query: Ellen DeGeneres is a Gemini.

pos: Gemini (astrology) Gemini ( pronunciation : -LSB- ˈdʒɛmɪnaɪ -RSB- or -LSB- ˈdʒɛmɪniː -RSB- or ) is the third astrological sign in the zodiac , originating from the constellation of Gemini . Under the tropical zodiac , the sun transits this sign between May 21 and June 21 . Gemini is represented by The Twins Castor and Pollux . The symbol of the twins is based on the Dioscuri , two mortals that were granted shared godhood after death .

pos: Ellen DeGeneres Ellen Lee DeGeneres ( -LSB- dᵻˈdʒɛnərᵻs -RSB- born January 26 , 1958 ) is an American comedian , television host , actress , writer , and producer . DeGeneres starred in the popular sitcom Ellen from 1994 to 1998 and has hosted her syndicated TV talk show , The Ellen DeGeneres Show , since 2003 .   Her stand-up career started in the early 1980s , and included a 1986 appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . As a film actress , DeGeneres starred in Mr. Wrong ( 1996 ) , appeared in EDtv ( 1999 ) , and The Love Letter ( 1999 ) , and provided the voice of Dory in the Pixar animated films Finding Nemo ( 2003 ) and Finding Dory ( 2016 ) ; for Nemo , she was awarded the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress , the first time an actress won a Saturn Award for a voice performance . In 2010 , she was a judge on American Idol for its ninth season .   She starred in two television sitcoms , Ellen from 1994 to 1998 , and The Ellen Show from 2001 to 2002 . During the fourth season of Ellen in 1997 , she came out as a lesbian in an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show . Her character , Ellen Morgan , also came out to a therapist played by Winfrey , and the series went on to explore various LGBT issues , including the coming-out process . This made her the first openly lesbian actress to play an openly lesbian character on television . In 2008 , she married her longtime girlfriend Portia de Rossi .   DeGeneres has hosted the Academy Awards , Grammy Awards , and the Primetime Emmys . She has authored three books and started her own record company , Eleveneleven . She has won 29 Emmys , 20 People 's Choice Awards ( more than any other person ) , and numerous other awards for her work and charitable efforts . In 2016 , she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom .

neg: Ellen Ballon Ellen Ballon ( October 6 , 1898 -- December 21 , 1969 ) was a Canadian pianist .   The daughter of Jewish Lithuanian immigrants , she was born in Montreal , Quebec . A child prodigy , she gave her first concert at the age of five and began studying music at the McGill Conservatorium with Clara Lichtenstein at the age of six .   In 1906 , she moved to New York City , where she studied with Rafael Joseffy and Rubin Goldmark . In March 1910 , she gave her debut concert there , performing with the New York Symphony . She was invited to perform at the White House for President Taft ; she would return to perform for President Roosevelt and President Eisenhower . She went to Switzerland in 1914 , where she studied with Josef Hofmann . Because of World War I , she returned to New York in 1916 . By this time , she was performing as a concert pianist . She later began studying with Wilhelm Backhaus , who was in Vienna . Ballon toured Europe in 1927 and Canada in 1928 . In 1934 , she settled in London . She stopped performing for two years after she broke an ankle getting out of a cab in 1938 .   In 1945 , she commissioned a concerto from the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos . She gave the premier performance in Rio de Janeiro in 1946 , followed by the American and Canadian premiers in 1947 . For a short time , she taught at the Faculty of Music at McGill University , where she had established a music scholarship in her own name in 1928 . Ballon appeared on the CBC television show Heure du concert .   In 1954 , she married Colonel Théodore-Lafleur Bullock .   Ballon died in Montreal at the age of 71 .   Ballon was described by Arthur Rubinstein as `` the greatest pianistic genius I have ever met '' .

neg: Gift suite A gift suite is a location where companies give products to celebrities in exchange for the celebrity taking a photo with the product or on a red carpet while standing in front of a press wall displaying company logos   Companies that are trying to build brand recognition or maintain a premier position in the market like to be associated with celebrities and other persons with significant social status . Fans of a celebrity are likely to look favorably on products or services associated with that person , therefore products and services associated with a celebrity have the ability to grow their customer base by simply associating their brand with the celebrity .   Most gifting suites take place in Hollywood during award weeks . The primary awards shows are the Oscars , Emmys and Grammys . During the week before these shows , there are often up to ten gifting suites . During other award weeks like the Golden Globes , Screen Actors Guild awards and the VMAs there will also be gifting suites , but they are typically fewer and with fewer products for the celebrities .   Official gifting suites are contracted by award shows and Hollywood events and exist in a location on-site and backstage . They work in an official capacity with the show 's production and talent . Events like the Oscars , Screen Actors Guild Awards , and Golden Globes do not currently host any official gifting suites at their events .   Red carpet photos from various gifting suites can be found online on CelebrityConnected , Getty Images , Wire Image and Daily Celeb . It 's proved that nowadays gift suite is a successful marketing trick .

neg: Ellen (TV series) Ellen is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from March 29 , 1994 , to July 22 , 1998 , consisting of 109 episodes . The title role is Ellen Morgan , played by stand-up comedian Ellen DeGeneres , a neurotic bookstore owner in her thirties . The title of the series was These Friends of Mine for the first season , but it was subsequently changed to avoid confusion with the NBC series Friends , which premiered in September 1994 .   The series centered on Ellen 's dealing with her quirky friends , her family , and the problems of daily life . The series is notable for being one of the first with a main character to come out as gay , which DeGeneres ' character did in the 1997 episode `` The Puppy Episode '' , which aired shortly after DeGeneres publicly revealed that she was gay in real life . This event received a great deal of media exposure , ignited controversy , and prompted ABC to place a parental advisory at the beginning of each episode .   The series ' theme song ( used in season 3 onwards ) , `` So Called Friend '' , is by Scottish band Texas . A running gag during the third and fourth seasons was that each episode had a distinct/different opening credits sequence ( often with singing and dancing ) , resulting from Ellen 's ongoing search for the perfect opening credits .

neg: Gemini Major Benn Gilbert Kamoto ( born June 14 , 1990 ) , better known by his stage name Gemini Major , is a Malawian-born record producer and Singer-songwriter . Gemini Major is currently signed to Family Tree Records , a South African independent record label .

neg: Ellen Goldsmith-Vein Ellen Goldsmith-Vein is an American television and film producer . She is the founder and CEO of the Gotham Group , a talent management agency . As the only woman to own her own entertainment management agency completely , Goldsmith-Vein was the first talent manager ever featured on the cover of the `` Power 100 '' special issue of The Hollywood Reporter in 2006 .

neg: The Puppy Episode `` The Puppy Episode '' is a two-part episode of the situation comedy television series Ellen . The episode details lead character Ellen Morgan 's realization that she is a lesbian and her coming out . It was the 22nd and 23rd episode of the series ' 4th season . The episode was written by series star Ellen DeGeneres with Mark Driscoll , Tracy Newman , Dava Savel and Jonathan Stark and directed by Gil Junger . It originally aired on ABC on April 30 , 1997 . The title was used as a code name for Ellen 's coming out so as to keep the whole episode under wraps .   DeGeneres began negotiating with ABC in 1996 to have Morgan come out . When word of the negotiations got out , DeGeneres found herself at the center of intense speculation about when she or her character , or both , would come out . With DeGeneres hinting at her and her character 's coming out both off-screen and within the show , the rumors were confirmed when the episode went into production in March 1997 .   Despite threats from advertisers and religious groups , `` The Puppy Episode '' was an enormous ratings success , won multiple awards and became a cultural phenomenon . Nonetheless , DeGeneres and her show quickly garnered criticism for being `` too gay '' ; the series was canceled after one more season and DeGeneres and guest star Laura Dern faced career backlash .

