query: Dialectic forms in philosophy were innovated by Plato

pos: Plato Plato ( -LSB- ˈpleɪtoʊ -RSB- Greek : Πλάτων Plátōn , -LSB- plá.tɔːn -RSB- in Classical Attic ; 428/427 or 424/423 -- 348/347 BCE ) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens , the first institution of higher learning in the Western world . He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy , especially the Western tradition . Unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries , Plato 's entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years .   Along with his teacher , Socrates , and his most famous student , Aristotle , Plato laid the very foundations of Western philosophy and science . Alfred North Whitehead once noted : `` the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato . '' In addition to being a foundational figure for Western science , philosophy , and mathematics , Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality . Plato 's influence on Christianity is often thought to be mediated by his major influence on Saint Augustine of Hippo , one of the most important philosophers and theologians in the foundation of the Western thought . In the 19th century the philosopher Nietzsche criticized Christianity by saying it 's `` Platonism for the people '' . Numenius of Apamea viewed this differently , he called Plato the Hellenic Moses . This would justify the superiority of Christianity over Hellenism because Moses predates Plato - thus the original source of this wisdom is the root of Christianity and not Hellenistic culture .   Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy . Plato appears to have been the founder of Western political philosophy , with his Republic , and Laws among other dialogues , providing some of the earliest extant treatments of political questions from a philosophical perspective . Plato 's own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been Socrates , Parmenides , Heraclitus and Pythagoras , although few of his predecessors ' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself .   The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Plato as '' ... one of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary tradition and one of the most penetrating , wide-ranging , and influential authors in the history of philosophy . ... He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word `` philosopher '' should be applied . But he was so self-conscious about how philosophy should be conceived , and what its scope and ambitions properly are , and he so transformed the intellectual currents with which he grappled , that the subject of philosophy , as it is often conceived -- a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical , political , metaphysical , and epistemological issues , armed with a distinctive method -- can be called his invention . Few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range : perhaps only Aristotle ( who studied with him ) , Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank . ''

neg: Phaedrus (Athenian) Phaedrus ( -LSB- ˈfiːdrəs , _ ˈfɛdrəs -RSB- ) , son of Pythocles , of the Myrrhinus deme ( Greek : Φαῖδρος Πυθοκλέους Μυρρινούσιος , Phaĩdros Puthocléous Murrinoúsios ; c. 444 -- 393 BCE ) , was an ancient Athenian aristocrat associated with the inner-circle of the philosopher Socrates . He was indicted in the profanation of the Eleusinian mysteries in 415 during the Peloponnesian War , causing him to flee Athens .   He is best remembered for his depiction in the dialogues of Plato . His philosophically erotic role in his eponymous dialogue and the Symposium inspired later authors , from the ancient comedic playwright Alexis to contemporary philosophers like Robert M. Pirsig and Martha Nussbaum .

neg: A Short History of Ethics A Short History of Ethics : A History of Moral Philosophy from the Homeric Age to the Twentieth Century is a 1966 book on the history of moral philosophy by the Scottish philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre . It is the first of a series of books by MacIntyre on the history and development of ethics .   The book covers Greek ethics including Plato and Aristotle , Christian moral thought including the work of Martin Luther and writers including Niccolò Machiavelli , Montesquieu , Edmund Burke , Immanuel Kant , David Hume , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , Karl Marx , Søren Kierkegaard , Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche . MacIntyre also discusses twentieth century philosophers including G. E. Moore , John Dewey and R. M. Hare .   According to a review in The Journal of Philosophy , one of MacIntyre 's primary theses in the book is that `` moral concepts change as social life changes '' and therefore philosophers who believe there is one subject of ethical inquiry are mistaken . A review in the British Journal of Educational Studies describes the book as a `` stimulating , if highly impressionistic , account of the history of ethics written from the point of view of his own convictions about the state of moral concepts '' .   In a review for The Philosophical Review , J. B. Schneewind describes the work as a `` brilliant and provocative book '' that is `` not so much a history of ethics as an essay about the history of ethics '' . Schneewind criticises some elements of the book , noting the absence of any discussion of Henry Sidgwick and also noting MacIntyre 's lack of references or bibliography or of careful exposition of some of the issues of interpretation in the history of ethics .

neg: Silloi Silloi ( Greek plural of σίλλος sillos meaning `` squint-eyed '' ) is a term for a form of philosophical satire or parody in ancient Greek . Silloi are poems written in hexameter ; they originated in this form with Timon of Phlius , circa 250 BC , who composed three books of them ( of which only fragments survive , some 135 verses ) . Xenophanes of Colophon had written philosophical satire earlier , but Timon is given credit for the silloi form . In general , although there was some personalized satire , Timon 's verses mainly satirized the philosophies of other philosophers , and not the philosophers themselves .

neg: Linguistic system The idea of language as a ` system ' appears in the linguistic theory of Ferdinand de Saussure , J.R. Firth , Benjamin Lee Whorf , Louis Hjelmslev and Michael Halliday .   The paradigmatic principle - the idea that the process of using language involves choosing from a specifiable set of options - was established in semiotics by Saussure , whose concept of value ( viz `` valeur '' ) , and of signs as terms in a system , `` showed up paradigmatic organization as the most abstract dimension of meaning ''

neg: Timeline of Shakespeare criticism Timeline of Shakespeare criticism is an informal term that presents a chronological collection of critical quotations about William Shakespeare and his works , which illustrate the article Shakespeare 's reputation .   Shakespeare enjoyed recognition in his own time , but in the 17th century , poets and authors began to consider him as the supreme dramatist and poet of all times of the English language . In fact , even today , no other dramatist has been performed even remotely as often on the British ( and later the world ) stage as Shakespeare   Since then , several editors and critics of theater began to focus on the dramatic text and the language of Shakespeare , creating a study that focused on extracting all the power of his literary texts , being used in studies on the printed page rather than in the theater . This attitude reached a high point with the Romantics , which saw his figure as a genius , prophet , and Bard -- and continued important in the last century , receiving analysis not only by poets and authors , but also by psychoanalysts , psychologists and philosophers .

