query: George H. W. Bush had at least a million dollars.

pos: George H. W. Bush George Herbert Walker Bush ( born June 12 , 1924 ) is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . A member of the Republican Party , he was previously a congressman , ambassador , and Director of Central Intelligence . He is the oldest living former President and Vice President . Since 2000 , Bush has often been referred to as `` George H. W. Bush '' , `` Bush 41 '' , `` Bush the Elder '' , or `` George Bush Senior '' to distinguish him from his eldest son , George W. Bush , who became the 43rd President of the United States after the 2000 election .   Bush was born in Milton , Massachusetts , to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush . Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 , Bush postponed his university studies , enlisted in the U.S. Navy on his 18th birthday , and became the youngest aviator in the U.S. Navy at the time . He served until the end of the war , then attended Yale University . Graduating in 1948 , he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business , becoming a millionaire by the age of 40 . Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company , and he won election to the House of Representatives in 1966 . In 1971 , President Richard Nixon appointed Bush as Ambassador to the United Nations , and in 1973 , Bush became the Chairman of the Republican National Committee . The following year , President Gerald Ford appointed Bush as the ambassador to the People 's Republic of China , and later reassigned Bush to the position of Director of Central Intelligence . Bush ran for president in 1980 but was defeated in the Republican primary by Ronald Reagan . Reagan chose Bush as his running mate , and Bush became vice president after the Reagan -- Bush ticket won the 1980 election . During his eight-year tenure as vice president , Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation and fighting the `` War on Drugs '' .   In 1988 , Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President , defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis . Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency : military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf ; the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 , and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later . Though the agreement was not ratified until after he left office , Bush also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement , which created a trade bloc consisting of the United States , Canada , and Mexico . Domestically , Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and , after a struggle with Congress , signed an increase in taxes that Congress had passed . In the wake of a weak recovery from an economic recession , along with continuing budget deficits and the diminution of foreign politics as a major issue in a post-Cold War political climate , he lost the 1992 presidential election to Democrat Bill Clinton .   Bush left office in 1993 . His presidential library was dedicated in 1997 , and he has been active -- often alongside Bill Clinton -- in various humanitarian activities . With George W. Bush 's victory in the 2000 presidential election , Bush and his son became the second father-son combination to serve as president , following John Adams and John Quincy Adams . Another member of the Bush family , Bush 's second son Jeb Bush , served as the 43rd Governor of Florida ( 1999 -- 2007 ) and sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2016 .

neg: Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt The presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt began on March 4 , 1933 , when he was inaugurated as the 32nd President of the United States , and ended upon his death on April 12 , 1945 , a span of ( 4422 days ) . Roosevelt assumed the presidency in the midst of the Great Depression . Starting with his landslide victory over Republican President Herbert Hoover in the 1932 election . He won a record four presidential terms , and became a central figure in world affairs during World War II . His program for relief , recovery and reform , known as the New Deal , involved a great expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy . Under his steady leadership , the Democratic Party built a `` New Deal Coalition '' of labor unions , big city machines , white ethnics , African Americans , and rural white Southerners , that would significantly realign American politics for the next several decades in the Fifth Party System and also define modern American liberalism .   During his first hundred days in office , Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented major legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal -- a variety of programs designed to produce relief ( government jobs for the unemployed ) , recovery ( economic growth ) , and reform ( through regulation of Wall Street , banks and transportation ) . He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers , and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance . The repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity , helping him win re-election by a landslide in 1936 . The economy improved rapidly from 1933 to 1937 , but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 -- 38 . The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his attempted packing of the Supreme Court , and blocked most of his legislative proposals , aside from the Fair Labor Standards Act . When the war began and unemployment largely became a non-issue , conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs , the WPA and CCC , but kept most of the regulations on business . Along with several smaller programs , major surviving programs from the New Deal include the Securities and Exchange Commission , the Wagner Act , the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation , and Social Security .   A potential worldwide war loomed after 1937 , with the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany , which invaded Poland in September 1939 . Roosevelt remained officially neutral but gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China , the United Kingdom , Free France , and the Soviet Union via initiatives such as the Lend-Lease programs . Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , Roosevelt sought and obtained a declaration of war upon Japan . A few days later , he sought and obtained a declaration of war upon the other major Axis powers , Germany and Italy . Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins , and with very strong national support , he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leading the Allies during World War II . He supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort , and the war saw the end of the massive unemployment that characterized the Great Depression . Roosevelt sought to desegregate the federal workforce with the Fair Employment Practice Committee , but he also controversially ordered the internment of 100,000 Japanese American civilians . As an active military leader , Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and the development of the world 's first nuclear bomb . Though he died months before the end of the war , his work on the post-war order shaped the new United Nations and the Bretton Woods international financial system . Roosevelt 's health seriously declined during the war years , and he died three months into his fourth term . He was succeeded by Vice President Harry S. Truman . It was on Roosevelt 's watch that the Democratic Party was returned to dominance , prosperity returned , and two great military enemies were destroyed .   Scholars , historians and the public typically rank Roosevelt alongside Abraham Lincoln and George Washington as one of the three greatest U.S. Presidents .