neg: Aquarius (astrology) Aquarius ( Greek : Ὑδροχόος Hydrokhoös , Latin : Aquārius ) is the eleventh astrological sign in the Zodiac , originating from the constellation Aquarius .   The water carrier represented by the zodiacal constellation Aquarius is Ganymede , a beautiful Phrygian youth . Ganymede was the son of Tros , king of Troy ( according to Lucian , he was also the son of Dardanus ) . While tending to his father 's flocks on Mount Ida , Ganymede was spotted by Jupiter . The king of gods became enamored of the boy and flew down to the mountain in the form of a large bird , whisking Ganymede away to the heavens . Ever since , the boy has served as cupbearer to the gods . Ovid has Orpheus sing the tale :   `` The king of the gods was once fired with love for Phrygian Ganymede , and when that happened Jupiter found another shape preferable to his own . Wishing to turn himself into a bird , he none the less scorned to change into any save that which can carry his thunderbolts . Then without delay , beating the air on borrowed pinions , he snatched away the shepherd of Ilium , who even now mixes the winecups , and supplies Jove with nectar , to the annoyance of Juno '' ( Metamorphoses X 154-160 ) .   Aquarius is a summer constellation in the northern hemisphere , found near Pisces and Cetus . It is especially notable as the radiant for four meteor showers , the largest of which is the Delta Aquarid meteor shower in late July and early August .   Under the tropical zodiac , the sun is in Aquarius typically between January 20 and February 18 , while under the Sidereal Zodiac , the sun is in Aquarius from approximately February 15 to March 14 , depending on leap year .

neg: The CBS Late Movie The CBS Late Movie is a CBS television series ( later known as CBS Late Night ) during the 1970s and 1980s . The program ran in most American television markets from 11:30 p.m. ( EST ) until 2:30 a.m. or later , on weeknights . A single announcer ( in the early years , CBS staff announcer Norm Stevens ) voiced the introduction and commercial bumpers for each program , but there was no host per se , or closing credits besides those of the night 's presentation . ( The bumpers announcing the stars of the movie notably rotated names , two or three at a time , so more of the players would be mentioned . )   The program was launched following the cancellation of The Merv Griffin Show , CBS 's late-night talk show from 1969 to 1972 . The show went on to have a long run in first-run syndication following CBS 's cancellation .   The CBS Late Movie theme music was `` So Old , So Young '' by Morton Stevens , which also served as the theme music for CBS 's prime-time movies until 1978 .   A memorable aspect to the show 's commercial breaks was the frequent appearance of public service announcements , from the Ad Council and other organizations , that often dealt with `` mature '' topics such as venereal disease , sexual and violent crimes , and abuse of hard drugs . Announcements also ran in much greater proportion than during prime time , with commercial breaks lasting longer ; it was not uncommon for the second portion of the show to start at 12:05 AM or 12:40 AM .   The CBS Late Night block , however , was not always cleared by every affiliate of the network ; in several markets , the block was either delayed by one hour from its regularly-scheduled time ( most notably in the Central and Mountain time zones ) , picked up by a local independent station ( including those that later affiliated with the Fox television network ) , or not seen at all in certain cities . Those stations that did not carry CBS Late Night instead broadcast movies from their own libraries and/or their own lineup of off-network syndicated sitcoms , drama reruns and first-run syndication products . A large factor in the programming decisions of many CBS affiliates electing not to clear CBS Late Night ( or delaying it ) was due to head-to-head competition with NBC 's The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , and later entering the 1980s , ABC News ' Nightline . It was not until 1993 , when the Late Show with David Letterman debuted , that CBS ' late night programming ( excluding Nightwatch/Up to the Minute ) was cleared across the entire network .

neg: Aquarius (U.S. TV series) Aquarius is an American period crime drama television series created by John McNamara for NBC . The show aired from May 28 , 2015 , to September 10 , 2016 . In 2015 , the series was among seven others to receive the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series . On October 1 , 2016 , NBC cancelled the series after two seasons .

neg: Ellen's Design Challenge Ellen 's Design Challenge is an American furniture design reality competition series that premiered on January 26 , 2015 , on HGTV . The six-episode first season was announced in April 2014 , as the first cable television series executive produced by talk show host Ellen DeGeneres . In June 2015 , HGTV renewed the series for a second season , that premiered on January 18 , 2016 .

neg: AUDELCO AUDELCO , the Audience Development Committee , Inc. , was established in 1973 by the late Vivian Robinson to honor excellence in New York City African American Theatre through presentation of Vivan Robinson/AUDELCO Recognition Awards ( a.k.a. Viv awards ) . The awards were created to promote `` recognition , understanding and awareness of the arts in the African-American community '' .   The AUDELCO Viv awards recognize the following , whether Broadway or off-Broadway :  Productions by Black companies  Shows written or directed by Blacks  Black actors in shows   AUDELCO has an office in Central Harlem , New York City The President is Grace Jones and the board of directors consistsof : A.Curtis Farrow ; Ralph Carter , Toni Peterson , Jacqueline Feffries ; Linda Armstrong ; Honorable Donna M. Mills ; Fred R.Powell ; Mary Seymour ; Dale Richardo Shields ; Terrence Spivey ; Ronald Stone Esq and Mary B. Davis Chair Emeritus . The organization has thousands of members , a newsletter , and a black theater collection of books , photos , slides and scripts as well as an extensive clipping file on black theater companies and productions .   The AUDELCO awards are limited to productions mounted by professional , not-for-profit theater organizations which have been in existence for at least two years and have had a minimum of 500 hours of rehearsal , performance , or training . Additionally , productions have to have been performed over 12 times between September 1 of one year and August 31 of the next . Workshop productions and works-in-progress are not eligible .   The AUDELCO Viv awards allow celebrities and everyday people to get to share their love of theater and their appreciation for the incredible performances , scripts , direction , costumes and sets that have been presented during the last theater season .   Michael O'Hare was the first white actor to win this award presented by the black theater community of New York for his performance in the play `` Shades of Brown '' which examined the effects of apartheid in South Africa .   ( Former AUDELOC awardees included , Kerry Washington ( AUDELCO 's first Rising star ) ; Samuel L. Jackson ; Phylicia Rashad ; Debbie Allen ; Denzel Washington , Barbara Montgomery , Sanaa Lathan and others ) .

