query: Shania Twain is a musical artist that writes songs.

pos: Shania Twain Shania Twain , OC ( -LSB- ʃəˈnaɪ.ə _ ˈtweɪn -RSB- born Eilleen Regina Edwards ; August 28 , 1965 ) is a Canadian singer and songwriter . Twain has sold over 85 million records , making her the best-selling female artist in the history of country music and one of the best-selling music artists of all time . Her success garnered her several honorific titles including the `` Queen of Country Pop '' .   Twain 's second album , 1995 's The Woman in Me , brought her widespread success selling 20 million copies worldwide , spawning hits such as `` Any Man of Mine '' and earning her a Grammy Award . Twain 's third album , Come On Over , became the best-selling studio album of all time by a female act in any genre and the best-selling country album , selling around 40 million copies worldwide . Come On Over produced several singles , including `` You 're Still the One '' , `` From This Moment On '' and `` Man ! I Feel Like a Woman ! '' , and earned Twain four Grammy Awards . Her fourth and latest studio album , Up ! , was released in 2002 and , like her previous two albums , was also certified Diamond in the U.S. , spawning hits like `` I 'm Gon na Getcha Good ! '' and `` Forever and for Always '' .   Twain has received five Grammy Awards , 27 BMI Songwriter awards , stars on Canada 's Walk of Fame and the Hollywood Walk of Fame , and an induction into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame . She is the only female artist in history to have three consecutive albums certified Diamond by the RIAA . Altogether , Twain is ranked as the 10th best-selling artist of the Nielsen SoundScan era .   In 2004 , Twain retired from performing and retreated to her home in Switzerland . In her 2011 autobiography , she cited a weakening singing voice as the reason for not performing publicly . When both her singing and speaking were affected , Twain consulted the Vanderbilt Dayani Center in Nashville . Specialists discovered lesions on her vocal cords and diagnosed her with dysphonia , all treatable with careful rehabilitation . In 2012 , Twain returned to the concert stage in her critically acclaimed show Still the One , exclusively at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace . In 2015 , Twain returned to the road for what she has billed as her farewell tour . The Rock This Country tour kicked off on June 5 , 2015 in Seattle , Washington and originally concluded in Fresno , California on August 23 but was extended to include additional dates and ended October 27 , 2015 in Kelowna , British Columbia , Canada .

neg: Music of New Hampshire New Hampshire is a state of the United States , located in the New England region . It is home to several professional performing institutions , including the more than 90-year-old fully professional Symphony New Hampshire ( known from 1923-2012 as the Nashua Symphony ) based out of Nashua , and the community-based New Hampshire Philharmonic .   The state of New Hampshire is unusual for having nine state songs .

neg: American popular music American popular music has had a profound effect on music across the world . The country has seen the rise of popular styles that have had a significant influence on global culture , including ragtime , blues , jazz , swing , rock , bluegrass , country , R&B , doo wop , gospel , soul , funk , heavy metal , punk , disco , house , techno , salsa , grunge and hip hop . In addition , the American music industry is quite diverse , supporting a number of regional styles such as zydeco , klezmer and slack-key .   Distinctive styles of American popular music emerged early in the 19th century , and in the 20th century the American music industry developed a series of new forms of music , using elements of blues and other genres of American folk music . These popular styles included country , R&B , jazz and rock . The 1960s and 1970s saw a number of important changes in American popular music , including the development of a number of new styles , such as heavy metal , punk , soul , and hip hop . Though these styles were not in the sense of mainstream , they were commercially recorded and are thus examples of popular music as opposed to folk or classical music .

neg: American Music Award for Favorite Country Female Artist The American Music Award for Favorite Country Female Artist ( now titled Favorite Female Artist - Country ) has been awarded since 1974 .   Years reflect the year in which the American Music Awards were presented , for works released in the previous year ( until 2003 onward when awards were handed out on November of the same year ) .   The all-time winner in this category is Reba McEntire with ten ( ' 88 ' , ' 89 , ' 90 , ' 91 , ' 92 , ' 93 , ' 94 , ' 95 , ' 98 , ' 04 ) wins stretching across three decades . McEntire was also the first woman to win the award 8 years in a row .   Second place belongs to Barbara Mandrell ( ' 81 , ' 82 , ' 83 , ' 84 , ' 85 , ' 87 ) and Taylor Swift ( ' 08 , ' 09 , ' 10 , ' 11 , ' 12 , ' 13 ) , who both won the award six times .   Tied in third place are Faith Hill ( ' 01 , ' 02 , ' 03 , and ' 06 ) , Shania Twain ( ' 96 , ' 97 , ' 99 , and ' 00 ) , and Carrie Underwood ( ' 07 , ' 14 , ' 15 , and ' 16 ) , who have each won 4 times , respectively .   Crystal Gayle ( ' 79 , ' 80 , and ' 86 ) has won three times .