neg: Doe v. Bush Doe v. Bush , 323 F. 3d 133 ( 1st Cir . 2003 ) , was a court case challenging the constitutionality of the 2003 invasion of Iraq . The case was dismissed , since the plaintiffs failed `` to raise a sufficiently clear constitutional issue . '' The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002 was challenged by `` a coalition of U.S. soldiers , parents of U.S. soldiers , and members of Congress '' prior to the invasion to stop it from happening . They claimed that an invasion of Iraq would be illegal . Judge Lynch wrote of their argument , `` They base this argument on two theories . They argue that Congress and the President are in collision -- that the President is about to act in violation of the October Resolution . They also argue that Congress and the President are in collusion -- that Congress has handed over to the President its exclusive power to declare war . ''   The case was dismissed on February 24 , 2003 by Judge Joseph Tauro of the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts . The petitioners appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit . On March 13 , a three-judge panel affirmed the decision to dismiss the complaint . The opinion was written by Judge Sandra Lea Lynch :   An extreme case might arise , for example , if Congress gave absolute discretion to the President to start a war at his or her will ... Plaintiffs ' objection to the October Resolution does not , of course , involve any such claim . Nor does it involve a situation where the President acts without any apparent congressional authorization , or against congressional opposition ... To the contrary , Congress has been deeply involved in significant debate , activity , and authorization connected to our relations with Iraq for over a decade , under three different presidents of both major political parties , and during periods when each party has controlled Congress .   Lynch also cited Massachusetts v. Laird 451 F. 2d 26 ( 1st Cir . 1971 ) , which similarly found that the Vietnam War was constitutional . Lynch concluded that the Judiciary could not intervene , because there was not a fully developed conflict between the President and Congress at that time . On March 17 , the plaintiffs filed for a rehearing . Their petition was denied the next day . Iraq was invaded on March 20 .

neg: Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration The economic policy of the Barack Obama administration was characterized by moderate tax increases on higher income Americans designed to fund healthcare reform , reduce the federal budget deficit , and improve income inequality . His first term ( 2009 -- 2013 ) included measures designed to address the Great Recession and Subprime mortgage crisis , which began in 2007 . These included a major stimulus package , banking regulation , and comprehensive healthcare reform . As the economy improved and robust job creation continued during his second term ( 2013 -- 2017 ) , the Bush tax cuts were allowed to expire for the highest income taxpayers and a spending sequester ( cap ) was implemented , to further reduce the deficit back to typical historical levels . Towards the end of his tenure , the U.S. economy was nearing full employment such that the Federal Reserve began raising interest rates , real household income was nearing its pre-crisis peak , gas prices were very low , and GDP grew 3.5 % . He also implemented several environmental executive orders to address climate change and encourage clean energy industries , as the U.S. enjoyed an unprecedented increase in energy production . Both the stock market and corporate profits reached record high levels during his tenure , while inflation and interest rates remained near record low levels .   Conceptually , Obama advocated using government regulation to stem crony capitalism and tax revenue to stabilize and promote economic growth . Two of his important economic advisers were Jason Furman of Harvard University and Jeffrey Liebman of Harvard University . In 2006 , Obama wrote , `` We should be asking ourselves what mix of policies will lead to a dynamic free market and widespread economic security , entrepreneurial innovation and upward mobility -LSB- ... -RSB- we should be guided by what works . '' Speaking before the National Press Club in April 2005 , he defended the New Deal social welfare policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt , associating Republican proposals to establish private accounts for Social Security with Social Darwinism .

neg: Robert Gates Robert Michael `` Bob '' Gates ( born September 25 , 1943 ) is an American statesman , scholar , and university president who served as the 22nd United States Secretary of Defense from 2006 to 2011 . Gates initially began his career serving as an officer in the United States Air Force but was quickly recruited by the CIA . Gates served for 26 years in the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Security Council , and was Director of Central Intelligence under President George H. W. Bush . After leaving the CIA , Gates became president of Texas A&M University and was a member of several corporate boards . Gates served as a member of the Iraq Study Group , the bipartisan commission co-chaired by James A. Baker III and Lee H. Hamilton , that studied the lessons of the Iraq War .   Gates was nominated by Republican President George W. Bush as Secretary of Defense after the 2006 election , replacing Donald Rumsfeld . He was confirmed with bipartisan support . In a 2007 profile written by former National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski , Time named Gates one of the year 's most influential people . In 2008 , Gates was named one of America 's Best Leaders by U.S. News & World Report . He continued to serve as Secretary of Defense in President Barack Obama 's administration . He retired in 2011 . `` He 'll be remembered for making us aware of the danger of over-reliance on military intervention as an instrument of American foreign policy , '' said former Senator David L. Boren . Gates was presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the nation 's highest civilian award , by President Obama during his retirement ceremony . According to a Washington Post book review , he is `` widely considered the best defense secretary of the post-World War II era '' .   Since leaving the Obama Administration , Gates has been elected President of the Boy Scouts of America , served as Chancellor of the College of William & Mary , and served as a member on several corporate boards .