neg: List of television series with bisexual characters Bisexuality is a sexual orientation that refers to the romantic and sexual attraction towards both men and women . Throughout history numerous bisexual characters have appeared in television series , including cartoons , anime and web series .   Having been created as a radio program in 1937 and transitioning to television in 1952 , Guiding Light is the oldest television series in the world to feature bisexual characters ; Olivia Spencer and Natalia Rivera Aitoro . It should be noted however that Olivia was introduced in 1999 and Natalia in 2007 , with the two women realizing they are bisexual and beginning a relationship in 2008 . In 1990 , L.A. Law became the first primetime television series to introduce a recurring bisexual character ; C.J. Lamb . In 2015 , during The 100 's second season , the protagonist Clarke Griffin kissed Lexa , making the series the first in America belonging to one of the `` Big Five '' networks with a bisexual lead .   This list places the series in chronological order by year ; in instances where more than one series premiered on the same year , their premiere date is taken into consideration .

neg: Eugene Cernan Captain Eugene Andrew `` Gene '' Cernan ( -LSB- ˈsɚ.nən -RSB- March 14 , 1934 -- January 16 , 2017 ) was an American astronaut , naval aviator , electrical engineer , aeronautical engineer , and fighter pilot . On Apollo 17 , Cernan became the eleventh person to walk on the Moon and , as the last man to re-enter the Lunar Module , he is as of 2017 the last man to have walked on its surface .   He traveled into space three times : as Pilot of Gemini 9A in June 1966 , as Lunar Module Pilot of Apollo 10 in May 1969 , and as Commander of Apollo 17 in December 1972 , the final Apollo lunar landing . Cernan was also a backup crew member for the Gemini 12 , Apollo 7 and Apollo 14 space missions .

neg: Delta Scuti variable A Delta Scuti variable ( sometimes termed dwarf cepheid ) is a variable star which exhibits variations in its luminosity due to both radial and non-radial pulsations of the star 's surface . The variables are important standard candles and have been used to establish the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud , globular clusters , open clusters , and the Galactic center . The variables follow a period-luminosity relation in certain passbands like other standard candles such as Cepheids . SX Phoenicis variables are generally considered to be a subclass of Delta Scuti variables that contain old stars , and can be found in globular clusters . SX Phe variables also follow a period-luminosity relation . The recently discovered Rapidly oscillating Ap stars are also a subclass of Delta Scuti variables , found on the main sequence . One last sub-class are the pre-main sequence ( PMS ) Delta Scuti variables .   The OGLE and MACHO surveys have detected nearly 3000 Delta Scuti variables in the Large Magellanic Cloud . Typical brightness fluctuations are from 0.003 to 0.9 magnitudes in V over a period of a few hours , although the amplitude and period of the fluctuations can vary greatly . The stars are usually A0 to F5 type giant or main sequence stars . The high-amplitude Delta Scuti variables are also called AI Velorum stars . They are the second most abundant variable source in the Milky Way after white dwarfs .   Delta Scuti stars exhibit both radial and non-radial luminosity pulsations . Non-radial pulsations are when some parts of the surface move inwards and some outward at the same time . Radial pulsations are a special case , where the star expands and contracts around its equilibrium state by altering the radius to maintain its spherical shape . The variations are due to the swelling and shrinking of the star through the Eddington Valve ( or Kappa ) Mechanism . The stars have a helium rich atmosphere . As helium is heated it becomes more ionised , which is more opaque . So at the dimmest part in the cycle the star has highly ionised opaque helium in its atmosphere blocking part of the light from escaping . The energy from this `` blocked light '' causes the helium to heat up , expand , ionise , become more transparent and therefore allow more light through . As more light is let through the star appears brighter and , with the expansion , the helium begins to cool down . Hence the helium contracts and heats up again and the cyclical process continues . Throughout their lifetime Delta Scuti stars exhibit pulsation when they are situated on the classical Cepheid instability strip . They then move across from the main sequence into the giant branch .   The prototype of these sorts of variable stars is Delta Scuti , which exhibits brightness fluctuations from +4.60 to +4.79 in apparent magnitude with a period of 4.65 hours . Other well known Delta Scuti variables include Altair , Denebola ( β Leonis ) and β Cassiopeiae . Vega ( α Lyrae ) is a suspected Delta Scuti variable , but this remains unconfirmed .

neg: The Temptations of Jean-Claude Killy `` The Temptations of Jean-Claude Killy '' is an article published in the premiere issue of Scanlan 's Monthly in March 1970 , written by Hunter S. Thompson .   The subject of the article is Jean-Claude Killy , the alpine skiing champion who , in the 1968 Winter Olympics , became the second alpine skier ever to win three gold medals in a single olympic games . By the time of the article Killy , then 26 , was retired from skiing and had embarked on the next phase of his career -- endorsements .   Thompson 's article follows Killy around the United States during his marketing tour for the Chevrolet automotive company . As he attends automotive shows , holds press conferences , and makes appearances for television ( all in conjunction with fellow Chevrolet spokesman , O.J. Simpson ) Thompson chronicles the newly flush world of celebrity sports endorsements . Though endorsement by a sports figure was not an entirely new concept , the world-wide magnitude of Killy 's stardom made his Chevrolet contract something of a fascination for Thompson .   The article 's focus on the relative depths of the new pitch-man status obtained by Killy so shortly after the incredible heights he had achieved develops through acerbic descriptions of the settings Killy finds himself in , the automotive executives that profit by him , and the fans and onlookers who make him such a valuable spokesman . Through it all , Killy 's focus on his own enormous profit is a source of worry to Thompson . The trend he sees developing is one of larger-than-life stars -- athletes of the highest physical standards who have achieved feats unimaginable by normal people -- demeaning themselves and their accomplishments by agreeing to shill for a few extra dollars . An enormous sports fan himself , Thompson is distraught by this turn of events and wonders that Killy was never quite sure `` why I was embarrassed for him in those scenes . ''   Thompson compares Killy to F. Scott Fitzgerald 's Gatsby : although , unlike that character , Killy 's dollars are earned honestly , the author concludes while watching Killy 's selling of himself that `` nothing in his narrow , high-powered experience can allow him to understand how I can watch his act and say that it looks , to me , like a very hard dollar -- maybe the hardest . ''   The article was later included in Thompson 's collection The Great Shark Hunt ( 1979 ) .

neg: Richard Degener Richard Kempster Degener ( March 14 , 1912 -- August 24 , 1995 ) was an American diver who competed in the 1932 Summer Olympics and in the 1936 Summer Olympics .   In 1932 he won the bronze medal in the 3 metre springboard event . Described as the `` Fred Astaire of diving '' , Degener competed at the 1932 Summer Olympics with University of Michigan classmates , Eddie Tolan and James Cristy .   Four years later he won the gold medal in the 3 metre springboard competition .   In April , 1936 , Degener , along with many other sports champions and stand outs , was honored at a banquet in Detroit , MI . This Banquet was the first celebration of Champions Day .   In July , 1936 , A plaque was presented to Detroit from the White House honoring Detroit as the City of Champions . The plaque has five `` medallions '' featuring athletes . Originally the plans called for these five athletes to be a baseball player , football player , hockey player , power boat racer , and a boxer . But Joe Louis was surprisingly knocked out in a boxing match just weeks before the plaque was to be presented . Planners changed the boxer to a diver , to represent Degener , at the last minute .   Degener introduced the full layout in which his body seemed to soar , lazy-like and graceful in the air . This astonished the diving world and caused a buzz of admiration around the pool . `` If there is one thing I 've gotten out of sports , it 's that I learned to be intense and to do the job . ''   Degener never lost a diving contest in college during the three years he represented Michigan from 1931 to 1934 as he took the Big Ten and National Collegiate championship . In AAU competition Dick was unbeaten for years as he won 14 national indoor and outdoor diving titles . He won four outdoor AAU Nationals in the high board representing the Detroit Athletic Club , and three NCAA titles for the University of Michigan . At the Indoor AAUs he won five straight three-meter springboard titles and two one-meter titles .  Degener later turned pro with the Billy Rose Aquacade when it opened in Cleveland .  In 1971 , Degener was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame .

neg: Prophecy in the Seventh-day Adventist Church Seventh-day Adventists believe that Ellen G. White , one of the church 's co-founders , was a prophet , understood today as an expression of the New Testament spiritual gift of prophecy .   Seventh-day Adventist believe that White had the spiritual gift of prophecy , but that her writings are inferior to the Bible , which has ultimate authority . According to the 28 Fundamentals the core set of theological beliefs held by the Seventh-day Adventist Church , states that Adventists accept the Bible as their only creed and can be read online on the website of the Seventh-day Adventist Church .   The 18 of the 28 Fundamentals states the Adventists viewpoint on the Gift of Prophecy :  `` One of the gifts of the Holy Spirit is prophecy . This gift is an identifying mark of the remnant church and was manifested in the ministry of Ellen . G. White . As the Lord 's messenger , her writings are a continuing and authoritative source of truth which provide for the church comfort , guidance , instruction , and correction . They also make clear that the Bible is the standard by which all teaching and experience must be tested . ( Joel 2:28 , 29 ; Acts 2:14 -21 ; Heb . 1:1 -3 ; Rev. 12:17 ; 19:10 . ) . ''   According to one church document , `` her expositions on any given Bible passage offer an inspired guide to the meaning of texts without exhausting their meaning or preempting the task of exegesis '' . In other words , White 's writings are considered an inspired commentary on Scripture , although Scripture remains ultimately authoritative .   Adventist believe she had the spiritual gift of prophecy as outlined in Revelation 19:10 . Her restorationist writings endeavor to showcase the hand of God in Christian history . This cosmic conflict , referred to as the `` Great Controversy theme '' , is foundational to the development of Seventh-day Adventist theology .

neg: Constellation Awards The Constellation Awards are a set of Canadian awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year . It was founded is 2007 . Constellation Awards are the only Canadian sci-fi award where the Canadian public select the nominees and winners in all categories .

neg: Divine Gemini Divine Gemini is an album of duets by vibraphonist Walt Dickerson and bassist Richard Davis recorded in 1977 for the SteepleChase label .

neg: Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television The following is a list of Saturn Award winners for Best Actor on Television ( formerly Best Genre TV Actor ) .   The award is presented annually by the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy and Horror Films , honoring the work of actresses in science fiction , fantasy , and horror fiction on television .   ( NOTE : Year refers to year of eligibility , the actual ceremonies are held the following year . )   The winners are listed in bold .


query: The American independence movement was lead by John Adams.

pos: John Adams John Adams ( October 30 -LSB- O.S. October 19 -RSB- 1735 -- July 4 , 1826 ) was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States ( 1797 -- 1801 ) and the first Vice President ( 1789 -- 97 ) . He was a lawyer , diplomat , statesman , political theorist , and , as a Founding Father , a leader of the movement for American independence from Great Britain . He was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent , particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail .   He collaborated with his cousin , revolutionary leader Samuel Adams , but he established his own prominence prior to the American Revolution . After the Boston Massacre , he provided a successful ( though unpopular ) legal defense of the accused British soldiers , in the face of severe local anti-British sentiment and driven by his devotion to the right to counsel and the `` protect -LSB- ion -RSB- of innocence '' . Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress , where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence . He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776 , and was its foremost advocate in the Congress . As a diplomat in Europe , he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain , and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers . Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory , as did his earlier Thoughts on Government ( 1776 ) .   Adams 's credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washington 's vice president ( 1789 to 1797 ) and also his own election in 1796 as the second president . In his single term as president , he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans , as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party , led by his rival Alexander Hamilton . Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts , and built up the army and navy in the face of an undeclared naval `` Quasi-War '' with France . The major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamilton 's opposition . Due to his strong posture on defense , Adams is `` often called the father of the American Navy '' . He was the first U.S. president to reside in the executive mansion , now known as the White House .   In 1800 , Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts . He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latter 's own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years . He and his wife established a family of politicians , diplomats , and historians now referred to as the Adams political family . Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams , the sixth President of the United States . He died on the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence , and the same day as Jefferson . Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration .

neg: Opposition to the War of 1812 in the United States Opposition to the War of 1812 was widespread in the United States , especially in New England . Many New Englanders opposed the conflict on political , economic , and religious grounds .   When embargo failed to remedy the situation and Great Britain refused to rescind the Orders in Council ( 1807 ) and France continued its decrees , certain Democratic-Republicans known as war hawks felt compelled to go to war . Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun pushed a declaration of war through Congress , stressing a short war had the added benefit of permitting the United States to grab valuable farmlands in the British colony of Canada . Vehement protests erupted in those parts of the country where the opposition Federalist political party held sway , especially in Connecticut and Massachusetts . The governors of these two states as well as Rhode Island refused to place their state militias under federal control for duty outside of their respective states . In the elections that followed in a few months , some members of Congress who voted for war , paid the price . Eight New England congressmen were rejected by the voters , and several others saw the writing on the wall and declined to seek reelection . There was a complete turnover of the New Hampshire delegation .

neg: Slave Power The Slave Power or Slaveocracy was the perceived political power in the U.S. federal government held by slave owners during the 1840s and 1850s , prior to the Civil War . Antislavery campaigners during this period bitterly complained about what they saw as disproportionate and corrupt influence wielded by wealthy Southerners . The argument was that this small group of rich slave owners had seized political control of their own states and were trying to take over the federal government in an illegitimate fashion in order to expand and protect slavery . The argument was widely used by the Republican Party that formed in 1854 -- 55 to oppose the expansion of slavery .   The main issue expressed by the term slave power was distrust of the political power of the slave-owning class . Such distrust was shared by many who were not abolitionists ; those who were motivated more by a possible threat to the political balance or the impossibility of competing with unwaged slave labor , than by concern over the treatment of slaves . Those who differed on many other issues ( such as hating blacks or liking them , denouncing slavery as a sin or promising to guarantee its protection in the Deep South ) could unite to attack the slaveocracy . The `` Free Soil '' element emphasized that rich slave owners would move into new territory , use their cash to buy up all the good lands , then use their slaves to work the lands , leaving little opportunity room for free farmers . By 1854 the Free Soil Party had largely merged into the new Republican party .   The term was popularized by antislavery writers such as John Gorham Palfrey , Josiah Quincy III , Horace Bushnell , James Shepherd Pike , and Horace Greeley . Politicians who emphasized the theme included John Quincy Adams , Henry Wilson and William Pitt Fessenden . Abraham Lincoln used the concept after 1854 but not the term . They showed through a combination of emotive argument and hard statistical data that the South had long held a disproportionate level of power in the United States . Historian Allan Nevins contends that `` nearly all groups ... steadily substituted emotion for reason . ... Fear fed hatred , and hatred fed fear . ''   The existence of a Slave Power was dismissed by Southerners at the time , and rejected as false by many historians of the 1920s and 1930s , who stressed the internal divisions in the South before 1850 . The idea that the Slave Power existed has partly come back at the hands of neoabolitionist historians since 1970 , and there is no doubt that it was a powerful factor in the Northern anti-slavery belief system . It was standard rhetoric for all factions of the Republican party .

