query: The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a region.

pos: Country A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography . A country may be an independent sovereign state or one that is occupied by another state , as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division , or a geographic region associated with sets of previously independent or differently associated people with distinct political characteristics . Regardless of the physical geography , in the modern internationally accepted legal definition as defined by the League of Nations in 1937 and reaffirmed by the United Nations in 1945 , a resident of a country is subject to the independent exercise of legal jurisdiction .   Sometimes the word countries is used to refer both to sovereign states and to other political entities , while other times it refers only to states . For example , the CIA World Factbook uses the word in its `` Country name '' field to refer to `` a wide variety of dependencies , areas of special sovereignty , uninhabited islands , and other entities in addition to the traditional countries or independent states '' . -LSB- Note 1 -RSB-

pos: Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo ( -LSB- ˈkɒŋɡəʊ -RSB- -LSB- kɔ̃ɡo -RSB- ; République démocratique du Congo ) , also known as DR Congo , DRC , DROC , Congo-Kinshasa or simply the Congo , is a country located in Central Africa . The DRC borders the Central African Republic and South Sudan to the north ; Uganda , Rwanda , Burundi and Tanzania to the east ; Zambia and Angola to the south ; the Republic of the Congo to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest . It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and eleventh largest in the world . With a population of over 80 million , the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most populated officially Francophone country , the fourth most-populated nation in Africa and the eighteenth most populated country in the world .   The territory of the DR Congo was first settled by humans around 90,000 years ago . Bantu peoples began migrating into the region in the 5th century and again in the 10th century . In the West of the region the Kingdom of Kongo ruled from the 14th to 19th centuries , while in the centre and East of the region the kingdoms of Luba and Lunda ruled from the 16th and 17th centuries to the 19th century . In the 1870s , before the onset of the Scramble for Africa , European exploration of the Congo was carried out , first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium . Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property . He named it the Congo Free State . During the Free State the colonial military unit , the Force Publique , forced the local population into producing rubber , and from 1885 to 1908 millions of Congolese died as a consequence of disease and exploitation . In 1908 Belgium , despite initial reluctance , formally annexed the Free State from Leopold , which became the Belgian Congo .   The Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name Republic of the Congo ( Léopoldville ) . Congolese nationalist Patrice Lumumba was elected the first Prime Minister , while Joseph Kasa-Vubu became the first President . Conflict arose over the administration of the territory which became known as the Congo Crisis . The provinces of Katanga , under Moïse Tshombe , and South Kasai attempted to secede from the Congo . On 5 September 1960 , Kasa-Vubu dismissed Lumumba from office , encouraged by the United States and Belgium after Lumumba turned to the Soviet Union for assistance in the crisis . On 14 September , with U.S. and Belgian support , Lumumba was arrested by forces loyal to Army Chief of Staff Joseph-Désiré Mobutu , who had gained de facto control over the country through a coup d'état the same day , and on 17 January 1961 Lumumba was handed over to Katangan authorities and executed by Belgian-led Katangese troops .   In 1965 Joseph-Désiré Mobutu , who later renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko , officially came into power through a second coup . In 1971 he renamed the country Zaire . The country was run as a one-party state with his Popular Movement of the Revolution as the sole legal party . Mobutu 's government received considerable support from the United States for its anti-communist stance during the Cold War . By the early 1990s Mobutu 's government began to weaken . Disenfranchisement of the eastern Congolese Tutsi population led to a 1996 invasion led by Tutsi-ruled Rwanda , which began the First Congo War . On 17 May 1997 Laurent-Désiré Kabila , a leader of Tutsi forces from the province of South Kivu , became President , bringing about the end of Mobutu 's 32-year rule . Tensions between President Kabila and the Rwandan and Tutsi presence in the country led to the Second Congo War from 1998 to 2003 . Ultimately , nine African countries and around twenty armed groups became involved in the war , which resulted in the deaths of 5.4 million people . The two wars together devastated the country . President Laurent-Désiré Kabila was assassinated by one of his bodyguards on 16 January 2001 and was succeeded eight days later as President by his son Joseph Kabila .   The Democratic Republic of Congo is extremely rich in natural resources but has had political instability , a lack of infrastructure , issues with corruption and centuries of both commercial and colonial extraction and exploitation with little holistic development . Besides the capital Kinshasa , the two next largest cities Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi are both mining communities . DR Congo 's largest export is raw minerals , with China accepting over 50 % of DRC 's exports in 2012 . , according to the Human Development Index ( HDI ) , DR Congo 's level of human development ranks 176 out of 187 countries .

neg: List of companies of the Republic of the Congo The Republic of the Congo is a country located in Central Africa . It is bordered by Gabon , Cameroon , the Central African Republic , the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Angolan exclave of Cabinda . In the early 1980s , rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with GDP growth averaging 5 % annually , one of the highest rates in Africa . The government has mortgaged a substantial portion of its petroleum earnings , contributing to a shortage of revenues . The January 12 , 1994 devaluation of Franc Zone currencies by 50 % resulted in inflation of 46 % in 1994 , but inflation has subsided since .

neg: United Nations Operation in the Congo Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo , abbreviated ONUC ( English : United Nations Organization in the Congo ) , was a United Nations peacekeeping force in Congo that was established after United Nations Security Council Resolution 143 of 14 July 1960 . In 1963 the name changed to Opération des Nations Unies au Congo , retaining the same abbreviation . To generalise , the mission was a response to the Congo Crisis . ONUC was the UN 's first peacekeeping mission with a significant military force , but has been described as a `` pyrrhic victory at best . ''   Following Security Council actions , the United Nations Organization in the Congo ( ONUC ) was established . To carry out these tasks , the Secretary-General set up a United Nations Force -- at its peak strength numbering nearly 20,000 . The UN Force stayed in the Congo between 1960 and 1964 , and underwent a transition from a peacekeeping presence to a military force .   ONUC 's main goals stayed consistent from the first to fifth resolution . It featured the double purpose of withdrawing Belgian military personnel ( later expanding to mercenaries ) and providing military assistance to ensure internal stability . The successive Security Council resolutions added to and elaborated on the initial mandate but did not fundamentally change the operation 's objectives . These were especially significant because Belgium 's invasion violated the norm of sovereignty , and the second objective was set to prevent the country from becoming a Cold War client state .   The first troops reached Congo on 15 July 1960 , many airlifted in by the United States Air Force as part of Operation New Tape .   Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba , dissatisfied with Dag Hammarskjöld 's refusal to use UN troops to subdue the insurrection in Katanga , decided to attempt an invasion of Katanga on his own and turned to the Soviet Union for help . The invasion attempt never reached Katanga but led to dissension within the Central Government , the collapse of the Central Government , and eventually to Lumumba 's arrest in December and execution in Katanga in February 1961 . Only then did the United Nations Security Council explicitly authorize the use of force for purposes beyond self-defense .