neg: Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy is a book by Bertrand Russell , published in 1919 , written in part to exposit in a less technical way the main ideas of his and Whitehead 's Principia Mathematica ( 1910 -- 1913 ) , including the theory of descriptions .   Mathematics and logic , historically speaking , have been entirely distinct studies . Mathematics has been connected with science , logic with Greek . But both have developed in modern times : logic has become more mathematical and mathematics has become more logical . The consequence is that it has now become wholly impossible to draw a line between the two ; in fact , the two are one . They differ as boy and man : logic is the youth of mathematics and mathematics is the manhood of logic . This view is resented by logicians who , having spent their time in the study of classical texts , are incapable of following a piece of symbolic reasoning , and by mathematicians who have learnt a technique without troubling to inquire into its meaning or justification . Both types are now fortunately growing rarer . So much of modern mathematical work is obviously on the border-line of logic , so much of modern logic is symbolic and formal , that the very close relationship of logic and mathematics has become obvious to every instructed student . The proof of their identity is , of course , a matter of detail : starting with premises which would be universally admitted to belong to logic , and arriving by deduction at results which as obviously belong to mathematics , we find that there is no point at which a sharp line can be drawn , with logic to the left and mathematics to the right . If there are still those who do not admit the identity of logic and mathematics , we may challenge them to indicate at what point , in the successive definitions and deductions of Principia Mathematica , they consider that logic ends and mathematics begins . It will then be obvious that any answer must be quite arbitrary . ( Russell 1919 , 194 -- 195 ) .

neg: Discourse on Metaphysics The Discourse on Metaphysics ( Discours de métaphysique , 1686 ) is a short treatise by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in which he develops a philosophy concerning physical substance , motion and resistance of bodies , and God 's role within the universe . It is one of the few texts presenting in a consistent form the earlier philosophy of Leibniz .   The Discourse is closely connected to the epistolary discussion which he carried with Antoine Arnauld . However Leibniz refrained from sending the full text and it remained unpublished until the mid 19th century . Arnauld received only an abridged version in 37 points which resumed whole paragraphs and steered their discussion .   The metaphysical considerations proceed from God to the substantial world and back to the spiritual realm . The starting point for the work is the conception of God as an absolutely perfect being ( I ) , that God is good but goodness exists independently of God ( a rejection of divine command theory ) ( II ) , and that God has created the world in an ordered and perfect fashion ( III -- VII ) .   At the time of its writing Discourse made the controversial claim That the opinions of ... scholastic philosophers are not to be wholly despised ( XI ) . Early work in modern philosophy during the 17th century were based on a rejection of many of the precepts of medieval philosophy . Leibniz saw the failures of scholasticism merely as one of rigor . -LSB- If -RSB- some careful and meditative mind were to take the trouble to clarify and direct their thoughts in the manner of analytic geometers , he would find a great treasure of important truths , wholly demonstrable .   Leibniz claimed that God 's omnipotence was in no way impugned by the thought of evil , but was rather solidified . He endorsed the view that God chose the best of all possible worlds . In other words , Leibniz believed this world ( or reality ) to be the best there possibly could be -- taking all facts into account , no better world could be imagined , even if we believed that we could think of something more perfect .   Leibniz 's conception of physical substance is expanded upon in The Monadology .

neg: Mind–body problem The mind -- body problem is the question of how the human mind and body can causally interact . This question arises when mind and body are considered as distinct , based on the premise that the mind and the body are fundamentally different in nature .   The problem was addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century , resulting in Cartesian dualism , and by pre-Aristotelian philosophers , in Avicennian philosophy , and in earlier Asian traditions . A variety of approaches have been proposed . Most are either dualist or monist . Dualism maintains a rigid distinction between the realms of mind and matter . Monism maintains that there is only one unifying reality , substance or essence in terms of which everything can be explained .   Each of these categories contain numerous variants . The two main forms of dualism are substance dualism , which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics , and property dualism , which holds that mental properties involving conscious experience are fundamental properties , alongside the fundamental properties identified by a completed physics . The three main forms of monism are physicalism , which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular way ; idealism , which holds that only thought truly exists and matter is merely an illusion ; and neutral monism , which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them .   Several philosophical perspectives have been developed which reject the mind -- body dichotomy . The historical materialism of Karl Marx and subsequent writers , itself a form of physicalism , held that consciousness was engendered by the material contingencies of one 's environment . An explicit rejection of the dichotomy is found in French structuralism , and is a position that generally characterized post-war French philosophy .   The absence of an empirically identifiable meeting point between the non-physical mind and its physical extension has proven problematic to dualism and many modern philosophers of mind maintain that the mind is not something separate from the body . These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences , particularly in the fields of sociobiology , computer science , evolutionary psychology , and the neurosciences .   An ancient model of the mind known as the Five-Aggregate Model explains the mind as continuously changing sense impressions and mental phenomena . Considering this model , it is possible to understand that it is the constantly changing sense impressions and mental phenomena ( i.e. , the mind ) that experiences/analyzes all external phenomena in the world as well as all internal phenomena including the body anatomy , the nervous system as well as the organ brain . This conceptualization leads to two levels of analyses : ( i ) analyses conducted from a third-person perspective on how the brain works , and ( ii ) analyzing the moment-to-moment manifestation of an individual 's mind-stream ( analyses conducted from a first-person perspective ) . Considering the latter , the manifestation of the mind-stream is described as happening in every person all the time , even in a scientist who analyses various phenomena in the world , including analyzing and hypothesizing about the organ brain .