neg: Conscience Whigs The `` Conscience '' Whigs were a faction of the Whig Party in the state of Massachusetts noted for their moral opposition to slavery . They were noted as opponents of the more conservative `` Cotton '' Whigs who dominated the state party , led by such figures as Edward Everett , Robert C. Winthrop , and Abbott Lawrence , whose close association with the New England textile industry led them to de-emphasize the slavery issue . Leaders of the `` Conscience Whigs '' included Charles Sumner , Henry Wilson , and Charles Francis Adams . The group split from the Whig party in 1848 , when the national party nominated the slave-owning General Zachary Taylor for President , and played a role in the creation of the new Free Soil Party , which nominated Adams for Vice President on a ticket with anti-slavery former Democratic President Martin Van Buren .   Following the failure of the Free Soil Party in the election that year , most Conscience Whigs would return to the Whig fold . More followed after the Compromise of 1850 temporarily neutralized the issue of slavery . During the mid 1850s , several Conscience leaders played an important role later in the foundation of the Republican Party .   The term `` Conscience Whig '' is sometimes used more broadly to refer to Whigs in other states noted for their opposition to slavery .

neg: Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War This timeline of events leading up to the American Civil War describes and links to narrative articles and references about many of the events and issues which historians recognize as origins and causes of the Civil War . The pre-Civil War events can be roughly divided into a period encompassing the long term build-up over many decades and a period encompassing the five-month build to war immediately after the election of Abraham Lincoln as President in the Election of 1860 which culminated in the Fall of Fort Sumter ( April 1861 ) .   Since the early colonial period in Virginia , slavery had been a part of the socioeconomic system of British North America and was recognized in the Thirteen Colonies at the time of the United States ' Declaration of Independence ( 1776 ) . Since then , events and statements by politicians and others brought forth differences , tensions and divisions between the people of the slave states of the Southern United States and the people of the free states of the Northern United States ( including Western states ) over the topics of slavery . The large underlying issue from which other issues developed was whether slavery should be retained and even expanded to other areas or whether it should be contained and eventually abolished . Over many decades , these issues and divisions became increasingly irreconcilable and contentious .   Events in the 1850s culminated with the election of the anti-slavery-expansion Republican Abraham Lincoln as President on November 6 , 1860 . This provoked the first round of state secessions as leaders of the Deep South cotton states were unwilling to remain in a second class political status with their way of life threatened by the President himself . Initially , the seven Deep South states seceded , with economies based on cotton ( then in heavy European demand with rising prices ) . They were Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Louisiana , Mississippi , South Carolina and Texas . After the Confederates attacked and captured Fort Sumter , President Lincoln called for volunteers to march south and suppress the rebellion . This pushed the four other Upper South States ( Virginia , North Carolina , Tennessee , and Arkansas ) also to secede . These states completed the formation of the Confederate States of America . Their addition to the Confederacy insured a war would be prolonged and bloody because they contributed territory and soldiers .

neg: A Summary View of the Rights of British America A Summary View of the Rights of British America was a tract written by Thomas Jefferson in 1774 , before the U.S. Declaration of Independence , in which he laid out for delegates to the First Continental Congress a set of grievances against King George III , especially against the King 's and Parliament 's response to the Boston Tea Party . Jefferson declares that the British Parliament did not have the right to govern the Thirteen Colonies . He argues that since the individual colonies were founded they were independent of British rule . Jefferson , in this work , held that allodial title , not feudal title , was held to American lands , and thus the people did not owe fees and rents for that land to the British crown .   The work was presented to , and debated by , the First Continental Congress . When this took place , Jefferson did not attend . Despite his attempts , Congress agreed to a more moderate decision than Jefferson 's proposed concept . Despite not being able to completely convince Congress , friends of Jefferson printed the Summary in a pamphlet form . It was distributed throughout London , New York and Philadelphia . Research states that the document `` helped establish Jefferson 's reputation as a skillful , if radical , political writer . ''

neg: Braintree Instructions The Braintree Instructions was a document sent on September 24 , 1765 by the town meeting of Braintree , Massachusetts to the town 's representative at the Massachusetts General Court , or legislature , which instructed the representative to oppose the Stamp Act , a tax regime which had recently been adopted by the British Parliament in London . The document is significant because , following the Virginia Resolves , it was among the earliest in British America to officially reject the authority of Parliament over the colonies in North America . The instructions were written by John Adams , who would ten years later become a key figure in the American Revolution and ultimately be elected the second President of the United States in 1796 .

neg: Freedom suit Freedom suits were lawsuits in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States filed by enslaved people against slaveholders to assert claims to freedom , often based on descent from a free maternal ancestor , or time held as a resident in a free state or territory .   The right to petition for freedom descended from English common law and allowed people to challenge their enslavement or indenture . Petitioners challenged slavery both directly and indirectly , even if slaveholders generally viewed such petitions as a means to uphold rather than undermine slavery . Beginning with the colonies in North America , legislatures enacted slave laws that created a legal basis for `` just subjection ; '' these were adopted or updated by the state and territorial legislatures that superseded them after the United States gained independence . These codes also enabled enslaved persons to sue for freedom based on wrongful enslavement .   While some cases were tried during the colonial period , the majority of petitions for freedom were heard during the antebellum period in the border or the Southern United States . After the American Revolution , most northern states abolished slavery and were considered `` free . '' The United States Congress prohibited slavery in some newly established territories , and some new states were admitted to the union as free states . The rise in travel and migration of masters with slaves between free and slave states resulted in conditions that gave rise to slaves suing for freedom . Many free states had residency limits for masters who brought slaves into their territory ; after that time , the slave would be considered free . Some slaves sued for wrongful enslavement after being held in a free state .   Other grounds for suit were that the person was freeborn and illegally held in slavery , or that the person was illegally held because of being descended from a freeborn woman in the maternal line . The principle of partus sequitur ventrem , first incorporated into English colonial slavery law by a 1662 statute in Virginia , established that children 's status was that of the mother . It was adopted into law by other English colonies , and the states of the United States .   In Saint Louis , Missouri records of nearly 300 petition cases have been found that were filed between 1807 and 1860 , and in Washington , D.C. nearly 500 petition cases were filed in the same period . A large portion of cases , as much as one-third , either never went to trial or were settled out of court . In the early nineteenth century in St. Louis and in Washington , D.C. , nearly half of the attorneys at the bar may have acted as counsel for slave petitions . In Missouri , the courts assigned an attorney to the petitioner if it accepted a freedom suit for hearing ; some of the top attorneys in St. Louis defended slaves . After the 1830s , the number of petition cases gradually declined . But from 1800 to 1830 , most of the bar in these cities tried a petition case .   Before the end of the eighteenth century , some southern states began to make petitioning for freedom more difficult . Maryland , for example , in 1796 required that county courts serve as the court of original jurisdiction , rather than the General Court of the Western Shore , an appellate court . The county courts clearly would be more favorable to the interests and views of the local planters against whom these suits were often filed . The legislature also banned those with antislavery sympathies from serving on juries in freedom suits . Virginia passed a similar law on jury composition in 1798 .   But , for a few decades , courts in slave states such as Louisiana , Mississippi , and Missouri often respected the precedent of `` once free , always free '' established by free states . Until the late 1850s , they ruled that slaves who had been held in free states maintained their freedom even if brought back into slave states . Until the Civil War brought an end to slavery , thousands of freedom suits were tried in state courts across the country , with some slaves petitioning as high as the Supreme Court .