neg: Honey I'm Home Honey I 'm Home may refer to :   `` Honey , I 'm Home '' , a 1998 song by Shania Twain  Honey I 'm Home ( album ) , a 2009 album by Al B. Sure !

neg: Jay Orpin Jay Orpin ( born April 29 , 1976 in Stockholm , Sweden ) is a Swedish and Finnish songwriter and producer . He also writes songs and produced for Backstreet Boys , NSYNC , Robyn , Ace of Base , Bon Jovi , 2gether and Britney Spears , and later he produced songs for Good Charlotte , Sum 41 , Simple Plan , Hawthorne Heights , Red Jumpsuit Apparatus , My Chemical Romance , Tokio Hotel , Lindsay Lohan , Dashboard Confessional , All American Rejects , Fall Out Boy , AFI , Evanescence , Hollywood Undead , t.A.T.u. , Yellowcard , Hannah Montana , Linkin Park , Bullet for My Valentine and Taking Back Sunday . Most of his music is under the influence of today 's modern pop punk , dance-punk , and emo music , but he does write some pop and hip-hop music as well . He also teamed up with Travis Barker in 2007 , remixing popular hip-hop singles such as Throw Some D 's , Party Like a Rockstar , and Crank That Soulja Boy . Even though he has written some of the works of some of the aforementioned artists , he is not one of the main producers of many of these artists and he chooses not to put his credit for his work . An original song written by such composer to be cited is yet to be found , however some has claimed an abbreviation of his name in one of the albums . In late 2008 , he has decided to move in a small town near Oulu , Finland to raise his family and is a high school teacher and does accounting for bill paying in the summer to support the family , along with music production projects part-time , but he still continues to produce music today , but not as much as he used to . He did come back to help write a few new songs , such as In My Head by Jason Derulo . He has quit his part-time job in accounting to allow more time back in the music production business , to make a revival .   One of his most prominent projects is producing the band and influencing the style of the American band Hawthorne Heights . He did some marketing and helped the band members make a more marketable sound , by making the sound of the earlier albums he helped produced Bon Jovi with Max Martin and adding the rock flavor to it . That rock sound made the two premier Hawthorne Heights albums become massively popular . One of his biggest masterpieces , Ohio Is for Lovers made a massive sensation throughout adolescence as an anthem of teen angst . Hawthorne Heights has cited the producer with the slogan `` Pop is Dead '' in advertisement , to generally prove that the manufactured boy band pop era is dead along with a protest of his production of many corporate pop punk bands that made the charts around 2004 . While most of the music he produces is generally American , he produces bands from Germany , Russia , France , Sweden , Canada , Finland , Australia , and the United Kingdom . His work for t.A.T.u. and Tokio Hotel made the popularity of t.A.T.u. rise in Finland and Sweden .

neg: Shania (given name) Shania is a feminine given name , popularized by the country and pop singer Shania Twain , who said her stage name is derived from an Ojibwa Indigenious phrase meaning `` on my way . ''

neg: Dueling pianos Dueling pianos ( also known simply as `` sing-along '' ) is a form of entertainment , usually on stage with two grand pianos , each played by a professional player who sings and entertains ; humor and audience participation are prevalent . Usually these types of piano bars have substantial sound systems , and most of the songs performed are rock and roll , `` classic rock '' , Top 40 , R&B , or country , played primarily by request . The modern format originated in late 1986 at Alley Cats in Dallas , Texas , and was based on the old-style dueling pianos still found at Pat O'Brien 's Bar in New Orleans .   __ TOC __

neg: Americana Americana are artifacts , or a collection of artifacts , related to the history , geography , folklore and cultural heritage of the United States . Many kinds of material fall within the definition of Americana : paintings , prints and drawings ; license plates or entire vehicles , household objects , tools and weapons ; flags , plaques and statues , and so on . Patriotism and nostalgia play defining roles in the subject . The things involved need not be old , but need to have the appropriate associations . The Atlantic described the term as `` slang for the comforting , middle-class ephemera at your average antique store -- things like needle-pointed pillows , Civil War daguerreotypes , and engraved silverware sets . '' The term may be used to describe the theme of a museum or collection , or of goods for sale .   The term can also be used to describe studies of American culture , especially studies based in other countries . Americana music is contemporary music that incorporates elements of various American roots music styles , including country , roots-rock , folk , bluegrass and blues , resulting in a distinctive roots-oriented sound .