neg: Working Group on Financial Markets The Working Group on Financial Markets ( also , President 's Working Group on Financial Markets , the Working Group , and colloquially the Plunge Protection Team ) was created by Executive Order 12631 , signed on March 18 , 1988 , by United States President Ronald Reagan .   As established by the executive order , the Working Group has three purposes and functions :   '' ( a ) Recognizing the goals of enhancing the integrity , efficiency , orderliness , and competitiveness of our Nation 's financial markets and maintaining investor confidence , the Working Group shall identify and consider :  ( 1 ) the major issues raised by the numerous studies on the events in the financial markets surrounding October 19 , 1987 , and any of those recommendations that have the potential to achieve the goals noted above ; and  ( 2 ) the actions , including governmental actions under existing laws and regulations ( such as policy coordination and contingency planning ) , that are appropriate to carry out these recommendations .  ( b ) The Working Group shall consult , as appropriate , with representatives of the various exchanges , clearinghouses , self-regulatory bodies , and with major market participants to determine private sector solutions wherever possible .  ( c ) The Working Group shall report to the President initially within 60 days ( and periodically thereafter ) on its progress and , if appropriate , its views on any recommended legislative changes . ''   The Working Group consists of :  The Secretary of the Treasury , or his or her designee ( as Chairperson of the Working Group ) ;  The Chairperson of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System , or his or her designee ;  The Chairperson of the Securities and Exchange Commission , or his or her designee ; and  The Chairperson of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission , or his or her designee .

neg: John McCain presidential campaign, 2000 The 2000 presidential campaign of John McCain , the United States Senator from Arizona , began in September 1999 . He announced his run for the Republican Party nomination for the presidency of the United States in the 2000 presidential election .   McCain was the main challenger to Texas Governor George W. Bush , who had the political and financial support of most of the party establishment . McCain staged an upset win in the February 2000 New Hampshire primary , capitalizing on a message of political reform and `` straight talk '' that appealed to moderate Republican and independent voters and to the press . McCain 's momentum was halted when Bush won the South Carolina primary later that month , in a contest that became famous for its bitter nature and an underground smear campaign run against McCain .   McCain won some subsequent primaries , but after the March 2000 Super Tuesday contests he was well behind in delegates and withdrew . He grudgingly endorsed Bush two months later and made occasional appearances for him during the general election .

neg: William G. Otis William `` Bill '' G. Otis ( born July 27 , 1946 ) is a law professor and former federal prosecutor who served as Special Counsel to President George H. W. Bush .   A graduate of the University of North Carolina ( 1968 ) and Stanford Law School ( 1974 ) , Otis is currently an adjunct professor at Georgetown University Law Center . He also contributes to the legal blog Crime and Consequences .   In 2007 , Otis wrote an op-ed in the Washington Post urging President George W. Bush to commute the prison sentence imposed on Scooter Libby , who had been sentenced to 30 months in prison , a $ 250,000 fine , and two years of probation for his role in the aftermath of the Valerie Plame affair . Approximately one month after Otis 's piece appeared , Bush commuted Libby 's prison sentence , while leaving the rest of the sentence intact .   Otis spent much of his career as head of the Appellate Division of the United States Attorney 's Office for the Eastern District of Virginia . For ten years , he was a member of the Attorney General 's Advisory Subcommittee on the Sentencing Guidelines . In 1992 , during the investigation into `` Iraqgate , '' he served as Special Counsel for President George H. W. Bush . He returned to the U.S. Attorney 's Office the next year , and ended his tenure there in 1999 . He returned to federal service three years later as Special Assistant to the Secretary of Energy . In 2003 , he was appointed Counselor to the head of the Drug Enforcement Administration , where he remained until 2007 .   Otis has appeared before both houses of the United States Congress as an expert witness on diverse subjects in criminal law including the death penalty , illegal drugs , and the United States Sentencing Commission . He has been interviewed on these and other subjects by The New York Times , The Atlantic magazine , CBS 's 60 Minutes , The O'Reilly Factor , ABC News , and MSNBC . He has written op-ed pieces for various newspapers on topics including legal ethics , Miranda warnings , and the firing of U.S. Attorneys by then-Attorney General Alberto Gonzales .   A survivor of liver cancer thanks to a liver transplant , Otis is married to Lee Liberman Otis , a co-founder and officer of the Federalist Society .

