genres of music , including rock ( most significantly the subgenre of post-punk and other kinds of punk ) , pop , hip hop , disco , and later house , techno , ambient , electronic dance music , and trip hop . Dub has become a basis for the genres of jungle and drum and bass Traditional dub has survived , and some of the originators , such as Lee `` Scratch '' Perry and Mad Professor , continue to produce new material .

neg: Maroon music Maroon Music is a genre involving people of African descent that were not born on the continent creating songs in an African language ( as opposed to their first language ) . It is named after the Maroon ( people ) , African refugees who escaped from slavery in the Americas and formed independent settlements . Just as the Maroon people created their own societies in lands foreign to them in attempts to retain their freedom , Maroon music is an attempt by African American artists to reacquire their Mother tongue through writing music in an indigenous African language . Maroon Music subject matter centers around stories about Maroon leaders and other historic freedom fighters of African descent , Maroon groups , peace , unity , and righteousness .   In the intro to Maroon music artist , Adetokunbo 's first album `` Maroon Music '' the history of the genre is explained :   `` African refugees that escaped slavery in the Americas and formed independent settlements were called Maroons . The term can also be applied to their descendants . The same root word also gives us the English verb `` to maroon '' .   When runaway slaves banded together and subsisted independently they were called Maroons . On the Caribbean islands , runaway slaves formed bands and on some islands formed armed camps . Maroon communities faced great odds to survive against oppressive attackers , obtain food for subsistence living , and to reproduce and increase their numbers .  There is much variety among Maroon cultural groups because of differences in history , geography , African nationality , and the culture of indigenous people throughout the Western hemisphere .   Maroon settlements sometimes developed creole languages by mixing European tongues with their original African languages . Other times the Maroons would adopt the local European language as a common tongue , for members of the community frequently spoke a variety of Mother Tongues .   What you are about to hear is a family 's journey to reacquire their Mother Tongue through song . Their goal is to reacquire that which was lost in the Middle Passage . Let this music , Maroon Music , serve as their testament to freedom in a world that has nothing but contempt for the self liberated . ''   Maroon music is less concerned with the perfection and fluency of speech of the African language but more with the exercise of learning and improving communication , while providing subtitles and written keys in English so that others will understand the message attempting to be conveyed by the artist . As pidgin English is noted as `` is a simplified version of a language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common Pidgin , Maroon music employs the pidginization or Creolization of African languages as a simplified means for African Americans to communicate with indigenous Africans . For this reason , key 's and subtitles in Maroon Music videos are an essential component for conveying intended meaning to both indigenous Africans and those born abroad .   The Maroons are a number of diverse peoples in the Caribbean , South America , North America and Central America , the descendants of escaped slaves . The Seminole music tradition of the United States is an example , as are numerous communities in Jamaica , Suriname and French Guiana .   The Surinamese , Guyanese , and French Guianan escaped slaves managed to hide in the dense jungles of the area , and formed communities like the Aluku , Saramaka and Ndjuka . Their traditional sung stories are called mato , and there is also a kind of popular Maroon music called aleke . Traditional dances include awasa , a women 's social dance .   The Jamaican Maroons are known for instruments like the abeng , a kind of horn .

neg: B movie A B movie is a low-budget commercial movie , but one that is not an arthouse film . In its original usage , during the Golden Age of Hollywood , the term more precisely identified films intended for distribution as the less-publicized bottom half of a double feature . Although the U.S. production of movies intended as second features largely ceased by the end of the 1950s , the term B movie continues to be used in the broader sense it maintains today . In its post -- Golden Age usage , there is ambiguity on both sides of the definition : on the one hand , the primary interest of many inexpensive exploitation films is prurient ; on the other , many B movies display a high degree of craft and aesthetic ingenuity .   In either usage , most B movies represent a particular genre -- the Western was a Golden Age B movie staple , while low-budget science-fiction and horror films became more popular in the 1950s . Early B movies were often part of series in which the star repeatedly played the same character . Almost always shorter than the top-billed films they were paired with , many had running times of 70 minutes or less . The term connoted a general perception that B movies were inferior to the more handsomely budgeted headliners ; individual B films were often ignored by critics .   Latter-day B movies still sometimes inspire multiple sequels , but series are less common . As the average running time of top-of-the-line films increased , so did that of B pictures . In its current usage , the term has somewhat contradictory connotations : it may signal an opinion that a certain movie is ( a ) a genre film with minimal artistic ambitions or ( b ) a lively , energetic film uninhibited by the constraints imposed on more expensive projects and unburdened by the conventions of putatively `` serious '' independent film . The term is also now used loosely to refer to some higher-budgeted , mainstream films with exploitation-style content , usually in genres traditionally associated with the B movie .   From their beginnings to the present day , B movies have provided opportunities both for those coming up in the profession and others whose careers are waning . Celebrated filmmakers such as Anthony Mann and Jonathan Demme learned their craft in B movies . They are where actors such as John Wayne and Jack Nicholson first became established , and they have provided work for former A movie actors , such as Vincent Price and Karen Black . Some actors , such as Bela Lugosi , Eddie Constantine and Pam Grier , worked in B movies for most of their careers . The term B actor is sometimes used to refer to a performer who finds work primarily or exclusively in B pictures .