neg: Dialectic Dialectic or dialectics ( διαλεκτική , dialektikḗ ) , also known as the dialectical method , is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments .   The term dialectic is not synonymous with the term debate . While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view , in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgment . Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent , proving one 's argument correct , and proving the opponent 's argument incorrect . Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser ; however , clear winners are frequently determined by a judge , a jury or group consensus . The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric , a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade , inform , or motivate an audience . Concepts , like `` logos '' or rational appeal , `` pathos '' or emotional appeal , and `` ethos '' or ethical appeal , are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience .   Socrates favoured truth as the highest value , proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion : ergo , dialectic . Socrates valued rationality ( appealing to logic , not emotion ) as the proper means for persuasion , the discovery of truth , and the determinant for one 's actions . To Socrates , truth , not aretē ( moral virtue ) , was the greater good , and each person should , above all else , seek truth to guide one 's life . Therefore , Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof . Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the Indosphere ( Greater India ) and the West ( Europe ) . These forms include the Socratic method , Hindu , Buddhist , Medieval , Hegelian dialectics , Marxist , Talmudic , and Neo-orthodoxy .

neg: Language Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication , particularly the human ability to do so , and a language is any specific example of such a system . The scientific study of language is called linguistics . Questions concerning the philosophy of language , such as whether words can represent experience , have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece . Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought . 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language . Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky .   Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000 . However , any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects . Natural languages are spoken or signed , but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory , visual , or tactile stimuli -- for example , in whistling , signed , or braille . This is because human language is modality-independent . Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning , when used as a general concept , `` language '' may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication , or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems , or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules . All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings . Oral , manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes , and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances .   Human language has the properties of productivity and displacement , and relies entirely on social convention and learning . Its complex structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication . Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems , acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality . This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume , and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions . Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain , but especially in Broca 's and Wernicke 's areas . Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood , and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old . The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture . Therefore , in addition to its strictly communicative uses , language also has many social and cultural uses , such as signifying group identity , social stratification , as well as social grooming and entertainment .   Languages evolve and diversify over time , and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur . A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family . The Indo-European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages as diverse as English , Russian and Hindi ; the Sino-Tibetan family , which includes Mandarin , Bodo and the other Chinese languages , and Tibetan ; the Afro-Asiatic family , which includes Arabic , Somali , and Hebrew ; the Bantu languages , which include Swahili , and Zulu , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa ; and the Malayo-Polynesian languages , which include Indonesian , Malay , Tagalog , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific . The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu . Academic consensus holds that between 50 % and 90 % of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100 .

neg: Commonplace book Commonplace books ( or commonplaces ) are a way to compile knowledge , usually by writing information into books . Such books are essentially scrapbooks filled with items of every kind : recipes , quotes , letters , poems , tables of weights and measures , proverbs , prayers , legal formulas . Commonplaces are used by readers , writers , students , and scholars as an aid for remembering useful concepts or facts they have learned . Each commonplace book is unique to its creator 's particular interests . They became significant in Early Modern Europe .   `` Commonplace '' is a translation of the Latin term locus communis ( from Greek tópos koinós , see literary topos ) which means `` a theme or argument of general application '' , such as a statement of proverbial wisdom . In this original sense , commonplace books were collections of such sayings , such as John Milton 's commonplace book . Scholars have expanded this usage to include any manuscript that collects material along a common theme by an individual .   Commonplace books are not diaries nor  travelogues , with which they can be contrasted :  English Enlightenment philosopher John Locke wrote the 1706 book A New Method of Making Common-Place-Books , `` in which techniques for entering proverbs , quotations , ideas , speeches were formulated . Locke gave specific advice on how to arrange material by subject and category , using such key topics as love , politics , or religion . Commonplace books , it must be stressed , are not journals , which are chronological and introspective . ''   By the early eighteenth century they had become an information management device in which a note-taker stored quotations , observations and definitions . They were even used by influential scientists . Carl Linnaeus , for instance , used commonplacing techniques to invent and arrange the nomenclature of his Systema Naturae ( which is the basis for the system used by scientists today ) .

neg: Life imitating art Anti-mimesis is a philosophical position that holds the direct opposite of Aristotelian mimesis . Its most notable proponent is Oscar Wilde , who opined in his 1889 essay The Decay of Lying that , `` Life imitates Art far more than Art imitates Life '' . In the essay , written as a Platonic dialogue , Wilde holds that anti-mimesis `` results not merely from Life 's imitative instinct , but from the fact that the self-conscious aim of Life is to find expression , and that Art offers it certain beautiful forms through which it may realise that energy . '' .   What is found in life and nature is not what is really there , but is that which artists have taught people to find there , through art . As in an example posited by Wilde , although there has been fog in London for centuries , one notices the beauty and wonder of the fog because `` poets and painters have taught the loveliness of such effects ... They did not exist till Art had invented them . '' .   McGrath places the antimimetic philosophy in a tradition of Irish writing , including Wilde and writers such as Synge and Joyce in a group that `` elevate blarney ( in the form of linguistic idealism ) to aesthetic and philosophical distinction '' , noting that Terry Eagleton observes an even longer tradition that stretches `` as far back in Irish thought as the ninth-century theology of John Scottus Eriugena '' and `` the fantastic hyperbole of the ancient sagas '' . Wilde 's antimimetic idealism , specifically , McGrath describes to be part of the late nineteenth century debate between Romanticism and Realism . Wilde 's antimimetic philosophy has also had influence on later Irish writers , including Brian Friel .   Halliwell asserts that the idea that life imitates art derives from classical notions that can be traced as far back as the writings of Aristophanes of Byzantium , and does not negate mimesis but rather `` displace -LSB- s -RSB- its purpose onto the artlike fashioning of life itself '' . Halliwell draws a parallel between Wilde 's philosophy and Aristophanes ' famous question about the comedies written by Menander : `` O Menander and Life ! Which of you took the other as your model ? '' , noting , however , that Aristophanes was a precursor to Wilde , and not necessarily espousing the positions that Wilde was later to propound .   In George Bernard Shaw 's preface to Three Plays he wrote , `` I have noticed that when a certain type of feature appears in painting and is admired as beautiful , it presently becomes common in nature ; so that the Beatrices and Francescas in the picture galleries of one generation come to life as the parlor-maids and waitresses of the next . '' He stated that he created the aristocratic characters in Cashel Byron 's Profession as unrealistically priggish even without his later understanding that `` the real world does not exist ... men and women are made by their own fancies in the image of the imaginary creatures in my youthful fictions , only much stupider . '' Shaw , however , disagreed with Wilde on some points . He considered most attempts by life to imitate art to be reprehensible , in part because the art that people generally chose to imitate was idealistic and romanticized .   An example of life imitating art is that of singer/actress Miley Cyrus , whose role as the famous fictional popstar Hannah Montana in the Disney Channel sitcom of the same name gave rise to her own singing career . Hannah 's fictional popularity translated into a real-life fan-base for Cyrus as several singles credited to the character charted on the Billboard Hot 100 ( including `` The Best of Both Worlds '' , `` Life 's What You Make It '' , `` He Could Be the One '' , etc , though all of the songs were performed by Cyrus ) and when she embarked on her sold-out Best of Both Worlds Tour in 2007 , where she performed the first set of songs as Hannah Montana and the second set as herself . Cyrus ' song `` The Climb '' was the first song , credited to herself instead of the character , from an official Hannah Montana soundtrack album to become a hit single ( peaking at # 4 on the Billboard charts , making it her `` crossover song '' into mainstream pop , while Hoedown Throwdown ( off the same soundtrack album ) was her first Top 10 . Cyrus also performed several duets on the show while in-character as Hannah with real-life singers such as Sheryl Crow , David Archuleta , The Jonas Brothers , Iyaz and her real-life father Billy Ray Cyrus , as well as an unofficial duet with her real-life godmother country singer Dolly Parton .