neg: Hillary Clinton email controversy In March 2015 , it became publicly known that Hillary Clinton , during her tenure as United States Secretary of State , had used her family 's private email server for official communications , rather than official State Department email accounts maintained on federal servers . Those official communications included thousands of emails that would retroactively be marked classified by the State Department .   The controversy unfolded against the backdrop of Clinton 's 2016 presidential election campaign and hearings held by the United States House Select Committee on Benghazi . Some experts , officials , and members of Congress have contended that her use of private messaging system software and a private server violated State Department protocols and procedures , as well as federal laws and regulations governing recordkeeping . In response , Clinton has said that her use of personal email was in compliance with federal laws and State Department regulations , and that former secretaries of state had also maintained personal email accounts , though not their own private email servers .   After allegations were raised that some of the emails in question contained classified information , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) initiated an investigation regarding the origin and handling of classified emails on Clinton 's server . The FBI Report found that some of the emails originated in five other intelligence agencies . The FBI found that all classified emails on Clinton 's server were stored and sent from `` unclassified systems '' , violating the same policies as those on Clinton 's personal server .   FBI Director James Comey identified 110 emails as containing information that was classified at the time it was sent , including 65 emails deemed `` Secret '' and 22 deemed `` Top Secret '' . None of these had classification markings . However , as noted in Clinton 's non-disclosure agreement , unmarked classified information should be treated the same as marked classified information . An additional three email chains contained `` portion markings '' , simply a '' ( C ) '' indicating `` Confidential '' in front of one or more paragraphs . These were not included in Comey 's list of 110 because the State Department failed to confirm they were classified at the time they were sent . Clinton told the FBI she did not know the meaning of '' ( C ) '' . Nearly 2,100 emails on the server were retroactively marked as classified by the State Department .   In May 2016 , the State Department 's Office of the Inspector General released an 83-page report about the State Department 's email practices , including Clinton 's . On July 5 , 2016 , Comey announced that the FBI 's investigation had concluded that Clinton was `` extremely careless '' in handling her email system but recommended that no charges be filed against her . On July 6 , 2016 , Attorney General Loretta Lynch announced that no charges would be filed .   On July 7 , the State Department reopened its probe into the email controversy . On October 28 , 2016 , Comey notified Congress that the FBI had started looking into newly discovered emails that may be pertinent to the case . Law enforcement officials stated the emails were found on a laptop belonging to Clinton aide Huma Abedin 's husband , Anthony Weiner , during an investigation of his sexting scandals . On November 6 , Comey notified Congress that the FBI had not changed its conclusion , reached in July , regarding Clinton 's emails .

neg: Cash and carry (World War II) Cash and carry was a policy requested by US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21 , 1939 , subsequent to the outbreak of war in Europe . It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936 . The revision allowed the sale of materiel to belligerents , as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash , assuming all risk in transportation . However , the sale of war materials was not allowed .   Though `` Cash and Carry '' concepts had been introduced in the Neutrality Act of 1936 , it only pertained to materials that could not be used in war efforts , which allowed them to aid warring countries . Originally presented to Congress by Senator Key Pittman ( D-NV ) earlier in 1939 , the bill was designed to replace the Neutrality Act of 1937 , which had lapsed in May 1939 . The bill had been defeated repeatedly by the Senate and the House on more than one occasion as Isolationists feared that passing the bill would draw the US into the conflict in Europe . However , President Roosevelt felt that further help was needed in Europe after Germany invaded Poland in September 1939 . The bill passed in late October , gaining approval from the House on November 5 , 1939 . The President gave his signature the same day .   The purpose of this policy was to maintain neutrality between the United States and European countries while giving aid to Britain by allowing them to buy non war materials . Various policies , such as the Neutrality Acts of 1935 , 1936 , and 1937 , forbade selling implements of war or lending money to belligerent countries under any terms . The U.S. economy was rebounding at this time , following the Great Depression , but there was still a need for industrial manufacturing jobs . The cash and carry program helped to solve this issue and in turn Great Britain benefited from the purchase goods .   This program also prevented US businesses interests backing the success or failure of any warring nation . Because of the conclusion of the Nye Committee , which asserted that United States involvement in World War I was driven by private interests from arms manufacturers , many Americans believed that investment in a belligerent would eventually lead to American participation in war .   U.S. shipping interests were forbidden from entering into conflict zones and US passengers traveling on foreign ships did so at their own risk .   The `` cash and carry '' legislation enacted in 1939 effectively ended the arms embargo that had been in place since the Neutrality Act of 1936 . It paved the way for Lend-Lease .