neg: History of Springfield, Massachusetts The history of Springfield , Massachusetts ( est. 1636 ) springs in large part from its favorable geography , situated on a steep bluff overlooking the Connecticut River 's confluence with three tributaries . It was an ancient Indian crossroad for two major trade routes : Boston-to-Albany and New York City-to-Montreal . Springfield also sits on some of the northeastern United States ' most fertile soil .   Springfield was founded in 1636 as Agawam , the northernmost settlement of the Connecticut Colony . The settlement defected from Connecticut after four years , however , later joining forces with the coastal Massachusetts Bay Colony . The town changed its name to Springfield , and changed the political boundaries among what later became New England States .   Springfield flourished as a trading post and agricultural center until 1675 's King Philip 's War , when a coalition of Indians laid siege to Springfield and later burned it to the ground . Its prosperity waned for the next hundred years but , in 1777 , United States Revolutionary War leaders made it a National Armory to store weapons , and in 1795 it began manufacturing muskets .   Until 1968 , the Armory made small arms . Its first American muskets ( 1794 ) were followed by the famous Springfield rifle and the revolutionary M1 Garand and M14s . The Springfield Armory attracted generations of skilled laborers to the city , making it the United States ' longtime center for precision manufacturing ( comparable to a Silicon Valley of the Industrial Revolution ) . The Armory 's near-capture during Shays Rebellion of 1787 was among the troubles that prompted the U.S. Constitutional Convention later that year .   Innovations in the 19th and 20th centuries include the first American English dictionary ( 1805 , Noah Webster ) , the first use of interchangeable parts and the assembly line in manufacturing ( 1819 , Thomas Blanchard ) , the first American horseless car ( 1825 , again Thomas Blanchard ) , vulcanized rubber ( 1844 , Charles Goodyear ) , the first American gasoline-powered car ( 1893 , Duryea Brothers ) , the first American motorcycle company ( 1901 , `` Indian '' ) , an early commercial radio station ( 1921 , WBZ , and most famously , the world 's third-most-popular sport of basketball ( 1891 , Dr. James Naismith ) .   Throughout the latter half of the 20th century , Springfield endured a protracted decline , accelerated by the decommission of the Springfield Armory in 1969 . Springfield became increasingly like the declining , second tier Northeastern U.S. cities from which it had long been set apart . During the 1980s and 1990s , Springfield developed a new reputation for crime , political corruption , and cronyism . Seeking to overcome its downgrade , the city undertook several large ( but unfinished ) projects , including a $ 1 billion high-speed rail ( New Haven-Hartford-Springfield high-speed rail ) , a proposed $ 1 billion MGM Casino , and others .

neg: Lew Adams Lewis Drummond Adams ( born 16 August 1939 ) is a British former trade unionist .   Adams was educated at Impington Village College in Cambridge , then started his career with British Rail at the age of 15 , working his way up to become a steam locomotive driver .   A local Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen ( ASLEF ) trade union representative , Adams was voted in as General Secretary in 1994 . Towards the right of the trade union political spectrum , he vigorously opposed the Conservative governments ' privatisation of British Rail via the Railways Act 1993 , and was attacked and labelled by the right wing tabloids , most famously as `` The Black Prince of Militancy '' by the Daily Mail during the 1995 rail strike . However , in 2004 Adams declared : `` I was vehement that we wanted to stay in the public sector , and of course there were all the usual concerns trade unionists have regarding privatization , safety issues , job losses , protecting the conditions of service , and pensions . But accepting the will of Parliament , it was time to look at the arguments . So we said to management , ` Well , if that 's what you want , this is what we want . ' Today I can not argue against the private entrepreneur coming into the rail industry . We are running 1,700 more trains per day since it was privatized . The entrepreneurs built traffic to the extent that we are having to build more infrastructure . What is true is true : 4.2 billion pounds spent on new trains . We never saw that in all the years I 've been in the rail industry . All the time it was in the public sector , all we got were cuts , cuts , cuts . And today there are more members in the trade union , more train drivers , and more trains running . The reality is that it worked , we 've protected jobs , and we got more jobs . If a private company is making more money , I look at that from a union 's point of view , ` Well , that looks like a wage increase to me . ' And we can argue that . And the more secure they are and the more productive they are in delivering train services , well , that means more jobs . I was there when the public railways had some 600,000 people and it came down to 100,000 in the time I worked in the rail industry . Now we are expanding on jobs . '' .   Adams later had a locomotive named after him by Virgin Trains boss Sir Richard Branson using the same `` Black Prince '' name , the first union secretary to have such an honour since former ASLEF secretary William P. Allen , General Secretary until 1947 .   After being voted out of office in May 1998 to be replaced by left wing candidate Mick Rix , Adams joined Virgin Trains as a training manager . In 2003 Adams was campaign manager for right-wing candidate Shaun Brady 's unexpectedly successful campaign to be elected ASLEF General Secretary , defeating the incumbent Rix . Brady was removed from office the following year after a bitter dispute with the union 's Executive Committee .   Adams was later appointed to the rail regulatory authority set up by the new Labour Party government , the Strategic Rail Authority ; and is a board member of the British Transport Police authority .

neg: John Witherspoon John Witherspoon ( February 5 , 1723 -- November 15 , 1794 ) was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister and a Founding Father of the United States . Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish Common Sense Realism , and while president of the College of New Jersey ( 1768 -- 94 ; now Princeton University ) , became an influential figure in the development of the United States ' national character . Politically active , Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4 , 1776 , Declaration of Independence . He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration . Later , he signed the Articles of Confederation and supported ratification of the Constitution . In 1789 he was Convening Moderator of the First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America .

neg: Minutemen Minutemen were civilian colonists who independently organized to form well-prepared militia companies self-trained in weaponry , tactics , and military strategies from the American colonial partisan militia during the American Revolutionary War . They were also known for being ready at a minute 's notice , hence the name . They provided a highly mobile , rapidly deployed force that allowed the colonies to respond immediately to war threats .   The minutemen were among the first to fight in the American Revolution . Their teams constituted about a quarter of the entire militia . They were generally younger and more mobile , and served as part of a network for early response . Minuteman and Sons of Liberty member Paul Revere was among those who spread the news that the British Regulars ( soldiers ) were coming out from Boston . Revere was captured before completing his mission when the British marched toward the arsenal in Concord to confiscate the weapons and ammunition that were stored there .   The term has also been applied to various later United States civilian-based paramilitary forces to recall the success and patriotism of the originals .