neg: Hippias Hippias of Elis ( -LSB- ˈhɪpiəs -RSB- Ἱππίας ὁ Ἠλεῖος late 5th century BC ) was a Greek sophist , and a contemporary of Socrates . With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists , he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects , and lectured on poetry , grammar , history , politics , mathematics , and much else . Most of our knowledge of him is derived from Plato , who characterizes him as vain and arrogant .

neg: Index of philosophy of science articles This is a list of articles in philosophy of science .   A-series and B-series  A New Model of the Universe  Abductive reasoning  Abner Shimony  Abstinence  Adolf Grünbaum  Alan Turing  Albert Einstein  Alexandre Koyré  Alfred Jules Ayer  Alfred North Whitehead  Alfred Wilm  Alison Wylie  Altruism  André-Marie Ampère  Andreas Speiser  Androcentrism  Anthropic principle  Anti-Supernaturalism  Antiscience  Anton Kržan  Approximation  Archimedes  Aristotelian physics  Arthur Fine  Arthur Pap  Artificial consciousness  Artificial intelligence  Asa Gray  Atomism  Augustine Eriugena  Avicenna  Barry Loewer  Bas van Fraassen  Bayesian probability  Behaviorism  Berlin Circle  Bernard d'Espagnat  Bertrand Russell  Biological determinism  Biological imperative  Blockhead ( computer system )  Bohr -- Einstein debates  Bonifaty Kedrov  Boris Hessen  C. D. Broad  Cargo cult science  Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker  Carl Gustav Hempel  Carl Linnaeus  Carlos Castrodeza  Carnap -- Ramsey sentence  Causality  Centre for History and Philosophy of Science , University of Leeds  Christopher Potter ( author )  Classical mechanics  Classification of the sciences ( Peirce )  Claus Emmeche  Closed circle  Cognitive science  Commensurability ( philosophy of science )  Computational humor  Computer ethics  Confirmation holism  Conjecture  Conjectures and Refutations  Connectionism  Consciousness  Conservation biology  Constantin Noica  Construct ( philosophy of science )  Constructive empiricism  Constructive realism  Contextual empiricism  Conventionalism  Copernican Revolution ( metaphor )  Crabtree 's bludgeon  Critical realism  Daniel Chandler  Data system  David Hilbert  David Hull  David N. Stamos  David Papineau  David Stenhouse  Dawkins vs. Gould  Decision theory  Deductive-nomological model  Demarcation problem  Democratic Rationalization  Determinism  Deterministic system ( philosophy )  Dominique Lecourt  Don Ihde  Ecology  Edward Grant  Edward Jones-Imhotep  Edward S. Reed  Elisabeth Lloyd  Elliott Sober  Emergence  Émile Meyerson  Empirical method  Empirical relationship  Empirical research  Empiricism  Entity realism  Epicurus  Epistemological anarchism  Epistemological rupture  Epistemology  Eric Higgs ( philosopher )  Ernest Nagel  Ernst Mach  Ernst W. Mayr  Ervin László  Erwin Schrödinger  Ethics of artificial intelligence  Ethics of technology  Ethics of terraforming  Eugenics  Evelyn Fox Keller  Evolution  Evolutionary epistemology  Evolutionary logic  Evolutionary psychology  Experiment  Experimenter 's bias  Explanation  Explanatory gap  Explanatory power  Eyewitness testimony  Fact , Fiction , and Forecast  Faith , Science and Understanding  Falsifiability  Faraday Institute for Science and Religion  Fatalism  Federico Cesi  Francis Bacon  Frank P. Ramsey  Frederick Suppe  Friedrich Kambartel  Friedrich von Hayek  Friedrich Waismann  Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling  Fringe science  Fritjof Capra  Functional contextualism  Galileo Galilei  Game theory  Gaston Bachelard  Genidentity  Geoffrey Hellman  Geohumoral theory  Gerald Holton  Gerard Verschuuren  Gerd Buchdahl  God of the gaps  Great chain of being  Greedy reductionism  Gunther Stent  Gustav Bergmann  Hans Hahn  Hans Reichenbach  Harvey Brown ( philosopher )  Helen Longino  Henri Poincaré  Henry Margenau  Henry Moyes  Herbert Feigl  Herbert Spencer  Heroic theory of invention and scientific development  Hilary Putnam  History and philosophy of science  History of evolutionary thought  History of the Church -- Turing thesis  Horror vacui ( physics )  Hossein Nasr  Hugh Everett III  Hugo Dingler  Ian Hacking  Ignoramus et ignorabimus  Ilkka Niiniluoto  Immunology  Implications of nanotechnology  Imre Lakatos  Indeterminacy ( philosophy )  Individual  Inductive reasoning  Inductivism  Infinite regress  Information ethics  Ingenuity  Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies  Instrumentalism  Intentionality  Internalism and externalism  International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility  Internet ethics  Introspection  Ionian Enlightenment  Irreversibility  Is logic empirical ?  