neg: United States presidential election, 1992 The United States presidential election of 1992 was the 52nd quadrennial presidential election . It was held on Tuesday , November 3 , 1992 . There were three major candidates : Incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush , Democratic Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton , and independent Texas businessman Ross Perot .   Bush had alienated much of his conservative base by breaking his 1988 campaign pledge against raising taxes . The economy was in recession and Bush 's perceived greatest strength , foreign policy , was regarded as much less important following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the relatively peaceful climate in the Middle East after the defeat of Iraq in the Gulf War .   Clinton won a plurality in the popular vote , and a wide Electoral College margin . The election was a significant realigning election after three consecutive Republican landslides . Northeastern , Upper Midwest , and West Coast states which had previously been competitive began voting reliably Democratic . As of 2016 , this is the most recent election in which an incumbent president was unseated , the previous one having been the 1980 election in which Ronald Reagan unseated then-incumbent Jimmy Carter .   Perot 's campaign took 18.9 % of the vote , finishing second in Maine and Utah . This was noted for being the highest vote share of a third-party candidate since 1912 , though he did not obtain any electoral votes .   As of 2017 , this is the last time Georgia and Montana voted for the Democratic candidate , and the last time the state of Florida was on the losing end of the presidential election .

neg: National Infrastructure Reinvestment Bank The creation of a National Infrastructure Reinvestment Bank was first proposed by United States Senator Christopher J. Dodd and Senator Chuck Hagel in 2007 . However , several other iterations of a National Infrastructure Bank have been proposed and considered and it is likely that implementing legislation for the Bank will look quite different from that which was proposed in the original legislation .   Barack Obama backed the proposed legislation in February 2008 and repeated his call in September 2010 , although he did not provide specifics about how the Bank should operate . In 2008 , Obama suggested that the Bank would borrow US$ 60 billion of federal funding to invest in infrastructure over 10 years , while leveraging `` up to $ 500 billion '' of private investment . It would invest in high-speed trains to provide an alternative to air travel , energy efficiency , and clean energy , among other kinds of public infrastructure . According to Obama , the Bank 's `` work will be determined by what will maximize our safety and security and ability to compete '' and it would `` create nearly two million new jobs '' , mainly in the construction industry . According to the text of the proposed legislation , funding for the bank would be taken from borrowed funds not to exceed one percent .   The Bank would complement existing federal programs to fund infrastructure , such as the Highway Trust Fund or State Revolving Funds . It is expected to invest primarily in surface transport infrastructure , which is likely to include highways and mass transit . Obama did not mention investments in water supply and sanitation as an area of activity for the new Bank . The American Water Works Association ( AWWA ) estimates that investment in water supply and sanitation in the United States will have to be `` over $ 250 billion above current levels of spending in the next 20 to 30 years '' to replace aging infrastructure . The original version of the bill expired with the 110th Congress ; a different version of the bill was introduced into the 112th Congress by U.S. Representative Rosa L. DeLauro ( D - Connecticut 3rd District ) as H.R. 402 .

neg: Veterans' Land Board scandal The Veterans ' Land Board Scandal was a political scandal in Texas in that became public in 1954 .   The Texas Legislature enacted the Veterans ' Land Act in November 1946 . The measure called for issuing $ 25 million in bonds , the proceeds of which would be used by the state government to purchase land and resell it to veterans of World War II at 3 % interest on 40 year loans . In early 1951 another $ 75 million was appropriated by the state for this purpose . The only stipulations on the purchase was that the loan could not be for more than $ 7,500 and the tracts of land could not be less than 20 acres ( 80,000 m ² ) . A 5 % downpayment was required , and the land could not be resold for three years . The law allowed for `` block sales , '' whereby veterans could join together to buy the land . This was allowed because it would be difficult to buy 20 acres ( 80,000 m ² ) with only $ 7,500 .   The scandal was unveiled in November 1954 when reporter Roland Towery , then managing editor of the Cuero Record , published the results of his investigation of a tip that prominent Cuero-area businessmen were entertaining local Hispanic and African-American laborers , an unheard of thing in South Texas at this time . The businessmen were paying the laborers , who were veterans and mostly illiterate , to sign applications for the land grants and the businessmen would pocket the money . Many of the veterans who purchased land in block sales were not even aware that they had purchased land . In fact , many were led to believe that they were getting free land as part of a veteran entitlement program or else were receiving some type of veterans ' compensation from the state . When Towery asked Texas Veterans Land Board chairman ( and Texas General Land Office commissioner ) Bascom Giles about these irregularities , Giles denied involvement , attributing the irregularities to local land speculators . Struck by the fact that Giles had defended himself before even being accused of anything , Towrey ran with the story , accelerating an investigation begun the previous year by the state attorney general , John Ben Shepperd .   Fraud was soon discovered in nine south Texas counties , and numerous members of the General Land Office were charged with fraud and conspiracy to defraud veterans . Giles was imprisoned for his role in the scandal , and many others paid heavy fines for their crimes . Governor Allan Shivers and John Ben Sheppard , as ex officio members of the Veterans Land Board , were tainted by the scandal . Ralph Yarborough and his allies in the liberal wing of the Texas Democratic Party pointed to the scandal as an example of the kind of corruption that the conservative Shivercrats were willing to overlook .