neg: Districts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo The provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo are divided into 26 districts . These in turn are divided into territories or communes .

neg: Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) The Republic of the Congo ( République du Congo ) was a sovereign state in Central Africa that was created with the independence of the Belgian Congo in 1960 . From 1960-1966 , the country was often known as Congo-Léopoldville ( after its capital ) in order to distinguish it from its north-western neighbour , also called the Republic of the Congo or Congo-Brazzaville . With the renaming of Léopoldville as Kinshasa on 1 June 1966 , it was known as Congo-Kinshasa until 1971 .   On 1 August 1964 , the state 's official name was changed to Democratic Republic of the Congo . In 1971 , the state 's name changed to Zaire .   The period between 1960 and 1965 is referred to as the First Congolese Republic , and the current Democratic Republic of the Congo is the Third Republic .   Unrest and rebellion continued to plague the government until 1965 , when Lieutenant General Joseph Désiré Mobutu , now commander-in-chief of the national army , seized control of the country . Mobutu changed the country 's name to Zaire in 1971 and remained its president until 1997 .

neg: M'banza-Kongo M'banza - Kongo ( -LSB- ɐ̃ˈbɐ̃zɐ -RSB- , -LSB- ĩˈbɐ̃zɐ -RSB- , -LSB- mɨˈβɐ̃zɐ -RSB- or -LSB- miˈβɐ̃zɐ ˈkõɡu -RSB- , known as São Salvador in Portuguese from 1570 to 1975 ) , is the capital of Angola 's northwestern Zaire Province . M'banza Kongo ( properly Mbanza Koongo or Kôngo in most acceptable orthographies ) was founded some time before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1483 and was the capital of the Kilukeni dynasty ruling at that time . The site was temporarily abandoned during civil wars in the 17th century . It lies close to Angola 's border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It is located at around and sits on top of an impressive flat-topped mountain , sometimes called Mongo a Kaila ( mountain of division ) because recent legends recall that the king created the clans of the kingdom and sent them out from there . In the valley to the south runs the Luezi River .

neg: Republic of Cabinda The Republic of Cabinda ( Ibinda : Kilansi kia cabinda ; República de Cabinda ) is an unrecognized state in southern Africa . The Front for the Liberation of the State of Cabinda-Exercito de Cabinda ( FLEC ) claims sovereignty from Angola and proclaimed the Republic of Cabinda as an independent country in 1975 . The government of this ( internationally not recognized ) entity operates in exile , with offices located in Paris , France and Pointe Noire , Congo-Brazzaville .   The 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco designated Cabinda a Portuguese protectorate known as the Portuguese Congo , which was administratively separate from Portuguese West Africa ( Angola ) . In the 20th century , Portugal decided to integrate Cabinda into Angola , giving it the status of a district of that `` overseas province '' . During the Portuguese Colonial War , FLEC fought for the independence of Cabinda from the Portuguese . Independence was proclaimed on 1 August 1975 , and FLEC formed a provisional government led by Henriques Tiago . Luiz Branque Franque was elected president .   In January 1975 , Angola 's three national liberation movements ( People 's Movement for the Liberation of Angola ( MPLA ) , National Liberation Front of Angola ( FNLA ) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( UNITA ) ) met with the colonial power in Alvor , Portugal , to establish the modalities of the transition to independence . FLEC was not invited . The Alvor Agreement was signed , establishing Angolan independence and confirming Cabinda as part of Angola . After Angolan independence was declared in November 1975 , Cabinda was occupied by the forces of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola ( MPLA ) , which had been present in Cabinda since the mid-1960s , sustaining an anti-colonial guerrilla war that was rather more efficient than the one run by FLEC .   For much of the 1970s and 1980s , FLEC fought a low-intensity guerrilla war , attacking the troops of what was by then the People 's Republic of Angola , led by the MPLA . FLEC 's tactics included attacking economic targets and kidnapping foreign employees working in the province 's oil and construction businesses . In July 2006 , after ceasefire negotiations , António Bento Bembe -- as president of the Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace , vice-president and executive secretary of FLEC -- announced that the Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire . A peace treaty was signed . FLEC-FAC from Paris contends Bembe had no authority or mandate to negotiate with the Angolans and that the only acceptable solution is total independence .

neg: Kwilu Province Kwilu Province is one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Its capital is Kikwit .  It takes its name from the Kwilu River , which crosses the province from south to north .

neg: Shinyanga Region __ NOTOC __   Shinyanga Region is one of Tanzania 's 30 administrative regions . The regional capital is the municipality of Shinyanga . According to the 2012 national census , the region had a population of 1,534,808 . For 2002-2012 , the region 's 2.1 percent average annual population growth rate was the twentieth highest in the country . It was also the tenth most densely populated region with 81 people per square kilometer . With a size of 50781 km2 , the region is slightly smaller than Costa Rica ( 51100 km2 ) .   The region is bordered to the north by the Mwanza , Mara , and Kagera Regions and to the south by the Tabora Region . Kigoma Region borders to the west , Singida Region to the southeast , and the Arusha and Manyara Regions to the east .

neg: Dubie Dubie ( also spelled Dubié ) is a village in Pweto Territory , Haut-Katanga District , Democratic Republic of the Congo . The village suffered great damage during the Second Congo War , which technically ended in 2003 .   Following the war , local Mai Mai militia continued to operate in the area , living off the people .  Army operations against the Mai Mai began in 2005 . Many of the local people were displaced to Dubie .  Almost all the internally displaced people ( IDPs ) were living in camps , since they have a different ethnicity from the residents of the village .   A March 2006 report said that there were high mortality rates among IDPs at Dubié , increasing levels of malnutrition and insecurity .  There were three camps of internally displaced persons , who began arriving in the area in November 2005 and now numbered about 16,000 . The army had brought these people to the camps , and was forcing them to labor in the fields to produce food for the army .  Médecins Sans Frontières reported that up to 20 people were dying each week .   Roads are in poor shape , reducing the opportunity to sell goods and increasing costs of purchases , but a project by the Concern charity achieved improvements in 2008 . 45 km of roads and 54 small bridges were rehabilitated using local labor , which helped feed money into the local economy .