neg: Black Sunday (1960 film) Black Sunday ( Italian : La maschera del demonio ) -- also known as The Mask of Satan and Revenge of the Vampire -- is a 1960 Italian gothic horror film directed by Mario Bava , from a screenplay by Ennio de Concini , Mario Serandrei and Marcello Coscia ( who was uncredited ) . The film stars Barbara Steele , John Richardson , Arturo Dominici and Ivo Garrani . It was Bava 's directorial debut , although he had completed several previous feature films without credit . Based very loosely on Nikolai Gogol 's short story `` Viy '' , the narrative concerns a witch who is put to death by her own brother , only to return 200 years later to seek revenge on her descendants .   By the social standards of the 1960s , Black Sunday was considered unusually gruesome , and was banned in the UK until 1968 because of its violence . In the U.S. , some of the gore was censored , in-house , by the distributor American International Pictures before its theatrical release to the country 's cinemas , where it was shown as a double feature with Roger Corman 's The Little Shop of Horrors . Despite the censorship , Black Sunday was a worldwide critical and box office success , and launched the careers of director Mario Bava and movie star Barbara Steele . In 2004 , one of its sequences was voted number 40 among the `` 100 Scariest Movie Moments '' by the Bravo TV network .

neg: Zimbabwean jazz Zimbabwean Jazz , also known as Afro Jazz was developed in the 20th century . Its history can be traced from its early colonial era .   It was influenced by a style of township rhythm that evolved in a southern part of Africa over the last century . One can also trace similarities from Kwela , a pennywhistle-based , street music from the southern part of Africa with jazzy underpinnings and a distinctive , skiffle-like beat . Kwela music was influenced by blending the music of Malawian immigrants to South Africa , together with the local South African sounds . In Chichewa , the word Kwela has a very similar meaning to the South African meaning : `` to climb '' . The music was popularised in South Africa and then brought to Malawi , where contemporary Malawian artists have also begun producing Kwela music .   It is also closely related to Marabi which was the name given to a keyboard style ( often using cheap pedal organs ) that had a musical link to American jazz , ragtime and blues , with roots deep in the African tradition .  Early Marabi musicians were part of an underground musical culture and were typically not recorded . An example of such an artist in the early 1940s is August Musarurwa of the Skokiaan fame . It has continued to develop and you can even see traits of this music in his grandson Prince Kudakwashe Musarurwa .   This music was often played in townships ( segregated parts of suburban areas ) . During colonial years of Rhodesia , the term township referred to a residential area reserved for black citizens within the boundaries of a city or town , and is still commonly used colloquially . But In modern Zimbabwe it is also used to refer to a residential area within close proximity of a rural growth point . These townships you would find `` Shebeens '' . Shebeens are most often located in townships as an alternative to pubs and bars . In the colonial error indigenous Africans were barred from entering pubs or bars reserved for those of European descent .   Originally shebeens were operated illegally by women who were called Shebeen Queens and was itself a revival of the African tradition that assigned the role of alcohol brewing to women . The Shebeen Queens would sell home brewed and home-distilled alcohol and provided patrons with a place to meet and discuss political and social issues . Often , patrons and owners were arrested by the police , though the shebeens were frequently reopened because of their importance in unifying the community and providing a safe place for discussion . During the colonial error era shebeens became a crucial meeting place for activists , some attracting working class activists and community members , while others attracted lawyers , doctors and musicians .   Shebeens also provided music and dancing , allowing patrons to express themselves culturally , which helped give rise to and support for the musical genre called Township Jazz which we now call Afro Jazz or Zimbabwean Jazz .

neg: Jack Black Thomas Jacob `` Jack '' Black ( born August 28 , 1969 ) is an American actor , comedian , writer , producer , musician and singer . His acting career has been extensive , starring primarily in comedy films . He is known for his roles in High Fidelity ( 2000 ) , Shallow Hal ( 2001 ) , School of Rock ( 2003 ) , King Kong ( 2005 ) , The Holiday ( 2006 ) , Nacho Libre ( 2006 ) , Kung Fu Panda ( 2008 ) , Tropic Thunder ( 2008 ) , Gulliver 's Travels ( 2010 ) , Kung Fu Panda 2 ( 2011 ) , Bernie ( 2011 ) , Goosebumps ( 2015 ) , and Kung Fu Panda 3 ( 2016 ) . He has been nominated for two Golden Globe Awards . Black is the lead vocalist of the comedic rock group Tenacious D which he formed in 1994 with friend Kyle Gass . They have released the albums Tenacious D , The Pick of Destiny and Rize of the Fenix .