Isaac Newton  Jakob Friedrich Fries  James G. Lennox  James Robert Brown  Jean Cavaillès  Jerome Ravetz  Jerzy Giedymin  Jesús Mosterín  Joachim Jungius  John Beatty ( philosopher )  John Bulwer  John Earman  John L. Pollock  John Lennox  John Searle  John von Neumann  John Weckert  John Worrall ( philosopher )  Jordi Pigem  Joseph Henry Woodger  Jules Vuillemin  Jürgen Mittelstraß  Karl Jaspers  Karl Popper  Kinetic theory  Kurt Riezler  Kyle Stanford  Larry Laudan  Leonardo Moledo  Lindley Darden  List of philosophers of science  Logical positivism  Louis Rougier  Luddite  Ludwik Fleck  Mariano Artigas  Mario Bunge  Marx W. Wartofsky  Mary Hesse  Mary Tiles  Matteo Campani-Alimenis  Mauricio Suarez  Max Bense  Max Black  Maxwell 's demon  Measurement in quantum mechanics  Mechanism ( philosophy )  Mediocrity principle  Meera Nanda  Methodological individualism  Michael Oakeshott  Michael Ruse  Michael Scriven  Michel Bitbol  Miura Baien  Models of scientific inquiry  Modern Physics and Ancient Faith  Molecular biology  Molyneux 's Problem  Moravec 's paradox  Moritz Schlick  Multiple discovery  Myth of Progress  Naïve empiricism  Nancy Cartwright ( philosopher )  Natural law  Natural philosophy  Natural selection  Nature ( philosophy )  Neo-Luddism  Neuroethics  Neuroscience  Neven Sesardic  Newton 's flaming laser sword  Newtonianism  Niels Bohr  Noam Chomsky  Norman Swartz  Norwood Russell Hanson  Not even wrong  Novum Organum  Objectivity ( science )  Observation  Occam 's razor  Olavo de Carvalho  Omnology  Operational definition  Operationalization  Otto Neurath  Oxford Calculators  Paradigm  Paradigm shift  Parsimony  Particle physics  Paul Feyerabend  Paul Häberlin  Perception  Percy Williams Bridgman  Peripatetic axiom  Pessimistic induction  Peter Achinstein  Peter J. Lewis  Phenomenalism  Philip Kitcher  Philip Mirowski  Philipp Frank  Phillip H. Wiebe  Philosophical interpretation of classical physics  Philosophy of artificial intelligence  Philosophy of biology  Philosophy of chemistry  Philosophy of computer science  Philosophy of economics  Philosophy of engineering  Philosophy of information  Philosophy of mathematics  Philosophy of physics  Philosophy of psychology  Philosophy of science  Philosophy of Science Association  Philosophy of social science  Philosophy of space and time  Philosophy of statistics  Philosophy of technology  Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics  Physical law  Physicalism  Physics envy  Pierre Duhem  Pierre Gassendi  Popper 's experiment  Popper and After  Positivism  Post-positivist  Pragmatism  Prediction  Principle of uniformity  Probability  Problem of induction  Pseudoscience  Psychological nominalism  Psychologism  Ptolemy  Quantity  Quantum field theory  Quantum indeterminacy  Quantum logic  Quantum mechanics  R. B. Braithwaite  Raimo Tuomela  Ramsey -- Lewis method  Rational reconstruction  Reasonable doubt  Received view of theories  Reductionism  Regulation of science  Relationship between religion and science  Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory  René Descartes  Retrocausality  Richard Boyd  Richard Swinburne  Robert Grosseteste  Robert Kilwardby  Roberto Refinetti  Robin O. Andreasen  Roboethics  Roger Bacon  Roger Penrose  Rose Rand  Rudolf Carnap  Sandra Mitchell  Science  Science and Christian Belief  Scientific Communism  Scientific essentialism  Scientific law  Scientific misconduct  Scientific modelling  Scientific progress  Scientific realism  Scientific revolution  Scientific theory  Scientism  Scientistic materialism  Scientists for Global Responsibility  Semantic view of theories  Sense data  Sherrilyn Roush  Social constructionism  Space  Spacetime  Species  Stephen Mulhall  Stephen Toulmin  Steve Fuller ( sociologist )  Structuralism ( philosophy of science )  Supervenience  Susan Oyama  Taketani Mitsuo  Technocriticism  Technological determinism  Technological Somnambulism  Technorealism  Temporal finitism  The Incoherence of the Philosophers  The Logic of Scientific Discovery  The Relativity of Wrong  The Selfish Genius  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions  The Two Cultures  The Value of Science  Theoretical definition  Theory  Theory choice  Thomas Samuel Kuhn  Thucydides  Time  Uncertainty principle  Unified Science  Uniformitarianism  Unity of science  Universe  Varadaraja V. Raman  Verificationism  Verisimilitude  Victor Kraft  Victoria Institute  Vienna Circle  Voodoo science  Werner Heisenberg  Wesley C. Salmon  What Is This Thing Called Science ?  Whitny Braun  Wilhelm Windelband  Wilhelm Wundt  Willard Van Orman Quine  Willem B. Drees  William Irwin Thompson  William Newton-Smith  William W. Tait  William Whewell  Wolfgang Smith  Wolfgang Stegmüller  Wronger than wrong  Xu Liangying  Yoichiro Murakami  Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance    Science

neg: Philosophical theory In the general sense , a philosophical position is a set of beliefs that explains or accounts for a general philosophy or specific branch of philosophy . The use of the term theory here is a statement of colloquial English and not reflective of the term theory . While any sort of thesis or opinion may be termed a position , in analytic philosophy it is thought best to reserve the word `` theory '' for systematic , comprehensive attempts to solve problems .