neg: Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is , geographically , the area of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara . According to the UN , it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara . It contrasts with North Africa , whose territories are part of the League of Arab states within the Arab world . Somalia , Djibouti , Comoros and Mauritania are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa , but are likewise Arab states and part of the Arab world .   The Sahel is the transitional zone between the Sahara and the tropical savanna ( the Sudan region ) and forest-savanna mosaic to the south .   Since probably 3500 BCE , the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara , forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the Nile in Sudan , though the Nile was blocked by the river 's cataracts . The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna ( including Homo sapiens ) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond . African pluvial periods are associated with a `` wet Sahara '' phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed .   The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority ; a vestige of colonialism , which some say , divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity .

neg: Geography of Guinea Guinea is a country on the coast of West Africa and is bordered by Guinea-Bissau , Senegal , Mali , Ivory Coast , Liberia , and Sierra Leone .   Guinea is divided into four geographic regions : Maritime Guinea ( Lower Guinea ) a coastal plain running north to south behind the coast ; the pastoral Fouta Djallon highlands ( Middle Guinea ) ; the northern savanna ( Upper Guinea ) ; and a southeastern rain-forest region ( Forest Guinea ) .

neg: People's Republic of the Congo The People 's Republic of the Congo ( République populaire du Congo ) was a self-declared Marxist -- Leninist socialist state that was established in 1969 in the Republic of the Congo . Led by the Congolese Party of Labour ( Parti congolais du travail , PCT ) , it existed until 1991 , when following the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the country was renamed and Andre Milongo , a transitional prime minister was named .

neg: Central Corridor (Africa) The Central Corridor is a transport and trading route located in East and Central Africa . Its end point is the Tanzanian port city of Dar es Salaam , where it connects to the rest of the world via shipping . From Dar es Salaam , the corridor runs inland , serving the Tanzanian interior including its capital Dodoma and second city of Mwanza , as well as landlocked Rwanda and Burundi , and the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo .   The Central Corridor provides an alternative route to the ocean from Rwandan , Burundi and the DRC from the higher traffic Northern Corridor , which runs through Uganda and Kenya to the port of Mombasa .

neg: North Region (Cameroon) The North Region ( Région du Nord ) makes up 66,090 km ² of the northern half of The Republic of Cameroon . Neighbouring territories include the Far North Region to the north , the Adamawa Region to the south , Nigeria to the west , Chad to the east , and Central African Republic to the southeast . The city of Garoua is both the political and industrial capital . Garoua is Cameroon 's third largest port , despite the fact that the Bénoué River upon which it relies is only navigable for short periods of the year .   Major ethnic groups include the Fula or Fulani ( Fulɓe links = no ) , who are Islamic pastoralists , and numerous Muslim and animist speakers of Adamawa , Chadic , and Nilo-Saharan languages . French is the language of formal education , and Fulfulde , the language of the Fulbe , is widespread as a lingua franca .

neg: Postage stamps and postal history of the Republic of the Congo This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of the Republic of the Congo , a former French colony known as Middle Congo or French Congo , and now often known simply as The Congo .   The Republic of the Congo is a country in central Africa bordered by Gabon , Cameroon , the Central African Republic , the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( formerly known as Zaire ) , the Angolan exclave province of Cabinda , and the Gulf of Guinea .

neg: Congolese unification Congolese unification refers to the potential future unification of the Republic of the Congo ( capital : Brazzaville ) and the Democratic Republic of Congo ( capital : Kinshasa ) under a single government .   The two Congos share many ethnic groups , an official language ( French ) and national languages ( Lingala , Kituba , Kongo ) ; additionally , their capitals form a single conurbation straddling the Congo River , and are the two capitals closest to one another in the world .

neg: Sake, Democratic Republic of the Congo Sake is a town in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the eastern province of North Kivu . It is located at the northwestern extremity of Lake Kivu , 25 km ( 15 mi ) west-northwest of Goma on National Road No. 2 , at the edge of the volcanic lava plains in the bottom of the Western Rift Valley , at an elevation of about 1500 m . The western escarpment of the rift valley rises to 800 m above Sake .   The lava comes from the volcanoes Nyamuragira and Nyiragongo , 25 km northwest , and numerous smaller volcanic cones which are fed by fissures from these volcanoes . A number of cones can be seen in satellite photographs 7 -- 8 km east of Sake . They also show that lava flows in recent years have covered parts of the road to Goma ( National Road No. 2 ) and have reached the lake , cutting off the bay in which Sake is located , to form a small lake of less than 1 square km . The adjacent bay , which is about 40 km ² in size , has almost been cut off by the lava and only a 160 m wide channel remains to connect it to the main body of Lake Kivu .   Sake has hosted Rwandans during the Great Lakes refugee crisis of the mid-1990s and Goma residents fleeing the 2002 eruption of Mount Nyiragongo . Deadly battles between the government military and forces led by Laurent Nkunda led thousands of residents of Sake to flee in August 2006 . On 25 November 2006 , fifteen to twenty thousands fled battles between Nkunda forces and the DRC army in an offensive waged by the former in the area of Sake . The fighting took place nearly a day before the Supreme Court was to rule on the outcome of the highly contested 2006 presidential run-off . The fighting appear to have dissipated the following morning .   Sake has also been home to the UN Force Intervention Brigade since July 2013 .

neg: List of companies of Tanzania Tanzania is a large country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region . Parts of the country are in Southern Africa . It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north ; Rwanda , Burundi , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west ; Zambia , Malawi , and Mozambique to the south ; and by the Indian Ocean to the east . Kilimanjaro , Africa 's highest mountain , is in northeastern Tanzania .   The country has the second largest economy in the East African Community and the twelfth largest in Africa . It is largely dependent on agriculture for employment , accounting for about half of the employed workforce . An estimated 34 percent of Tanzanians currently live in poverty . The economy has been transitioning from a command economy to a market economy since 1985 . Although total GDP has increased since these reforms began , GDP per capita dropped sharply at first , and only exceeded the pre-transition figure in around 2007 .