neg: Plame affair The Plame affair ( also known as the CIA leak scandal and Plamegate ) was a political scandal that revolved around journalist Robert Novak 's public identification of Valerie Plame as a covert Central Intelligence Agency officer in 2003 .   In 2002 , Plame wrote a memo to her superiors in which she expressed hesitation in recommending her husband , former diplomat Joseph C. Wilson , to the CIA for a mission to Niger to investigate claims that Iraq had arranged to purchase and import uranium from the country , but stated that he `` may be in a position to assist '' . After President George W. Bush stated that `` Saddam Hussein recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa '' during the run-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , Wilson published a July 2003 op-ed in The New York Times stating his doubts during the mission that any such transaction with Iraq had taken place .   A week after Wilson 's op-ed was published , Novak published a column which mentioned claims from `` two senior administration officials '' that Plame had been the one to suggest sending her husband . Novak had learned of Plame 's employment , which was classified information , from State Department official Richard Armitage . David Corn and others suggested that Armitage and other officials had leaked the information as political retribution for Wilson 's article .   The scandal led to a criminal investigation ; no one was charged for the leak itself . Scooter Libby was convicted of lying to investigators . His prison sentence was ultimately commuted by President Bush .

neg: American upper class The American upper class is a social group consisting of the people who have the highest social rank and who are usually rich . People of this social class are socioeconomically distinguishable from other classes by its greater influence , power , and wealth . The American upper class is composed of members born into this class , called members of Old money ; as well as those who have acquired their wealth and influence within their own generation , called the Nouveau riche . In a CNBC Millionaire Survey it can be observed that a majority of millionaires polled , representing the wealthiest 10 percent of Americans , described themselves as middle class ( 44 % ) or upper middle class ( 40 % ) .   `` The study of attitudes is reasonably easy -LSB- ... -RSB- it 's concluded that for roughly 70 % of the population -- the lower 70 % on the wealth/income scale -- they have no influence on policy whatsoever . They 're effectively disenfranchised . As you move up the wealth/income ladder , you get a little bit more influence on policy . When you get to the top , which is maybe a tenth of one percent , people essentially get what they want , i.e. they determine the policy . So the proper term for that is not democracy ; it 's plutocracy . '' -- Noam Chomsky .   Many Politicians , heirs to fortunes , top business executives , CEOs , successful venture capitalists , those born into high society , and some celebrities may be considered members of this class . Some prominent and high-rung professionals may also be included if they attain great influence and wealth . The main distinguishing feature of this class , which is estimated to constitute roughly 1 % of the population , is the source of income . While the vast majority of people and households derive their income from wages or salaries , those in the upper class derive their income from investments and capital gains . Estimates for the size of this group commonly vary from 1 % to 2 % , while some surveys have indicated that as many as 6 % of Americans identify as `` upper class . '' Sociologist Leonard Beeghley sees wealth as the only significant distinguishing feature of this class and , therefore , refers to this group simply as `` the rich . ''   Sociologists such as W. Lloyd Warner , William Thompson and Joseph Hickey recognize prestige differences between members of the upper class . Established families , prominent professionals and politicians may be deemed to have more prestige than some entertainment celebrities who in turn may have more prestige than the members of local elites . Yet , contemporary sociologists argue that all members of the upper class share such great wealth , influence and assets as their main source of income as to be recognized as members of the same social class . As great financial fortune is the main distinguishing feature of this class , sociologist Leonard Beeghley at the University of Florida identifies all `` rich '' households , those with incomes in the top 1 % or so , as upper class .   In 1998 , Bob Herbert of The New York Times referred to modern American plutocrats as `` The Donor Class '' ( list of top donors ) and defined the class , for the first time , as `` a tiny group -- just one-quarter of 1 percent of the population -- and it is not representative of the rest of the nation . But its money buys plenty of access . ''