neg: Play On (Carrie Underwood album) Play On is the third studio album by American singer and songwriter Carrie Underwood . It was released in the United States on November 3 , 2009 , through Arista Nashville .   The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first week sales of 318,000 copies , which was rated as the highest first-week sales for a female artist in 2009 upon release . It is her second album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 , and her third to debut atop the Billboard Top Country Albums chart .   As of October 2016 , the album has been certified 3x Platinum by the RIAA , Platinum by the CRIA and Gold by the ARIA . Play On has since sold over three million copies worldwide .   The album spawned three consecutive Billboard Hot Country Songs number one singles -- `` Cowboy Casanova '' , `` Temporary Home '' and `` Undo It '' , all of which certified Multi-Platinum or Platinum by the RIAA . The fourth single , `` Mama 's Song '' , reached number two on the chart and received a Gold certification from the RIAA . `` Cowboy Casanova '' achieved one of the biggest single-week upwards on the Billboard Hot 100 of all time , when it climbed 96-11 in its second week .   `` Temporary Home '' and `` Mama 's Song '' were both nominated for Grammy Awards , while Play On was nominated for Album of the Year at both the 2010 Academy of Country Music Awards and Country Music Association Awards , and won Favorite Country Album at the 2010 American Music Awards .

neg: Maroon music Maroon Music is a genre involving people of African descent that were not born on the continent creating songs in an African language ( as opposed to their first language ) . It is named after the Maroon ( people ) , African refugees who escaped from slavery in the Americas and formed independent settlements . Just as the Maroon people created their own societies in lands foreign to them in attempts to retain their freedom , Maroon music is an attempt by African American artists to reacquire their Mother tongue through writing music in an indigenous African language . Maroon Music subject matter centers around stories about Maroon leaders and other historic freedom fighters of African descent , Maroon groups , peace , unity , and righteousness .   In the intro to Maroon music artist , Adetokunbo 's first album `` Maroon Music '' the history of the genre is explained :   `` African refugees that escaped slavery in the Americas and formed independent settlements were called Maroons . The term can also be applied to their descendants . The same root word also gives us the English verb `` to maroon '' .   When runaway slaves banded together and subsisted independently they were called Maroons . On the Caribbean islands , runaway slaves formed bands and on some islands formed armed camps . Maroon communities faced great odds to survive against oppressive attackers , obtain food for subsistence living , and to reproduce and increase their numbers .  There is much variety among Maroon cultural groups because of differences in history , geography , African nationality , and the culture of indigenous people throughout the Western hemisphere .   Maroon settlements sometimes developed creole languages by mixing European tongues with their original African languages . Other times the Maroons would adopt the local European language as a common tongue , for members of the community frequently spoke a variety of Mother Tongues .   What you are about to hear is a family 's journey to reacquire their Mother Tongue through song . Their goal is to reacquire that which was lost in the Middle Passage . Let this music , Maroon Music , serve as their testament to freedom in a world that has nothing but contempt for the self liberated . ''   Maroon music is less concerned with the perfection and fluency of speech of the African language but more with the exercise of learning and improving communication , while providing subtitles and written keys in English so that others will understand the message attempting to be conveyed by the artist . As pidgin English is noted as `` is a simplified version of a language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common Pidgin , Maroon music employs the pidginization or Creolization of African languages as a simplified means for African Americans to communicate with indigenous Africans . For this reason , key 's and subtitles in Maroon Music videos are an essential component for conveying intended meaning to both indigenous Africans and those born abroad .   The Maroons are a number of diverse peoples in the Caribbean , South America , North America and Central America , the descendants of escaped slaves . The Seminole music tradition of the United States is an example , as are numerous communities in Jamaica , Suriname and French Guiana .   The Surinamese , Guyanese , and French Guianan escaped slaves managed to hide in the dense jungles of the area , and formed communities like the Aluku , Saramaka and Ndjuka . Their traditional sung stories are called mato , and there is also a kind of popular Maroon music called aleke . Traditional dances include awasa , a women 's social dance .   The Jamaican Maroons are known for instruments like the abeng , a kind of horn .