neg: Aba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Aba is a city in the northeast of Orientale Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ; it is near the border with South Sudan .

neg: Water crisis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Although the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) has Africa 's largest freshwater resources , it is suffering from an acute drinking water supply crisis . The country has one of the lowest rates of access to drinking water in Sub-Saharan Africa . Only 46 percent of the population had access to an improved drinking water source in 2012 . Furthermore , the sanitation coverage was estimated at only 31 percent in 2012 . Up to date and accurate information on water supply and sanitation services in the DRC is scarce . As a result of inadequate water supply and sanitation services , many inhabitants are suffering from waterborne diseases , including diarrhea , typhoid , and cholera .   The current water crisis is a result of the deteriorated state of the water infrastructure due to underinvestment in the water sector and conflict-related destruction as well as the rapid growth of the population , which was estimated at 4 percent in urban areas and 2.5 percent in rural areas by the World Bank in 2009 . Overall , the DRC 's water supply and sanitation sector is characterized by several overlapping and conflicting institutional jurisdictions . Therefore , the water crisis in the DRC can be categorized as an economic water scarcity problem , hindering development in the country . Article 48 of the 2006 Constitution of the DRC recognizes the human right to water . The rehabilitation and development of the water sector is a priority to which the national government committed itself in the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategies and to which it agreed as part of the international framework of the UN Millennium Development Goals .


query: Hippocrates was also known as Hippocrates II by his peers.

pos: Hippocrates Hippocrates of Kos ( -LSB- hɪˈpɒkrəˌtiːz -RSB- Ἱπποκράτης Hippokrátēs ; 460 -- 370 BC ) , also known as Hippocrates II , was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles ( Classical Greece ) , and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine . He is referred to as the `` Father of Modern Medicine '' in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine . This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece , establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated ( theurgy and philosophy ) , thus establishing medicine as a profession .   However , the achievements of the writers of the Corpus , the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine , and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often commingled ; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought , wrote , and did . Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician , and credited with coining the Hippocratic Oath , still relevant and in use today . He is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine , summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools , and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works .

neg: Ludolf von Krehl Albrecht Ludolf von Krehl ( December 26 , 1861 -- May 26 , 1937 ) was a German internist and physiologist who was a native of Leipzig . He was the son of Orientalist Christoph Krehl ( 1825 -- 1901 )   He studied at the Universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig , and later was an assistant to Ernst Leberecht Wagner ( 1829 -- 1888 ) and Heinrich Curschmann ( 1846 -- 1910 ) at the medical clinic in Leipzig . In 1888 he obtained his habilitation , becoming head of the medical clinic at Jena in 1892 . In 1899 he became director of the clinic at the University of Marburg , and soon afterwards served as professor of special pathology and therapy of internal diseases in Greifswald ( 1900 -- 02 ) .   From 1902 to 1904 he was a professor at the University of Tübingen , and in 1904 he succeeded Bernhard Naunyn ( 1839 -- 1925 ) at the University of Strasbourg . While at Strasbourg , he provided the necessary facilities to Albert Fraenkel ( 1864 -- 1938 ) for the latter 's testing of intravenous strophanthin . From 1907 until 1932 he was a professor and director of the medical clinic at the University of Heidelberg . One of his better known assistants at Heidelberg was Viktor von Weizsäcker ( 1886 -- 1957 ) .   Krehl made contributions in the field of cardiac pathology and in his research of metabolic diseases . Also , he admired the psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer , and had a keen interest in psychopathological aspects of disease from an individualized , psychosomatic standpoint .   Among his written works was a landmark textbook on pathological physiology that laid a scientific basis for clinical medicine . This textbook was first published in 1893 as Grundriß der allgemeinen klinischen Pathologie ( Later known as Pathologische Physiologie ) , and eventually ran to fourteen editions . Krehl was a catalyst behind the founding of the `` Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research '' , which today is known as the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg .

neg: List of ancient Western doctors This is an alphabetical list of writers from Ancient Greece and Rome who were doctors , or have left us material that contributes to our knowledge of ancient medicine . In some cases their names look familiar but are not the same as their famous homonyms ( thus earning them an epithet ) .   Aulus Cornelius Celsus ( 1st century AD )  Adamantius Judaeus ( 4th century )  Aegimus  Aëtius Amidenus ( 6th century )  Agathinus ( 1st century AD )  Aglaïs Poet . ( physician ) ( 1st century AD )  Aias/Abas ( 5th-4th century BC )  Alexander Trallianus ( 6th century AD )  Andromachus ( physician ) ( 1st century AD )  Antipater ( 1st-century BC physician ) ( 1st century BC )  Antipater ( 2nd-century physician ) ( 2nd century AD )  Antiphanes of Delos ( in or before 2nd century AD )  Antonius Castor ( 2nd century AD )  Apollonius of Citium ( 1st century BC )  Apollonius ( physician ) ( 3rd century BC )  Archigenes ( 2nd century AD )  Aretaeus ( 2nd century AD )  Aristotle ( 4th century BC )  Asclepiades Pharmacion ( 1st-2nd century AD )  Asclepiades of Bithynia ( 2nd-1st century BC )  Athenaeus of Cilicia ( 1st century BC )  Aulus Gellius ( 2nd century AD )  Bolus of Mendes ( 3rd century BC )  Caelius Aurelianus ( 5th century )  Cassius Felix ( 3rd century )  Charixenus ( 2nd century AD )  Crateuas ( physician ) ( 2nd century BC )  Criton of Heraclea ( 1st-2nd century AD )  Ctesias ( 5th century BC )  Damocrates ( 1st century AD )  Demetrius of Apamea  Dexippus of Cos  Dieuches  Diocles of Carystus  Dioscorides ( 1st century AD )  Erasistratus ( 3rd century BC )  Erotianus ( 1st century AD )  Eudemus ( physician )  Euthydemus ( physician )  Fronto  Galen ( 2nd century AD )  Gargilius Martialis ( 3rd century )  Harpocratio ( 1st-2nd century AD )  Heliodorus ( 1st-2nd century AD )  Heraclas  Heraclides of Tarentum ( 1st century BC )  Herodotus ( physician ) ( 1st century AD )  Herophilus ( 3rd century BC )  Hicesius ( physician ) ( 1st century BC )  Hippocrates ( Hippocratic Corpus ) ( 5th century BC )  Joannes Actuarius  L. Annaeus Seneca  Leonidas ( physician ) ( 1st-2nd century AD )  M. Porcius Cato  Marcellinus ( physician ) ( 2nd century ? AD )  Marcellus of Side ( 2nd century AD )  Meges of Sidon ( 1st century AD )  Meletius  Menemachus ( 1st century AD )  Mnesitheus of Athens ( 3rd century BC )  Mnesitheus of Cyzicus  Nepualius ( Neptunalius , Neptunianus )  Niger , Sextius  Oribasius ( 4th century )  Ovid ( 1st century AD )  Palladius ( physician )  Paulus Aegineta ( 7th century )  Phasias of Tenedos  Philagrius of Epirus ( 3rd-4th century )  Philinus of Cos ( 3rd century BC )  Philistion of Locri ( 5th-4th century BC )  Philo Tarsensis  Philotimus  Philoxenus ( physician ) ( 3rd century BC )  Philumenus ( 3rd century AD )  Phylotimus  Pliny the Elder ( 1st century AD )  Plistonicus  Plutarch ( 2nd century AD )  Posidonius ( 3rd-4th century )  Praxagoras of Cos ( 4th century BC )  Serenus Sammonicus  Rufus of Ephesus ( 2nd century AD )  Scribonius Largus ( 1st century AD )  Serapion ( 3rd century BC )  Severus ( physician ) ( 4th century AD )  Sextus Empiricus  Soranus of Ephesus ( 2nd century AD )  Stephanus Med . ( 7th century )  Stephanus , Phil ( 7th century )  Themison of Laodicea ( 1st century BC )  Theon Gymnasiarcha  Theophilus Protospatharius  Theophrastus  Thessalus of Tralles ( 1st century AD )  Thrasymachus of Sardis  Timotheus of Metapontion  Xenocrates of Aphrodisias ( 1st century AD )  Zopyrus ( physician ) ( 1st century AD )   *  Doctors , ancient  *  *  Western