neg: Jack Kemp Jack French Kemp ( July 13 , 1935 -- May 2 , 2009 ) was an American politician and a professional gridiron football player . A Republican , he served as Housing Secretary in the administration of President George H. W. Bush from 1989 to 1993 , having previously served nine terms as a congressman for Western New York 's 31st congressional district from 1971 to 1989 . He was the Republican Party 's nominee for Vice President in the 1996 election , where he was the running mate of presidential nominee Bob Dole . Kemp had previously contended for the presidential nomination in the 1988 Republican primaries .   Before entering politics , Kemp was a professional quarterback for 13 years . He played briefly in the National Football League ( NFL ) and the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) , but became a star in the American Football League ( AFL ) . He served as captain of both the San Diego Chargers and Buffalo Bills and earned the AFL Most Valuable Player award in 1965 after leading the Bills to a second consecutive championship . He played in the AFL for all 10 years of its existence , appeared in its All-Star game seven times , played in its championship game five times , and set many of the league 's career passing records . Kemp also co-founded the AFL Players Association , for which he served five terms as president . During the early part of his football career , he served in the United States Army Reserve .   As an economic conservative , Kemp advocated low taxes and supply-side policies during his political career . His positions spanned the social spectrum , ranging from his conservative opposition to abortion to his more libertarian stances advocating immigration reform . As a proponent of both Chicago school and supply-side economics , he is notable as an influence upon the Reagan agenda and the architect of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 , which is known as the Kemp -- Roth tax cut .   After his days in political office , Kemp remained active as a political advocate and commentator , and served on corporate and nonprofit organization boards . He also authored , co-authored , and edited several books . He promoted American football and advocated for retired professional football players . Kemp was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 by President Barack Obama .   He was famously quoted saying , `` We must win the war on poverty by enlisting the greatest weapon ever invented : Free Enterprise '' .

neg: Save the Greenback Act The Save the Greenback Act was legislation proposed , but not passed , in the United States Congress in 1995 and 1997 forbidding the phase-out of the United States one-dollar bill .   It stated simply , `` Notwithstanding any other provision of law , the Secretary of the Treasury and the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System shall take such action as may be necessary to ensure that the number of Federal reserve notes in the denomination of $ 1 which are in circulation at any time does not decrease below the number of such reserve notes in circulation as of the date of the enactment of this Act . ''   In a February 24 , 1995 speech introducing the Save the Greenback Act , Rep. Thomas M. Davis gave several arguments against phasing out the one-dollar bill :  A great number of people 's `` pockets will be weighted down with heavy change instead of having a few bills tucked into their billfolds ... one might suspect a conspiracy by clothing manufacturers in drafting the dollar coin proposal , as everyone 's pockets begin to wear out . ''  Several polls have shown that Americans prefer the one-dollar bill to a dollar coin .  '' -LSB- L -RSB- egislation designed to eliminate the dollar bill will an excuse by the special interests to raise prices on everyday items -- a future sales tax , to be levied on all Americans but falling the hardest on those who can least afford it . ''  The failure of the Susan B. Anthony dollar demonstrated that introduction of a dollar coin does not save the federal government money .  `` The costs of changing to a 1 dollar coin would be significant to many in the private sector including but not limited to the small town banks which would have to retool their coin counting , wrapping and sorting equipment -- costs which would inevitably be passed on to their customers . ''   Notwithstanding these arguments , many people contend that $ 1 is far too low a denomination for a paper note at today 's price levels and point to the example of virtually every other developed country , whose lowest-denomination banknotes are worth several times more . Most vending machines , for example , need to install dollar bill readers because their commodities have become more expensive due to inflation , a problem compounded by the bills ' often being crumpled , torn , or otherwise unreadable .   Furthermore , the continuation of the dollar bill discourages any meaningful reform of the coinage , as people would be slow to use any dollar coin with the dollar bill still around simply out of habit , as proven with the Sacagawea dollar . Lastly , other countries , including the entire Eurozone , Japan , Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom , have successfully made similar transitions .   For comparison , here are the lowest-denomination banknotes of some other developed countries ( with equivalent U.S. dollar value in exchange , as of August 23 , 2015 ) :   In contrast , poorer countries with weaker currencies , such as Argentina or Ukraine , often have low-valued bills because of inflation having eroded their value .

neg: Awards of the United States Department of State The United States Department of State , like other agencies of the U.S. federal government , gives civilian decorations for outstanding service , sacrifice , or heroism . The criteria for the awards are set down in 3 FAM 4820 - Foreign Affairs Manual , 3 FAM - Personnel , section 3 FAM 4800 Department Awards Program .   State Department awards are broken down into four types : honor awards , achievement awards , service awards , and recognition awards . In addition , there are awards which are no longer given but for which certificates , ribbons , or medals may still be occasionally seen .   The Foreign Affairs Manual described the purpose of Department of State honor awards as to `` bestow recognition on an individual or group who has made a significant contribution to the agency 's mission '' and states that `` The honor awards vary in scope and magnitude . The impact of the act or deed which precipitates the nomination must be carefully examined , and consideration given to whether the act to be recognized benefits the post or bureau , the area , the agency , or the Federal Government as a whole . '' Upon authorization , members of the U.S. military may wear the medal and ribbon in the appropriate order of precedence as a U.S. non-military personal decoration .   As delineated in numerous diplomatic cables describing each one , achievement awards recognize specific service over the previous year in a specific field or job category . The majority of the awards include a certificate , signed by the Secretary of State and a cash bonus . The cash bonuses range from zero to $ 10,000 . Some awards are sponsored by private donors , who are often former members of the Foreign Service . There is a minimum requirement for several valid nominations in a category in order for some awards to be presented ; if there are insufficient nominees or the nominations do not meet a specific threshold , then no award is presented that year . Currently , none of the achievement awards includes a medal set .   Service awards are common for the Armed Forces but are not currently favored by the Director General of the Foreign Service . The Department of State currently awards two service awards , the Secretary 's Career Achievement Award and the Expeditionary Service Award . The Expeditionary Service Award is a new award as of 2011 that recognizes service by Civil and Foreign Service employees in areas designated by the Director General of the Foreign Service .