neg: Texas annexation The Texas annexation was the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America , which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29 , 1845 .   The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2 , 1836 . At the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States . The leadership of both major American political parties , the Democrats and the Whigs , opposed the introduction of Texas , a vast slave-holding region , into the volatile political climate of the pro- and anti-slavery sectional controversies in Congress . Moreover , they wished to avoid a war with Mexico , whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province . With Texas 's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s , the President of the Texas Republic , Sam Houston , arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence , with Great Britain mediating .   In 1843 , U.S. President John Tyler , unaligned with any political party , decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office . His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas , which would undermine slavery in the United States . Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration , Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844 . When the documents were submitted to the US Senate for ratification , the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844 .  Pro-Texas-annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party 's convention in May 1844 . In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues , they secured the nomination of James K. Polk , who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform .   In June 1844 , the Senate , with its Whig majority , soundly rejected the Tyler -- Texas treaty . The pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the November 1844 presidential election . In December 1844 , lame-duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house . The Democratic-dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty . The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill ( by the vote of the minority Democrats and several southern Whigs ) , designed to provide the incoming President-elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House-amended bill .   On March 1 , 1845 , President Tyler signed the annexation bill , and on March 3 ( his last day in office ) , he forwarded the House version to Texas , offering immediate annexation ( which preempted Polk ) . When Polk took office the next day , he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer . Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans . The bill was signed by Polk on December 29 , 1845 , accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union . Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 19 , 1846 .

neg: American way The American way of life or simply the American way is the unique lifestyle of the people of the United States of America . It refers to a nationalist ethos that adheres to the principle of life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness . At the center of the American way is the American Dream that upward mobility is achievable by any American through hard work . This concept is intertwined with the concept of American exceptionalism , the belief in the unique culture of the nation .   Author William Herberg offers the following definition :   One commentator notes , `` The first half of Herberg 's statement still holds true nearly half a century after he first formulated it '' , even though `` Herberg 's latter claims have been severely if not completely undermined ... materialism no longer needs to be justified in high-sounding terms '' .   In the National Archives and Records Administration 's 1999 Annual Report , National Archivist John W. Carlin writes , `` We are different because our government and our way of life are not based on the divine right of kings , the hereditary privileges of elites , or the enforcement of deference to dictators . They are based on pieces of paper , the Charters of Freedom - the Declaration that asserted our independence , the Constitution that created our government , and the Bill of Rights that established our liberties . ''

neg: History of the United States The date of the start of the history of the United States is a subject of debate among historians . Older textbooks start with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on October 12 , 1492 and emphasize the European background of the colonization of the Americas , or they start around 1600 and emphasize the American frontier . In recent decades American schools and universities typically have shifted back in time to include more on the colonial period and much more on the prehistory of the Native Americans .   Indigenous people lived in what is now the United States for thousands of years before European colonists began to arrive , mostly from England , after 1600 . The Spanish built small settlements in Florida and the Southwest , and the French along the Mississippi River and the Gulf Coast . By the 1770s , thirteen British colonies contained two and a half million people along the Atlantic coast east of the Appalachian Mountains . After the end of the French and Indian Wars in the 1760s , the British government imposed a series of new taxes , rejecting the colonists ' argument that any new taxes had to be approved by them ( see Stamp Act 1765 ) . Tax resistance , especially the Boston Tea Party ( 1773 ) , led to punitive laws ( the Intolerable Acts ) by Parliament designed to end self-government in Massachusetts . American Patriots ( as they called themselves ) adhered to a political ideology called republicanism that emphasized civic duty , virtue , and opposition to corruption , fancy luxuries and aristocracy .   Armed conflict began in 1775 as Patriots drove the royal officials out of every colony and assembled in mass meetings and conventions . In 1776 , the Second Continental Congress declared that there was a new , independent nation , the United States of America , not just a collection of disparate colonies . With large-scale military and financial support from France and the military leadership of General George Washington , the American Patriots won the Revolutionary War . The peace treaty of 1783 gave the new nation the land east of the Mississippi River ( except Florida and Canada ) . The central government established by the Articles of Confederation proved ineffectual at providing stability , as it had no authority to collect taxes and had no executive officer . Congress called a convention to meet secretly in Philadelphia in 1787 . It wrote a new Constitution , which was adopted in 1789 . In 1791 , a Bill of Rights was added to guarantee inalienable rights . With Washington as the first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief political and financial adviser , a strong central government was created . When Thomas Jefferson became president he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France , doubling the size of the United States . A second and final war with Britain was fought in 1812 .   Encouraged by the notion of Manifest Destiny , federal territory expanded all the way to the Pacific . The U.S. always was large in terms of area , but its population was small , only 4 million in 1790 . Population growth was rapid , reaching 7.2 million in 1810 , 32 million in 1860 , 76 million in 1900 , 132 million in 1940 , and 321 million in 2015 . Economic growth in terms of overall GDP was even faster . However , compared to European powers , the nation 's military strength was relatively limited in peacetime before 1940 . The expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners . The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles , which were resolved by compromises . Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason -- Dixon line by 1804 , but the South continued to profit off the institution , producing high-value cotton exports to feed increasing high demand in Europe . The 1860 presidential election of Republican Abraham Lincoln was on a platform of ending the expansion of slavery and putting it on a path to extinction .   Seven cotton-based deep South slave states seceded and later founded the Confederacy four months before Lincoln 's inauguration . No nation ever recognized the Confederacy , but it opened the war by attacking Fort Sumter in 1861 . A surge of nationalist outrage in the North fueled a long , intense American Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) . It was fought largely in the South as the overwhelming material and manpower advantages of the North proved decisive in a long war . The war 's result was restoration of the Union , the impoverishment of the South , and the abolition of slavery . In the Reconstruction era ( 1863 -- 1877 ) , legal and voting rights were extended to the freed slave . The national government emerged much stronger , and because of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 , it gained the explicit duty to protect individual rights . However , when white Democrats regained their power in the South during the 1870s , often by paramilitary suppression of voting , they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy , and new disfranchising constitutions that prevented most African Americans and many poor whites from voting , a situation that continued for decades until gains of the civil rights movement in the 1960s and passage of federal legislation to enforce constitutional rights .   The United States became the world 's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century due to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the Northeast and Midwest and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers from Europe . The national railroad network was completed with the work of Chinese immigrants and large-scale mining and factories industrialized the Northeast and Midwest . Mass dissatisfaction with corruption , inefficiency and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement , from the 1890s to 1920s , which led to many social and political reforms . In 1920 , the 19th Amendment to the Constitution guaranteed women 's suffrage ( right to vote ) . This followed the 16th and 17th amendments in 1913 , which established the first national income tax and direct election of US senators to Congress . Initially neutral during World War I , the US declared war on Germany in 1917 and later funded the Allied victory the following year .   After a prosperous decade in the 1920s , the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long worldwide Great Depression . Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt ended the Republican dominance of the White House and implemented his New Deal programs for relief , recovery , and reform . The New Deal , which defined modern American liberalism , included relief for the unemployed , support for farmers , Social Security and a minimum wage . After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , the United States entered World War II along with Britain , the Soviet Union , China , and the smaller number of Allied nations . The U.S. financed the Allied war effort and helped defeat Nazi Germany in the European theater . Its involvement culminated in using the newly invented nuclear weapons on Japanese cities that helped defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater .   The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers after World War II . During the Cold War , the US and the USSR confronted each other indirectly in the arms race , the Space Race , proxy wars , and propaganda campaigns . US foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along with the policy of containment , stopping the spread of communism . The US joined the wars in Korea and Vietnam to try to stop its spread . In the 1960s , in large part due to the strength of the civil rights movement , another wave of social reforms were enacted by enforcing the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African-Americans and other racial minorities . Native American activism also rose . The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union officially dissolved in 1991 , leaving the United States as the world 's only superpower .   After the Cold War , the United States focused on international conflicts around the Middle East in response to the Gulf War in the early 1990s . The beginning of the 21st century saw the September 11 attacks by Al-Qaeda in 2001 , which would later followed by the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . In 2008 , the United States had its worst economic crisis since the Great Depression , which has been followed by slower than usual rates of economic growth during the 2010s .