neg: The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity : Twelve Lectures ( Der Philosophische Diskurs der Moderne : Zwölf Vorlesungen ) is a 1985 book by Jürgen Habermas , in which the author reconstructs and deals in depth with a number of philosophical approaches to the critique of modern reason and the Enlightenment `` project '' since Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Nietzsche , including the work of 20th century philosophers Max Horkheimer , Theodor Adorno , Martin Heidegger , Michel Foucault , Jacques Derrida , Cornelius Castoriadis and Niklas Luhmann . The work is regarded as an important contribution to Frankfurt School critical theory . It has been characterized as a critical ( largely negative ) evaluation of the concept of world disclosure in modern philosophy .   An English translation by Frederick G. Lawrence was published in 1987 . A French translation by Christian Bouchindhomme and Rainer Rochlitz was published in 1988 .

neg: Dialogues (Gilles Deleuze) Dialogues ( Dialogues ) is a 1977 book in which Gilles Deleuze examines his philosophical pluralism in a series of discussions with Claire Parnet . It is widely read as an accessible and personable introduction to Deleuze 's philosophy along with Negotiations . The book contains an exposition of Deleuze 's concepts and methodologies in which he thinks of newer ways to liberate life .   The book has been translated into English by Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam .   The Continuum and Columbia University Press editions have the brief essay `` The Actual and the Virtual '' in which Deleuze outlines an ontology of the virtual .

neg: Sophist (dialogue) The Sophist ( Σοφιστής Sophista ) is a Platonic dialogue from the philosopher 's late period , most likely written in 360 BC . Its main theme is to identify what a sophist is and how a sophist differs from a philosopher and statesman . Because each seems distinguished by a particular form of knowledge , the dialogue continues some of the lines of inquiry pursued in the epistemological dialogue , Theaetetus , which is said to have taken place the day before . Because the Sophist treats these matters , it is often taken to shed light on Plato 's Theory of Forms and is compared with the Parmenides , which criticized what is often taken to be the theory of forms .   The dialogue is unusual in being one of three that do not feature Socrates , although as in its sequel , the Statesman , he is present to play a minor role ( the other dialogue is the Laws ) . Instead , the Eleatic Stranger takes the lead in the discussion . The fact that Socrates is present but silent makes it difficult to attribute the views put forward by the Eleatic Stranger to Plato , beyond the difficulty inherent in taking any character to be an author 's `` mouthpiece . ''

neg: Protagoras (dialogue) Protagoras ( -LSB- proʊˈtæɡərəs -RSB- Πρωταγόρας ) is a dialogue by Plato . The traditional subtitle ( which may or may not be Plato 's ) is `` or the Sophists '' . The main argument is between the elderly Protagoras , a celebrated Sophist , and Socrates . The discussion takes place at the home of Callias , who is host to Protagoras while he is in town , and concerns the nature of Sophists , the unity and the teachability of virtue . A total of twenty-one people are named as present .

neg: Hobbes–Wallis controversy The Hobbes -- Wallis controversy was a polemic debate that continued from the mid-1650s well into the 1670s , between the philosopher Thomas Hobbes and the mathematician John Wallis . It was sparked by De corpore , a philosophical work by Hobbes in the general area of physics . The book contained not only a theory of mathematics subordinating it to geometry and geometry to kinematics , but a claimed proof of the squaring of the circle by Hobbes . While Hobbes retracted this particular proof , he returned to the topic with other attempted proofs . A pamphleteering exchange continued for decades . It drew in the newly formed Royal Society , and its experimental philosophy , to which Hobbes was ( on principle ) opposed .   The sustained nature of the exchanges can be attributed to several strands of the intellectual situation of the time . In mathematics there were open issues , namely the priority ( pedagogic , or theoretical ) to be assigned to geometry and algebra ; and the status of algebra itself , which ( from an English standpoint ) had been pulled together by the text of William Oughtred , as more than a collection of symbolic abbreviations . Socially , the formation of the group of Royal Society members , and the status of the publication Philosophical Transactions , was brought to a point as the quarrel proceeded , with Hobbes playing the outsider versus the self-selecting guild .   Hobbes was an easy target , on the ground chosen by Wallis . The failure of his attempts to solve the impossible problems he set himself were inevitable , but he neither backed down completely , nor applied adequate self-criticism . And on the level of character , Wallis was as intransigent as Hobbes was dogmatic , and this inflicted damage on both of their reputations . Quentin Skinner writes : `` There is no doubt that at the personal level Wallis behaved badly ( as was widely conceded at the time ) . ''   Part of the significance of the controversy is that Hobbes felt that , in the later stages , the Royal Society was in some way complicit in the attacks from Wallis , despite the fact that he had many friends as Fellows in it . This attitude presented one of the obstacles to Hobbes himself becoming a member , though not the only one .


query: One of Austria's nine states is Vienna.

pos: Vienna Vienna ( -LSB- viˈɛnə -RSB- Wien , -LSB- viːn -RSB- ) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria . Vienna is Austria 's primary city , with a population of about 1.8 million ( 2.6 million within the metropolitan area , nearly one third of Austria 's population ) , and its cultural , economic , and political centre . It is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union . Until the beginning of the 20th century , it was the largest German-speaking city in the world , and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I , the city had 2 million inhabitants . Today , it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin . Vienna is host to many major international organizations , including the United Nations and OPEC . The city is located in the eastern part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic , Slovakia , and Hungary . These regions work together in a European Centrope border region . Along with nearby Bratislava , Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants . In 2001 , the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site .   Apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy , Vienna is also said to be `` The City of Dreams '' because it was home to the world 's first psycho-analyst -- Sigmund Freud . The city 's roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city , and then the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . It is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre , from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century . The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles , including Baroque castles and gardens , and the late-19th-century Ringstraße lined with grand buildings , monuments and parks .   Vienna is known for its high quality of life . In a 2005 study of 127 world cities , the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first ( in a tie with Vancouver , Canada and San Francisco , USA ) for the world 's most liveable cities . Between 2011 and 2015 , Vienna was ranked second , behind Melbourne , Australia .  For eight consecutive years ( 2009 -- 2016 ) , the human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Vienna first in its annual `` Quality of Living '' survey of hundreds of cities around the world , a title the city still held in 2016 . Monocle 's 2015 `` Quality of Life Survey '' ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world `` to make a base within . ''   The UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013 .  The city was ranked 1st globally for its culture of innovation in 2007 and 2008 , and sixth globally ( out of 256 cities ) in the 2014 Innovation Cities Index , which analyzed 162 indicators in covering three areas : culture , infrastructure , and markets . Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is often used as a case study by urban planners .   Between 2005 and 2010 , Vienna was the world 's number-one destination for international congresses and conventions . It attracts over 6.8 million tourists a year .