neg: Zeno (physician) Zeno ( or Zenon , Ζήνων 3rd and 2nd centuries BC ) was a Greek physician .   He was one of the most eminent of the followers of Herophilus , whom Galen calls `` no ordinary man , '' and who is said by Diogenes Laërtius to have been better able to think than to write . He lived probably at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd centuries BC , as he was a contemporary of Apollonius Empiricus , with whom he carried on a controversy concerning the meaning of certain marks that are found at the end of some of the chapters of the third book of the Epidemics of Hippocrates . He gave particular attention to the materia medica , and is perhaps the physician whose medical formulae are quoted by Galen , in which case he must have been a native of Laodicea . He is mentioned in several other passages by Galen , and also by Erotianus ; perhaps also by Pliny , Caelius Aurelianus , Alexander of Aphrodisias , and Rufus of Ephesus , but this is uncertain .

neg: George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield George Parker , 2nd Earl of Macclesfield , PRS ( c. 1695 or 1697 -- 17 March 1764 ) was an English peer and astronomer .   Styled Viscount Parker from 1721 to 1732 , he was Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Wallingford from 1722 to 1727 , but his interests were not in politics . In 1722 he became a fellow of the Royal Society , and he spent most of his time in astronomical observations at his Oxfordshire seat , Shirburn Castle , which had been bought by his father in 1716 ; here he built an observatory and a chemical laboratory .   He was very prominent in effecting the changeover to the Gregorian calendar , which came into effect in 1752 . His action in this matter , however , was somewhat unpopular , as the opinion was fairly general that he had robbed the people of eleven days . When his son ran for parliament as a Whig in 1754 , resentment over his role in the calendar reform was one of many issues raised by the son 's Tory opponents ; a famous 1755 Hogarth painting influenced by the events of these elections is the main historical source for the `` Give us our eleven days '' slogan .   From 1752 until his death , Macclesfield was president of the Royal Society , and he made some observations on the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake .   In 1750 Macclesfield was offered the honorary position of vice president of the Foundling Hospital , which he accepted and kept until his death in 1764 . The Foundling Hospital was a charitable institution created a decade earlier , dedicated to saving London 's abandoned children . The Earl seems to have taken his position seriously , as he commissioned the artist Benjamin Wilson to paint a full size portrait of him , which he then donated to the Hospital . The portrait is still in the Foundling Hospital Collection and available to view at the Foundling Museum .   In 1755 , Parker was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . He also was a corresponding member of the Académie des sciences .

neg: List of Heidelberg University people Alumni and faculty of the university include many founders and pioneers of academic disciplines , and a large number of internationally acclaimed philosophers , poets , jurisprudents , theologians , natural and social scientists . 56 Nobel Laureates , at least 18 Leibniz Laureates , and two `` Oscar '' winners have been associated with Heidelberg University . Nine Nobel Laureates received the award during their tenure at Heidelberg .   Besides several Federal Ministers of Germany and Prime Ministers of German States , five Chancellors of Germany have attended the university , the latest being Helmut Kohl , the `` Chancellor of the Reunification '' . Heads of State or Government of Belgium , Bulgaria , Greece , Nicaragua , Serbia , Thailand , a British Crown Prince , a Secretary General of NATO and a director of the International Peace Bureau have also been educated at Heidelberg ; among them Nobel Peace Laureates Charles Albert Gobat and Auguste Beernaert . Former university affiliates in the field of religion include Pope Pius II , Cardinals , Bishops , and with Philipp Melanchthon and Zacharias Ursinus two key leaders of Protestant Reformation . Outstanding university affiliates in the legal profession include a President of the International Court of Justice , two Presidents of the European Court of Human Rights , a President of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea , a Vice President of the International Criminal Court , an Advocate General at the European Court of Justice , at least 16 Justices of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany , a President of the Federal Court of Justice , a President of the Federal Court of Finance , a President of the Federal Labor Court , two Attorney Generals of Germany , and a British Law Lord . In business , Heidelberg alumni and faculty notably founded , co-founded or presided over ABB Group ; Astor corporate enterprises ; BASF ; BDA ; Daimler AG ; Deutsche Bank ; EADS ; Krupp AG ; Siemens AG ; and Thyssen AG .   Alumni in the field of arts include classical composer Robert Schumann , philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach and Edmund Montgomery , poet Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff and writers Christian Friedrich Hebbel , Gottfried Keller , Irene Frisch , Heinrich Hoffmann , Sir Muhammad Iqbal , José Rizal , W. Somerset Maugham , Jean Paul , and Literature Nobel Laureate Carl Spitteler . Amongst Heidelberg alumni in other disciplines are the `` Father of Psychology '' Wilhelm Wundt , the `` Father of Physical Chemistry '' J. Willard Gibbs , the `` Father of American Anthropology '' Franz Boas , Dmitri Mendeleev , who created the periodic table of elements , inventor of the two-wheeler principle Karl Drais , Alfred Wegener , who discovered the continental drift , as well as political theorist Hannah Arendt , political scientist Carl Joachim Friedrich , and sociologists Karl Mannheim , Robert E. Park and Talcott Parsons .   Philosophers Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , Karl Jaspers , Hans-Georg Gadamer , and Jürgen Habermas served as university professors , as did also the pioneering scientists Hermann von Helmholtz , Robert Wilhelm Bunsen , Gustav Robert Kirchhoff , Emil Kraepelin , the founder of scientific psychiatry , and outstanding social scientists such as Max Weber , the founding father of modern sociology .   Present faculty include Medicine Nobel Laureates Bert Sakmann ( 1991 ) and Harald zur Hausen ( 2008 ) , Chemistry Nobel Laureate Stefan Hell ( 2014 ) , 7 Leibniz Laureates , former Justice of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany Paul Kirchhof , and Rüdiger Wolfrum , the former President of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea .   __ TOC __