neg: Carrie Underwood discography American singer and songwriter Carrie Underwood has released five studio albums and 29 singles . Underwood rose to fame after winning the fourth season of American Idol in 2005 . Her debut album , Some Hearts , was released in 2005 and is the fastest-selling debut country album in Nielsen SoundScan history . It also became the best-selling solo female country debut in Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) history , as well as the top-selling debut album of any American Idol contestant in the United States .   Her second album , Carnival Ride , was released in 2007 and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 charts . During the first week , it sold 527,000 copies , which at the time was the best sales week by a female solo country artist since Shania Twain 's Greatest Hits sold 530,000 copies in its first week back in 2004 . The album has since been certified 4x Platinum .   Underwood released her third studio album , Play On , on November 3 , 2009 . It debuted at number one on the Top Country Albums chart and the all-genre Billboard 200 . It features the number one singles `` Cowboy Casanova '' , `` Temporary Home '' , and `` Undo It '' , as well as the number two single , `` Mama 's Song '' . The album has since been certified 3x Platinum in the US , Platinum in Canada , and Gold in Australia . On June 2011 , the album re-entered the Australian Albums Charts for both the ARIA National Top 50 and the Country Top 20 albums at number 14 and number one , respectively , giving Underwood her first number one album in Australia . The album was eventually certified Gold in Australia .   On May 1 , 2012 , Underwood released her fourth album , Blown Away . In the United States , it sold 267,000 albums in its first week and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and the Top Country Albums charts . It debuted at number one in Canada 's Top 200 all-genre albums chart and Top 100 Country albums chart , being immediately certified Gold . The album also debuted at number one on Australia 's Top 20 Country Albums and number four on the all-genre Top 50 Albums . The album has been certified 2x Platinum in the United States and Canada .   On December 9 , 2014 , Underwood released her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits : Decade # 1 . The compilation debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and at number one on the Top Country Albums charts , and set several records upon release , including having the biggest sales debut for a hits collection in any genre of music in more than six years and the biggest first-week sales for a female hits album in any genre in over nine years . The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA on January 16 , 2015 .   Underwood 's fifth studio album , Storyteller was released on October 23 , 2015 . The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 . This made Underwood the only country artist to have his or her first five studio albums debut at number one or number two on the Billboard 200 chart . It also debuted atop the Top Country Albums chart , earning Underwood another record as the only artist to score six consecutive number one albums on that chart . The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA on October 24 , 2016 .   Underwood has sold in excess of 65 million records globally . In the United States , she has sold 16.3 million albums and over 34.8 million digital singles , making her the best-selling American Idol contestant of all-time . She is the top country artist and the fifth highest-certified female artist on the RIAA Top Artists ( Digital Singles ) Ranking . She is also the fourth biggest album seller among artists who have debuted the past 13 years . Underwood has accumulated 85 Billboard number-ones . She has had 15 singles top the Billboard Country Airplay , and 14 singles top the Hot Country Songs , respectively . Notably , Underwood garnered twenty-six consecutive top 10 singles on the Hot Country Songs chart , the longest streak of top ten singles for a country artist .

neg: Legal issues surrounding music sampling Music sampling is the subject of many legal disputes , chiefly in the realm of copyright law as it applies to musical compositions and sound recordings .   Early sampling artists simply used portions of other artists ' recordings without permission , but once music incorporating samples began to make significant money , some sampled artists , publishers , and record companies began to take legal action , claiming copyright infringement . Sometimes , after the threat or initiation of a lawsuit , such disputes are settled out of court , often with the sampling artist obtaining a license at considerable cost and making other concessions to appease the aggrieved party ; other times , the sampling artist contests the infringement claims , such as by arguing in court that the copyright law does not cover their particular use of the work . The outcome of these court cases , primarily in the United States and the United Kingdom , have shaped common law , defining ways statutory law -- which does not directly cover sampling -- can be applied to sampling disputes .   In accordance to the United States constitution , the laws of copyright permit a number of rights to authors so that they may `` Promote the Progress of Science and Useful Arts . '' This principle brings to light the true reason for copyright law - to develop boundaries economically and legally where learning , science , and culture can progress .

neg: Mailboat Records Mailboat Records is an independent record label established in 1999 by American singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett after his vanity label Margaritaville Records was absorbed by Island Records when they were sold to Universal Music Group , owner of Buffett 's previous label MCA Records . Mailboat 's first release was Buffett 's Buffett Live : Tuesdays , Thursdays , Saturdays . In addition to Buffett , the label 's roster includes Dan Fogelberg , Bret Michaels , Boz Scaggs , Def Leppard ( North America only ) , Walter Becker , Jim Mayer , and Mark Twain : Words & Music , a compilation CD featuring Jimmy Buffett as Huckleberry Finn , Clint Eastwood as Mark Twain , and narration by Garrison Keillor . Other featured artists on the Twain project include Brad Paisley , Sheryl Crow , Emmylou Harris , Vince Gill , Ricky Skaggs , and Joe Diffie . The Twain project is a benefit for the Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum in Hannibal , Missouri .   Harold Sulman is the president of Mailboat Records .