neg: Abigail Adams Abigail Adams ( née Smith ; November 22 -LSB- O.S. November 11 -RSB- 1744 -- October 28 , 1818 ) was the closest advisor and wife of John Adams , as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams . She is sometimes considered to have been a Founder of the United States , and is now designated as the first Second Lady and second First Lady of the United States , although these titles were not in use at the time .   Adams 's life is one of the most documented of the first ladies : she is remembered for the many letters she wrote to her husband while he stayed in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , during the Continental Congresses . John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters , and their letters are filled with intellectual discussions on government and politics . In one of her more famous letters she implores her husband and his colleagues , all of whom were male , to , '' ... remember the ladies ... If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion , and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice , or Representation . '' Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front .

neg: John Adams (New York) John Adams ( August 26 , 1778 Oak Hill , New York -- September 25 , 1854 Catskill , New York ) was a United States Congressman from New York .

neg: Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation , formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union , was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution . Its drafting by a committee appointed by the Second Continental Congress began on July 12 , 1776 , and an approved version was sent to the states for ratification on November 15 , 1777 . The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1 , 1781 , after being ratified by all 13 states . A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states . The federal government received only those powers which the colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament .   The Articles formed a war-time confederation of states , with an extremely limited central government . Even unratified , the document was used by the Congress to conduct business , direct the American Revolutionary War , conduct diplomacy with foreign nations , and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations . Actually the adoption of the Articles made no perceptible change in the federal government , because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing . That body was now taken over as the Congress of the Confederation ; but Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress , since its organization remained the same .   As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states , delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so . As the government 's weaknesses became apparent , especially after Shays ' Rebellion , individuals began asking for changes to the Articles . Their hope was to create a stronger national government . Initially , some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems . However , as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles , a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25 , 1787 . This became the Constitutional Convention . It was quickly realized that changes would not work , and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced . On March 4 , 1789 , the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution . The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive ( the President ) , courts , and taxing powers .

neg: Annapolis Convention (1786) The Annapolis Convention , formally titled as a Meeting of Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government was a national political convention held September 11 -- 14 , 1786 at Mann 's Tavern in Annapolis , Maryland , in which twelve delegates from five states -- New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania , Delaware , and Virginia -- gathered to discuss and develop a consensus about reversing the protectionist trade barriers that each state had erected . At the time , under the Articles of Confederation , each state was largely independent from the others and the national government had no authority to regulate trade between and among the states . Additionally , New Hampshire , Massachusetts , Rhode Island , and North Carolina had appointed commissioners who failed to arrive in Annapolis in time to attend the meeting , while Connecticut , Maryland , South Carolina , and Georgia had taken no action at all .   The final report of the convention , adopted unanimously , was sent to the Congress and to the states . It sought support for a broader constitutional convention to be held the following May in Philadelphia . It expressed the hope that more states would be represented and that their delegates or deputies would be authorized to examine areas broader than simply commercial trade .   Because of the few representatives in attendance , their authority was limited . It is unclear how much weight the convention 's call carried , but the urgency of the need for constitutional reform was highlighted by a number of rebellions that took place all over the country . While most of them were easily suppressed , Shays ' Rebellion lasted from August 1786 until February 1787 . The rebellion called attention to both popular discontent and government weakness .   The direct result of the Annapolis Convention report and the ensuing events was the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 , during which the United States Constitution was drafted .

neg: George Washington in the French and Indian War George Washington ( February 22 , 1732 -- December 14 , 1799 ) commanded the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 -- 1783 ) , and was the first President of the United States , serving from 1789 to 1797 . Because of his central role in the founding of the United States , Washington is often called the `` Father of his Country '' . His devotion to republicanism and civic virtue made him an exemplary figure among early American politicians .   Washington 's military experience began in the French and Indian War with a commission as a major in the militia of the British Province of Virginia . In 1753 Washington was sent as an ambassador from the British crown to the French officials and Indians as far north as present-day Erie , Pennsylvania . The following year he led another expedition to the area to assist in the construction of a fort at present-day Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Before reaching that point , he and some of his men , accompanied by Indian allies , ambushed a French scouting party . Its leader was killed , although the exact circumstances of his death were disputed . This peacetime act of aggression is seen as one of the first military steps leading to the global Seven Years ' War . The French responded by attacking fortifications Washington erected following the ambush , forcing his surrender . Released on parole , Washington and his troops returned to Virginia .   In 1755 he participated as a volunteer aide in the ill-fated expedition of General Edward Braddock , where he distinguished himself in the retreat following the climactic Battle of Monongahela . He served from 1755 until 1758 as colonel and commander of the Virginia Regiment , directing the provincial defenses against French and Indian raids and building the regiment into one of the best-trained provincial militias of the time . He led the regiment as part of the 1758 expedition of General John Forbes that successfully drove the French from Fort Duquesne , during which he and some of his companies were involved in a friendly fire incident . Unable to get a commission in the British Army , Washington then resigned from the provincial militia , married , and took up the life of a Virginia plantation owner .   Washington gained valuable military skills during the war , acquiring tactical , strategic , and logistical military experience . He also acquired important political skills in his dealings with the British military establishment and the provincial government . His military exploits , although they included some notable failures , made his military reputation in the colonies such that he became a natural selection as the commander in chief of the Continental Army following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 . His successes in military and political spheres during that conflict led to his election as the first President of the United States of America .

neg: Jefferson Memorial The Jefferson Memorial is a presidential memorial in Washington , D.C. , dedicated to Thomas Jefferson ( 1743 -- 1826 ) , one of the most important of the American Founding Fathers as the main drafter and writer of the Declaration of Independence , member of the Continental Congress , governor of the newly independent Commonwealth of Virginia , American minister to King Louis XVI and the Kingdom of France , first U.S. Secretary of State under the first President George Washington , the second Vice President of the United States under second President John Adams , and also the third President ( 1801 -- 1809 ) , as well as being the founder of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville , Virginia .   The neoclassical Memorial building on the Tidal Basin off the Washington Channel of the Potomac River was designed by the architect John Russell Pope and built by the Philadelphia contractor John McShain . Construction of the building began in 1939 and was completed in 1943 . The bronze statue of Jefferson was added in 1947 .   The Jefferson Memorial is managed by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior under its National Mall and Memorial Parks division . In 2007 , it was ranked fourth on the `` List of America 's Favorite Architecture '' by the American Institute of Architects .