neg: Philonides (physician) Philonides was the name of two physicians in the time of Ancient Greece and Rome :   A physician of Catana in Sicily , the tutor of Paccius Antiochus , who lived about the beginning of the 1st century . He is probably the physician who is quoted by Dioscorides , and said by him to have been a native of Enna in Sicily ; by Erotianus ; and also by Galen , who refers to his eighteenth book , Περὶ Ἰατρικῆς , De Medicina .  A physician of Dyrrachium in Illyricum , who was a pupil of Asclepiades of Bithynia in the 1st century BC , practised in his own country with some reputation , and wrote as many as 45 books .   One of these physicians wrote a work , Περὶ μύρων καὶ Στεφάνων , De Unguentis et Coronis , which is quoted by Athenaeus , and one on Pharmacy quoted by Andromachus , and by Marcellus Empiricus .

neg: Eurocrat A Eurocrat ( a portmanteau of `` European '' and `` bureaucrat '' ) is `` a staff member of the administrative commission of the European Union '' or more broadly , any official of the European Union . The term was coined by Richard Mayne , a journalist and personal assistant to the first Commission president , Walter Hallstein , in 1961 .   There are three main types of Eurocrats . First , Political Appointees , such as the European Commissioners , the Members of the European parliament . Secondly there are fonctionnaires , these are the permanent staff which form the majority of the European institutions . There are two categories of fonctionnaires Assistants and Administrators . Assistants perform a `` secretarial '' roles while administrators perform more policy or managerial responsibilities . The third category is the contractual agents . Contractual agents do not have an employment contract with the same conditions as the fonctionnaires . Their first job contract is limited in duration , however after several renewals this can be extended permanently . Eurocrats come from all member states of the European Union . EPSO is the main body which selects staff for recruitment to the European Institutions .   Nowadays the term Eurocrat has come to encompass staff from all EU Institutions and not only staff from the European Commission .

neg: Hippias Hippias of Elis ( -LSB- ˈhɪpiəs -RSB- Ἱππίας ὁ Ἠλεῖος late 5th century BC ) was a Greek sophist , and a contemporary of Socrates . With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists , he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects , and lectured on poetry , grammar , history , politics , mathematics , and much else . Most of our knowledge of him is derived from Plato , who characterizes him as vain and arrogant .

neg: William John Hancock William John Hancock D.Sc . ( Hon ) , MIEE , MICE , LRCP ( 2 May 1864 -- 26 August 1931 ) was an Australian of Irish descent , an electrical engineer , telephone pioneer and pioneer in X-rays in the colony of Western Australia . He was honorary radiologist for Perth Hospital and Base Hospital in Fremantle . His list of credentials and accomplishments include M.I.E.E. , Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , M.I.C.E. , Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers , L.R.C.P. , Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians and D.Sc . ( Honorary ) .   In the colonies of Australia , the medical men of the day took a slow approach in the adoption of the new science that involved x-rays . Many of the early demonstrations were made by investigators outside the medical field . Upon examination of the initial investigators , several key factors were common . The individuals had already either been experimenting along similar lines to Wilhelm Röntgen with Crookes tubes and such , the physicists or scientists , or were actively associated with electrical work , the electricians , which made them particularly receptive to the technical appeal of the new science of x-rays . Records of the events reveal that among the medical men who witnessed the first images produced as radiographs , a rather small number had any great desire to employ X-rays directly in their own medical practice .   After the early investigative work of Thomas Ranken Lyle , William Henry Bragg , Joseph Patrick Slattery , and others , almost all medical men were satisfied with soliciting the services of the external X-ray man when necessity arose for skiagraphs to be produced . As the utilization of x-rays became more acceptable , the involvement of electricians began to decline . As the hospitals started to be equipped with x-ray apparatus and installations under the care of radiologists and radiographers , the medical men began to accept the eventuality of the new technology . Up to this point , the private experimenters and investigators continued to be the initiators of new ideas for the medical profession in this new field .

neg: Pneumatic school The Pneumatic school of medicine ( Pneumatics , or Pneumatici , Πνευματικοί ) was an ancient school of medicine in ancient Greece and Rome . They were founded in Rome by Athenaeus of Cilicia , in the 1st century AD .   The Roman era was a time when the Methodic school had enjoyed its greatest reputation , from which the Pneumatic school differed principally in that , instead of the mixture of primitive atoms , they adopted an active principle of immaterial nature , pneuma , or spirit . This principle was the cause of health and disease . It is from Galen that we learn the doctrines of the founder of the Pneumatic school .