neg: Black Like Who? Black Like Who ? is Rinaldo Walcott 's first book . It was published in 1997 by Insomniac Press in Toronto .   This book came out of Walcott 's PhD research which focused on rap music and culture . The essays in Black Like Who ? demonstrate Walcott 's expanded interest concerning the theorizing of Black Canada more generally . The titles of essays included in this compilation will indicate the breadth of Walcott 's scholarly engagement with themes related to the Black Canadian experiences and expressions :   Introduction : Writing Blackness After ...   `` Going to the North '' : The Limit of Black Diasporic Discourse ( s )   `` A Tough Geography '' : Towards a Poetics of Black Space ( s ) in Canada   The Politics of Third Cinema in Canada : Reading the Narrative of Clement Virgo 's Rude   `` Keep on Movin ' '' : Rap , Black Atlantic Identities and the Problem of Nation   `` No Language is Neutral '' : The Politics of Performativity in M. Nourbese Philip 's and Dionne Brand 's Poetry   Black Subjectivities : Ethnicity , Race and the Politics of Film in Canada   Scattered Speculations on Canadian Blackness ; Or , Grammar for Black   Several of these essays have been published or republished in other sources .

neg: Black (2015 Indian film) Black is an Indo-Bangla Bengali crime action film directed by Raja Chanda , and stars Soham Chakraborty and Bidya Sinha Mim in lead roles . The film was jointly produced by Viacom 18 Motion Pictures and Dag Creative Media and was released on 27 November 2015 . The film revolves around a man named , Biltu , who takes vengeance to those who framed his father ( a police officer ) with false charges and as a result the latter commits suicide to get rid of this humiliation .

neg: Ratchet (slang) Ratchet is a slang term in hip hop that in the strictest sense refers to an uncouth female , and is a Louisianan regiolect of `` wretched '' . The term has devolved to multiple meanings and connotations and is not bound by race or gender . The term gained popularity in 2012 through music artists and celebrities . It has been used similarly as the word `` ghetto '' . `` Ratchet '' can be used as an adjective , noun , or verb . The word has evolved to have many different meanings , and it can have either a positive or negative connotation . Some African-American women have reappropriated the word and embrace the meaning , whereas others point to how the term reinforces the negative portrayal of African-American women in the media .   Numerous music artists have referred to the term `` ratchet '' in their songs . In November 2012 , LL Cool J released a single called `` Ratchet '' . In December 2012 , Beyoncé posted a picture of her wearing earrings that contained the word `` ratchet '' in it . Juicy J , Lil Debbie , Cam ` ron , Future , and Lil ' Boosie are some other artists who have also used the term in their music . Miley Cyrus had been criticized by some as appropriating ratchet culture .   The word ratchet first appeared in publication in 1999 , with the song `` Do the Ratchet '' by Anthony Mandigo from Shreveport , Louisiana . Mandigo reportedly learned the term from his grandmother . In 2004 , a new version of the song was recorded . The producer of the song named Earl Williams , also known as Phunk Dawg , wrote the definition in the CD liner notes : `` n. , pron. , v , adv. , 1 . To be ghetto , real , gutter , nasty . 2 . It 's whatever , bout it , etc. . ''

neg: Black light theatre Black Light Theatre ( in Czech černé divadlo ) or simply Black Theatre , is a theatrical performance style characterized by the use of black box theatre augmented by black light illusion . This form of theatre originated from Asia and can be found in many places around the world . It has become a speciality of Prague , where many theatres use it .   The distinctive characteristics of `` black theatre '' are the use of black curtains , a darkened stage , and `` black lighting '' ( UV light ) , paired with fluorescent costumes in order to create intricate visual illusions . This `` black cabinet '' technique was used by Georges Méliès , and by theatre revolutionary Konstantin Stanislavski ( especially in his production of Cain ) . The technique , paired with the expressive artistry of dance , mime and acrobatics of the performers is able to create remarkable spectacles .

neg: Cinema of Africa African cinema is film production in Africa . It dates back to the early 20th century , when film reels were the primary cinematic technology in use . The Nigerian film industry is the largest in Africa in terms of value , number of annual films , revenue and popularity . It is also the second and third largest national film industry in the world , based on the number of annual films and revenue respectively .

neg: Black (2008 film) Black is a 2008 French blaxploitation film directed by Pierre Laffargue .