neg: George W. Bush George Walker Bush ( born July 6 , 1946 ) is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 . He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 . After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975 , he worked in the oil industry . Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter . He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . Bush was elected president in 2000 after a close and controversial win over Democratic rival Al Gore , becoming the fourth president to be elected while receiving fewer popular votes than his opponent .   From a prominent political family , he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush , the 41st President of the United States , making him only the second president to assume the nation 's highest office after his father , following the lead of John Quincy Adams . His brother , Jeb Bush , a former Governor of Florida , was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election . His paternal grandfather , Prescott Bush , was a United States Senator from Connecticut .   The September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bush 's first term as president . Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine : launching a `` War on Terror '' , an international military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001 and the Iraq War in 2003 . He also promoted policies on the economy , health care , education , Social Security reform , and amending the Constitution to prohibit same-sex marriage . He signed into law broad tax cuts , the Patriot Act , the No Child Left Behind Act , the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act , Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors , and funding for the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . His tenure included national debates on immigration , Social Security , electronic surveillance , and torture .   In the 2004 Presidential race , Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another relatively close election . After his re-election , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post-World War II recession , often referred to as the `` Great Recession '' , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis .   Bush left office in 2009 , returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford . He wrote a memoir , Decision Points . His presidential library was opened in 2013 . His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians ' polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s .

neg: National Security and Homeland Security Presidential Directive The National Security and Homeland Security Presidential Directive ( National Security Presidential Directive NSPD 51/Homeland Security Presidential Directive HSPD-20 , sometimes called simply `` Executive Directive 51 '' for short ) , created and signed by President of the United States George W. Bush on May 4 , 2007 , is a Presidential Directive which claims power to execute procedures for continuity of the federal government in the event of a `` catastrophic emergency '' . Such an emergency is construed as `` any incident , regardless of location , that results in extraordinary levels of mass casualties , damage , or disruption severely affecting the U.S. population , infrastructure , environment , economy , or government functions . ''   The unclassified portion of the directive was posted on the White House website on May 9 , 2007 , without any further announcement or press briefings , although Special Assistant to George W. Bush Gordon Johndroe answered several questions on the matter when asked about it by members of the press in early June 2007 .

neg: The Gamble (book) The Gamble : General David Petraeus and the American Military Adventure in Iraq , 2006-2008 is a 2009 book by journalist Thomas E. Ricks about the Iraq War . It covers the 2006-2008 period where his last book Fiasco left off . A primary focus is the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 , along with the ascension to command of Gen. David Petraeus and the change in approach of Gen. Ray Odierno towards the use of counter-insurgency strategies . Ricks believes that the troop surge was successful in reducing violence in Iraq and `` reviv -LSB- ing -RSB- American prospects in the war , '' but that it was a failure based on its initial goal of bringing about a political reconciliation in Iraq .   Ricks states in the first chapter of the book ( page 8 ) :   In revisiting the U.S. approach to the Iraq war , Petraeus found tactical success -- that is , improved security -- but not the clear political breakthrough that would have meant unambiguous strategic success . At the end of the surge , the fundamental political problems facing Iraq were the same ones as when it began . At the end of 2008 , two years into the revamped war , there was no prospect of the fighting ending anytime soon . But it was almost certain that whenever it did end , it would n't be with the victory that the Bush administration continued to describe , of an Iraq that was both a stable democracy and an ally of the United States . Nor was that really the goal anymore , though no one had said so publicly . Under Petraeus , the American goal of transforming Iraq had quietly been scaled down . But even his less ambitious target of sustainable security would remain elusive , with no certainty of reaching it anytime soon .   Ricks also predicted that the US will have combat troops in Iraq until at least 2015 , . The last combat troops left with the war 's end in December 2011 , only to return three years later during the American-led intervention in Iraq ( 2014 -- present ) .   Ricks appeared to promote the book on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart on 10 February , 2009 .