neg: Bundespräsidentenstichwahlwiederholungsverschiebung `` Bundespräsidentenstichwahlwiederholungsverschiebung '' has been chosen as Austria 's Word of the Year 2016 by academics . Roughly translated to `` Federal-President-runoff-vote-repeat-postponement '' , the word gained recognition during the lengthy presidential election in 2016 . The Runner-Ups `` Bundesheinzi '' , which is a combination of `` Bundespräsident '' ( president ) and the passing president Heinz Fischer 's first name , and `` arschknapp '' ( `` damn '' close ) were also heavily influenced by Austrian politics in 2016 .

neg: Unterdöbling Unterdöbling was an independent municipality until 1892 and is today a part of Döbling , the 19th district of Vienna . It is also one of the 89 Katastralgemeinden .

neg: Austria–India relations Austria -- India relations refers to the bilateral ties between Austria and India . Indo-Austrian relations were established in May 1949 by the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru and the Chancellor of Austria Leopold Figl . Historically , Indo-Austrian ties have been particularly strong and India intervened in June 1953 in Austria 's favour while negotiations were going on with Soviet Union about the Austrian State Treaty . There is an Indian embassy in Vienna , Austria 's capital , which is concurrently accredited to the United Nations offices in the city . Austria is represented in India by its embassy and Trade commission in New Delhi , India 's capital , as well as Honorary Consulates in Mumbai , Kolkata , Chennai and Goa .

neg: Vienna Station Vienna Station may refer to :   Railway stations  In Vienna , Austria :  Wien Hauptbahnhof -- main station  Wien Mitte railway station -- central station ( no intercity connections )  Elsewhere :  Vienna Station , Warsaw , Poland -- terminus of the Warsaw -- Vienna railway  Vienna Station ( Virginia ) , a Washington Metro station in Fairfax County , Virginia , USA  Vienna ( VTA ) , Sunnyvale , California , USA   Other  Vienna Station , Kentucky -- former name for the city of Calhoun , Kentucky , USA

neg: Slovaks in Austria Slovaks in Austria have a history dating back to the early centuries of the Common Era . Currently , there are 35,326 Slovaks in Austria as of 2016 . Large communities of Slovaks can be found in Vienna and Lower Austria , with a smaller community in Styria .

neg: Stadttempel The Stadttempel ( City Prayer House ) , also called the Seitenstettengasse Temple , is the main synagogue of Vienna , Austria . It is located in the Innere Stadt 1st district , at Seitenstettengasse 4 .

neg: History of Austria The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states , from the early Stone Age to the present state . The name Ostarrîchi ( Austria ) has been in use since 996 AD when it was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria and from 1156 an independent duchy ( later archduchy ) of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation ( Heiliges Römisches Reich 962 -- 1806 ) .   Austria was dominated by the House of Habsburg ( Haus Österreich ) from 1273 to 1806 , when the Holy Roman Empire came to an end . Austria then became the Austrian Empire , a part of the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 , which Austria lost and was subsequently excluded from German affairs . In 1867 Austria formed with Hungary as a dual monarchy the Austro-Hungarian Empire ( 1867 -- 1918 ) . When this empire collapsed after the end of World War I in 1918 , Austria was reduced to the main German speaking areas of the empire ( its current frontiers ) , and adopted the name The Republic of German-Austria , with hope of joining the new German Weimar Republic . However the union and name were forbidden by the Allies at the Treaty of Versailles . This led to the creation of the First Austrian Republic ( 1918-1933 ) .   Following the First Republic , Austrofascism tried to keep Austria independent from the German Reich . Engelbert Dollfuss accepted that Austrians were Germans but wanted Austria to remain independent from a Protestant Germany . In 1938 Austrian-born Adolf Hitler annexed Austria to the German Reich with the Anschluss , which was supported by a large majority of the Austrian people . After the Second World War Austria again became an independent republic as the Second Republic in 1955 and joined the European Union in 1995 .

neg: Waldviertel The Waldviertel ( Forest Quarter ) is the northwestern region of the Austrian state of Lower Austria . It is bounded to the south by the Danube , to the southwest by Upper Austria , to the northwest and the north by the Czech Republic and to the east by the Manhartsberg ( 537 m ) , which is the survey point dividing Waldviertel from Weinviertel .