neg: Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh The Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh was a now defunct learned society which was based in Edinburgh , Scotland `` for the cultivation of the physical sciences '' .   The society was founded in 1771 as the Physico-Chirurgical Society but soon after changed its name to the Physical Society . After being granted a Royal Charter in 1778 it became the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh .   It absorbed a number of other societies over the next fifty years , including the Edinburgh Medico-Chirurgical Society in 1782 ( not to be confused with the modern Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh , founded in 1821 ) , the American Physical Society in 1796 ( not to be confused with the modern American Physical Society , founded in 1899 ) , the Hibernian Medical Society in 1799 , the Chemical Society in 1803 , the Natural History Society in 1812 and the Didactic Society in 1813 .   The society occupied a lecture hall in Nicholson Street , Edinburgh complete with library . It published a regular journal , Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh , between 1854 and 1965 devoted to articles on experimental biology and natural history .   Members of the society were known as Fellows and permitted to use the postnomial FRPSE . Presidents were elected at intervals , sometimes more than one for each year .   Some of the records of the Society ( 1828-1884 ) are now managed by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society .

neg: Therapeutae The Therapeutae were a Jewish sect which flourished in Alexandria and other parts of the Diaspora of Hellenistic Judaism in the final years of the Second Temple period . The primary source concerning the Therapeutae is the account De vita contemplativa ( `` The Contemplative Life '' ) , purportedly by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria ( c. 20 BCE -- 50 CE ) . The authorship has been called into question because of the different stance on Greek philosophy of this work from that of other works that were written by Philo and because elsewhere Philo makes no mention of the Therapeutae although this article will refer to the author as Philo . The author appears to have been personally acquainted with them . The pseudepigraphic Testament of Job is possibly also a Therapeutae text , although this possibility is mostly based on the text being noticeably less misogynist than many other early apocryphal texts .   Philo records that they were `` philosophers '' ( cf. I. 2 ) and speaks specifically about a group that lived on a low hill by the Lake Mareotis close to Alexandria in circumstances resembling lavrite life ( cf. III .22 ) , and were `` the best '' of a kind given to `` perfect goodness '' that `` exists in many places in the inhabited world '' ( cf. III .21 ) . Philo was unsure of the origin of the name and derives the name Therapeutae/Therapeutides from Greek θεραπεύω in the sense of `` cure '' or `` worship '' ( cf. I. 2 ) .

neg: Vaidya Vaidya ( Sanskrit : वैद्य ) is a Sanskrit word meaning `` physician '' . It is also used unchanged in modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi . It was and is used generally in India to refer to a person who practises ayurveda , an indigenous Indian system of medicine . Senior practitioners or teachers were called Vaidyarāja `` physician-king '' as a mark of respect.Some practioners who had complete knowledge of the texts and were excellent at their practices were known as '' Pranaacharya '' . Some royal families in India had a personal vaidya in attendance and these people were referred to as Rāja Vaidya `` the king 's physician ''    In the classical text , Charakh Sahinta ( Chapter 29 of Sutrasthan ) the term Vaidya is classified into 2 types :  1 . Pranabhisar Vaidya - the ones who protect the lives by curing diseases and exhibits complete knowledge theoretically ae well as practically .  2 . Rogabhisar Vaidya-the ones who does n't have complete knowledge and due to lack of knowledge danger the lives of patient .

neg: Body politic The body politic is a metaphor that regards a nation as a corporate entity , likened to a human body . Here the word `` politic '' is a postpositive adjective : this is `` a body of a politic nature '' , rather than `` a politic of a bodily nature '' . A body politic comprises all the people in a particular country , considered as a single group . The analogy typically includes reference to the top of the government as head of state , though the analogy may also be extended to other anatomical parts , as in political readings of Aesop 's fable of `` The Belly and the Members '' .   A later European reference to the concept appears in The Book of the Body Politic ( 1407 ) by poet and court writer Christine de Pizan , in which she admits having borrowed the concept from a letter of Plutarch 's to the Roman Emperor Trajan but does not mention John of Salisbury 's work , Policraticus . The metaphor appears in the French language as the corps-état .  The metaphor was elaborated in the Renaissance , and subsequently , as medical knowledge based on Galen was challenged by thinkers such as William Harvey . Analogies were drawn between supposed causes of disease and disorder and their equivalents in the political field , viewed as plagues or infections that might be remedied with purges and nostrums .

neg: Germain Sée Germain Sée ( February 6 , 1818 -- May 12 , 1896 ) was a French clinician who was a native of Ribeauvillé , Haut-Rhin .   He studied medicine in Paris , obtaining his doctorate in 1846 with a dissertation on ergotism ( `` Recherches sur les propriétés du seigle ergoté et de ses principes constituants '' ) . In 1852 he became a physician of hospitals in Paris , and subsequently worked at La Rochefoucauld ( from 1857 ) , Beaujon ( from 1861 ) , Pitié ( from 1862 ) and Charité ( from 1868 ) hospitals . In 1866 he succeeded Armand Trousseau as chair of therapeutics at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris , and in 1876 attained the chair of clinical medicine at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris .   Sée specialized in the study of lung and cardiovascular diseases . He also made contributions in his research of chorea and its association with rheumatic disorders . He conducted extensive studies of various drugs , being an advocate of antipyrine as a general analgesic , and sodium salicylate for treatment of acute rheumatism .   Among his writings were the multi-volume `` Médecine clinique '' , a work that he co-authored with Frédéric Labadie-Lagrave , and `` Leçons de pathologie expérimentale '' , a book on experimental pathology that was edited by Maurice Raynaud . His `` Des maladies spécifiques , non tuberculeuses , du poumon '' was later translated into English and published with the title `` Diseases of the lungs ( of a specific not tuberculous nature ) '' ( 1885 ) .   In 1869 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine .

neg: Charles B Macgibbon Charles B Macgibbon played an important role in developing the hospital pharmacy profession in Australia . He was the Chief Pharmacist at the Royal Melbourne Hospital from 1938 . At this time there were only 36 hospital pharmacists in the Victorian hospital system and there was virtually no collaboration between them . Charles realised that by joining together , hospital pharmacists in Victoria could strengthen the profession and contribute to better quality pharmacy services . Charles and Fred J. Boyd actively worked to create a society for hospital pharmacists . In 1941 he became the founding president of the Society of Hospital Pharmaceutical Chemists ( Victorian Division ) which was the forerunner to The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia . During Charles ' time as president of the Society , he advocated strongly to ensure hospital appointed pharmacists and that patients had access to safe medicines .   During World War II , Charles was appointed hospital representative of the Australian War Pharmacopoeia . The Australian War Pharmacopoeia was produced because of a need to find new ways to produce old drugs during war rationing . It was also produced after the Australian Health Minister was frustrated with waiting for the British Medical Association to create one . An extract from the pharmacopoeia explains : ` The present War has caused irregularities in the supply of certain drugs and difficulties now experienced in obtaining branded articles may increase . This publication was therefore produced ... to help physicians by suggesting alternatives when a substance commonly prescribed by him is temporarily unobtainable . ' In 1950 he successfully fought on behalf of hospital pharmacists for the right for patients to have access to the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme as both inpatients and outpatients of hospitals . In 1963 he was the second recipient of the Evans Medal for Merit for his work to progress professionalism of hospital pharmacists over many years .

neg: Polycrates (sophist) Polycrates ( c.440-370 B.C. - flourished 4th century ) was a sophist of Athens , who later retired to Cyprus .

neg: Mithridate Mithridate , also known as mithridatium , mithridatum , or mithridaticum , is a semi-mythical remedy with as many as 65 ingredients , used as an antidote for poisoning , and said to be created by Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus in the 1st century BC . It was one of the most complex , highly sought-after drugs during the Middle Ages and Renaissance , particularly in Italy and France , where it was in continual use for centuries . An updated recipe called theriac ( Theriacum Andromachi ) was known well into the 19th century .   Mithridate takes its name from its inventor , Mithradates VI , King of Pontus ( 134 to 63 BC ) who is said to have so fortified his body against poisons with antidotes and preservatives , that when he tried to kill himself , he could not find any poison that would have an effect , and , according to some legends , had to ask a soldier to run him through with a sword . The recipe for the reputed antidote was found in his cabinet , written with his own hand , and was carried to Rome by Pompey . It was translated into Latin by Pompey 's freedman Lenaeus , and later improved upon by Nero 's physician Andromachus and Marcus Aurelius 's physician Galen . It likely underwent considerable alterations since the time of Mithradates .   In the Middle Ages , mithridate was also used as part of a regimen to ward off potential threats of plague . According to Simon Kellwaye ( 1593 ) , one should `` take a great Onyon , make a hole in the myddle of him , then fill the place with Mitridat or Triacle , and some leaues of Rue '' . Until as late as 1786 , physicians in London could officially prescribe mithridate . According to historian Christopher Hill , Oliver Cromwell took a large dose of mithridate as a precaution against the plague and found it cured his acne .   The term mithridate has come to refer to any generally all-purpose antidote .

neg: François Carlo Antommarchi Dr François Carlo Antommarchi ( 5 July 1780 in Morsiglia , Corsica -- 4 March 1838 in Santiago de Cuba , Cuba ) was Napoleon 's physician from 1818 to his death in 1821 .   He began his studies in Livorno , Italy , and later earned the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine at the University of Pisa in March 1808 . Antommarchi then went to Florence , Italy , and was attached to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova.Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova Antommarchi earned the diploma of Surgeon in 1812 from the University of Florence ( i.e. Imperial University ) and was appointed by its president as Prosector . While in this capacity , Antommarchi worked under Paolo Mascagni ( 1752 -- 1815 ) starting on 7 July 1813 .   Antommarchi left Florence for Saint Helena to become Napoleon I 's physician until his death . Antommarchi took up this position at the behest of Napoleon 's mother Maria Letizia Ramolino and his uncle Cardinal Joseph Fesch . Antommarchi received a letter of employment on 19 December 1818 . Antommarchi was sent to St. Helena in replacement of Dr Barry Edward O'Meara as Napoleon 's personal physician , because the illustrious captive would not agree to accept medical officers such as Dr Alexander Baxter or Dr James Roch Verling , who were proposed to him by his custodian , or `` gaoler '' , sir Hudson Lowe .  However , Napoleon was not so impressed by Antommarchi 's medical skills and even dismissed him from his service a couple of times , only to let him resume his duty soon after . In the last moments of illness , Antommarchi was assisted by Dr Archibald Arnott , who was accepted by Napoleon at the pressing demands from his two officers , Count Montholon and Grand-Marshal Bertrand .  After Napoleon 's death , Antommarchi wrote The Last Moments of Napoleon where he concluded that Napoleon died of stomach cancer .   In 1831 Antommarchi went to Poland and became the general inspector of Polish hospitals during November Uprising where he assisted the Polish people in an uprising against the Russians . He fled to Paris to escape the czar 's forces .   Antommarchi then immigrated to Louisiana where he donated the bronze death mask of Napoleon to the people of New Orleans in 1834 . Antommarchi lived in Veracruz , Mexico , for a brief period , and was employed there as an itinerant physician . He moved from Mexico and settled in Santiago de Cuba , Cuba , where he again worked as a physician . The move to Cuba was prompted by Antommarchi seeking his cousin Antonio Juan Benjamin Antommarchi , who made his fortune in coffee plantations . Antommarchi became adept at performing surgery for the removal of cataracts . He died in Cuba , of yellow fever , on 3 April 1838 , at the age of 57 .

neg: Imperial Highness His/Her Imperial Highness ( abbreviation HIH ) is a style used by members of an imperial family to denote imperial -- as opposed to royal -- status to show that the holder in question is descended from an Emperor rather than a King ( compare His/Her Royal Highness ) .  The first dynasty to use the style on the generic basis were the Romanovs in the eighteenth century ; the archdukes and archduchess of the House of Habsburg were only styled as Royal Highness given the officially elective nature of the Holy Roman Empire .  With the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804 their style was changed to that of Imperial and Royal Highness .   Today , the style has mainly fallen from use with the exception of the . In the past , the style has been applied to more senior members of imperial dynasties , including the French , Turkish , Russian , and Ethiopian imperial houses , among many others . Archdukes of Austria from the Habsburg dynasty held the style of Imperial and Royal Highness ( Kaiserliche und königliche Hoheit ) , with the `` Royal '' signifying their status as Princes of Hungary and Bohemia . They were also addressed as `` Imperial Highness '' ( Kaiserliche Hoheit ) . Members of the British royal family , theoretically , as the imperial family of India could have used the title , but did not .   Category : Styles ( manners of address )   es : Tratamientos protocolares de la monarquía