neg: Freedom Party of Austria The Freedom Party of Austria ( Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs , FPÖ ) is a right-wing populist and national-conservative political party in Austria . The party , led by Heinz-Christian Strache , is a member of the Europe of Nations and Freedom group in the European Parliament , as well as of the Movement for a Europe of Nations and Freedom .   The FPÖ was founded in 1956 as the successor to the short-lived Federation of Independents ( VdU ) , representing the `` Third Camp '' of Austrian politics , i.e. pan-Germanists and national liberals opposed to both socialism and Catholic clericalism . The party 's first leader was Anton Reinthaller , a former Nazi functionary and SS officer . The FPÖ , a third party with modest support , was admitted to the Liberal International ( LI ) in 1979 and participated in a government led by the Social Democratic Party ( SPÖ ) , following the 1983 legislative election . When Jörg Haider was chosen as new FPÖ leader in 1986 , the party started an ideological turn towards right-wing populism . This new political course soon resulted in a strong surge in electoral support , although it also led the SPÖ to break ties . In 1993 , after a controversial proposal on immigration issues , the adherents of a position closer to classical liberalism broke away from the FPÖ and formed the Liberal Forum ( LiF ) , which took over the FPÖ 's membership in the LI ( since the FPÖ considered itself forced to leave ) and would later eventually merge into NEOS .   In the 1999 legislative election the FPÖ won 26.9 % of the vote , its best-ever result in a nationwide election , and came ahead of the Austrian People 's Party ( ÖVP ) by a small margin . This led the ÖVP to agree to form a coalition government with the FPÖ in 2000 . The FPÖ soon became uncomfortable with governing and fell sharply in the 2002 legislative election , in which it obtained only 10.0 % of the vote ; however , the two parties agreed to continue their coalition following the election . In 2005 increasing internal disagreements in the FPÖ led Haider and several leading members ( including all the party 's ministers ) to defect and form the Alliance for the Future of Austria ( BZÖ ) , which replaced the FPÖ as government partner .   Since then , under Strache 's leadership , the party has again attracted an increase in its popular support . In the 2013 legislative election the FPÖ won 20.5 % of the vote and , more recently , it came ahead either of the SPÖ or the ÖVP in some state elections , entered in a SPÖ-led government in Burgenland and gained more than 30 % of the vote in Vienna . Finally , in the 2016 presidential election , FPÖ member Norbert Hofer won the first round , receiving 35.1 % , but was defeated by The Greens ' candidate Alexander Van der Bellen , 53.8 % against 46.2 % , in the final run-off ( an earlier run-off was invalidated ) .   Among other things , the party supports the unification of South Tyrol ( Italy ) with Tyrol ( Austria ) , and , therefore , the South Tyrolean secessionist movement , which notably includes its South Tyrolean sister party Die Freiheitlichen .

neg: List of companies of Austria Austria is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe . It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north , Hungary and Slovakia to the east , Slovenia and Italy to the south , and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west . The territory of Austria covers 83879 km2 .   Austria is the 12th richest country in the world in terms of GDP ( Gross domestic product ) per capita , has a well-developed social market economy , and a high standard of living . Until the 1980s , many of Austria 's largest industry firms were nationalised ; in recent years , however , privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies . Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics . Next to a highly developed industry , international tourism is the most important part of the national economy .   For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations , see `` Business entities in Austria '' .

neg: Outline of Austria The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Austria :   Austria -- landlocked sovereign country located in Central Europe . It borders both Germany and the Czech Republic to the north , Slovakia and Hungary to the east , Slovenia and Italy to the south , and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west . The capital is the city of Vienna on the Danube River .

neg: Baden bei Wien Baden ( German for `` Baths '' ) , unofficially distinguished from other Badens as Baden bei Wien ( Baden near Vienna ) , is a spa town in Austria . It serves as the capital of Baden District in the state of Lower Austria . Located about 26 km south of Vienna , the municipality consists of cadastral Baden , Braiten , Gamingerhof , Leesdorf , Mitterberg , Rauhenstein , and Weikersdorf .

neg: Graz Hauptbahnhof Graz Hauptbahnhof , abbreviated Graz Hbf ( German for Graz Main Station ; sometimes translated as Graz Central Station ) , is the main railway station in Graz , the capital of the Austrian state of Styria . The station is located some 2 km west of the city centre , to which it is connected by the tram .   The station serves as a major node on the Southern Railway , which links it to Vienna in the north , and Slovenia in the south . It is also the terminus of the Styrian Eastern Railway , which runs eastwards towards Hungary , and of the local Köflacherbahn to the west . In the future , the Koralm Railway will provide a direct link from Graz to Italy via Klagenfurt .

neg: Villach Villach ( German pronunciation : ; Beljak , Villaco , Vilac ) is the seventh-largest city in Austria and the second-largest in the federal state of Carinthia . It represents an important traffic junction for southern Austria and the whole Alpe-Adria region . , the population is 58,480 .   Together with other Alpine towns Villach engages in the Alpine Town of the Year Association for the implementation of the Alpine Convention to achieve sustainable development in the Alpine Arc .  In 1997 , Villach was the first town to be awarded Alpine Town of the Year .

neg: Rudolfsheim Rudolfsheim is a neighborhood of the district Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus in Vienna , Austria .   Category : Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus  Category : Katastralgemeinde of Vienna

neg: Wiener Film Wiener Film ( German ; plural : Wiener Filme ; literally , `` Viennese film '' ) is an Austrian film genre , consisting of a combination of comedy , romance and melodrama in an historical setting , mostly , and typically , the Vienna of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The Wiener Film genre was in production between the 1920s and the 1950s , with the 1930s as its high period .

neg: Democracy Ranking Democracy Ranking is an independent initiative , whose organization ( point of contact , the ″ Democracy Ranking Association ″ ) is located primarily in Vienna , Austria . Democracy Ranking produces an annual global ranking of democracies . The applied conceptual formula , which measures the quality of democracy , integrates freedom and other characteristics of the political system with the performance of non-political dimensions ( gender , economy , knowledge , health , and environment ) . Democracy Ranking has emphasized a broader understanding of democracy , creating a conceptual link between politics and the output and performance of society . The Democracy Ranking has compared several-year intervals , delivering ranking results , which show how ranking positions and score levels have developed recently . Referring to that information , a Democracy Improvement Ranking has been regularly released .

neg: Vienna Symphony The Vienna Symphony ( Wiener Symphoniker ) is an Austrian orchestra based in Vienna . Its primary concert venue is the Vienna Konzerthaus . In Vienna , the orchestra also performs at the Musikverein and at the Theater an der Wien .

neg: Diplomatic Academy of Vienna The Diplomatic Academy of Vienna , or simply DA , ( in German : Diplomatische Akademie Wien ) is a postgraduate professional school based in Vienna , Austria , with focused training for students and professionals in the areas of international affairs , political science , law , languages , history and economics . It is also known as the Vienna School of International Studies , or the École des Hautes Études Internationales de Vienne .   The school confers Master 's degrees and postgraduate diplomas upon its graduates . It is the only member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs in Austria .

neg: Vienna Monetary Treaty The Vienna Monetary Treaty ( also known as the Vienna Coinage Treaty ) of 1857 was a treaty that set a currency standard for use across the German Zollverein states , Austria , and Liechtenstein . The official name of the treaty was Monetary Treaty Between the German States of 24 January 1857 .