neg: Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song The Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song was a new category at the 2015 ceremony of the annual Grammy Awards . It combines two previously separate categories in the Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music field , Best Contemporary Christian Music Song and Best Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music Performance . The new category recognizes both songwriters and performers ( solo/duos/groups / collaborations/etc . ) and is open for singles or tracks only . Songwriters are only awarded a Grammy Award if it is a newly written song . Grammy 's for cover versions of previously recorded songs are awarded to the performer ( s ) only .   Along with the also newly formed Best Gospel Performance/Song category , these mark the only Grammy categories which honor both performers and songwriters in one category .   These changes were made in June 2014 by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences `` in the interest of clarifying the criteria , representing the current culture and creative DNA of the gospel and Contemporary Christian Music communities , and better reflecting the diversity and authenticity of today 's gospel music industry . ''   According to the Grammy committee , the move recognizes `` the critical contribution of both songwriters and performers by combining songwriters and artists into the Best Gospel Performance/Song and Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song categories . ''   Gospel performances , which were previously recognized in the Best Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music Performance category , will now fall under the newly created Best Gospel Performance/Song category .

neg: Eve's Diary `` Eve 's Diary '' is a comic short story by Mark Twain .  It was first published in the 1905 Christmas issue of the magazine Harper 's Bazaar , and in book format in June 1906 by Harper and Brothers publishing house .

neg: Backing vocalist Backing vocalists are singers who provide vocal harmony with the lead vocalist or other backing vocalists . In some cases , a backing singer may sing alone as a lead-in to the main vocalist 's entry or to sing a counter-melody . Backing vocalists are used in a broad range of popular music , traditional music and world music styles .   Solo artists may employ professional backing vocalists in studio recording sessions as well as during concerts . In many rock and metal bands ( e.g. , the power trio ) , the musicians doing backup vocals also play instruments , such as guitar , electric bass , drums , or keyboards . In Latin or Afro-Cuban groups , backup singers may play percussion instruments or shakers while singing . In some pop and hip-hop groups and in musical theater , the backup singers may be required to perform elaborately choreographed dance routines while they sing through headset microphones .   The style of singing used by backup singers varies according to the type of song and the genre of music the band plays . In pop and country songs , backup vocalists may perform vocal harmony parts to support the lead vocalist . In hardcore punk or rockabilly , other band members who play instruments may sing or shout backup vocals during the chorus ( refrain ) section of the songs .

neg: Joshua Ray Josh `` Joshua Ray '' Gooch ( born January 16 , 1991 ) is an American guitarist , songwriter and music producer . Joshua is the lead guitarist for Shania Twain . Joshua has also toured with Koshi Inaba of B ' z and blues artist Beth Hart . He has recorded with producers Ross Hogarth , Don Gehman , and Johnny Sandlin . Joshua is managed by Robert M. Knight .

neg: That Don't Impress Me Much `` That Do n't Impress Me Much '' is a song co-written and recorded by Canadian country music singer Shania Twain . It was released in December 1998 as the sixth country single from her third studio album , Come On Over . It was third to pop and fourth to international markets . The song was written by Robert John `` Mutt '' Lange and Twain , and was originally released to North American country radio stations in late 1998 . It became her third biggest single on the Billboard Hot 100 and remains one of Twain 's biggest hits worldwide . `` That Do n't Impress Me Much '' was included in both the Come on Over and Up ! Tours . The country version was performed on the Come on Over Tour and the dance version on the Up ! Tour . `` That Do n't Impress Me Much '' was named Foreign Hit of the Year at the 2000 Danish Grammy Awards .   A dance-pop remix of the song was used as the official song of the 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup . It was later featured on Twain 's Greatest Hits album .

neg: List of songs written by Bonnie McKee American singer and songwriter Bonnie McKee has co-written eight number-one singles , which have sold more than 30 million copies worldwide combined . Her debut album Trouble was released in September 2004 . She singlehandedly wrote all but one song on the album , some when she was 14 and 15 years old . A standalone single , `` American Girl , '' was released in 2013 . An album was due for release in spring of 2014 but , by the end of the year , had not yet materialized , Instead , an EP , Bombastic was released in June 2015 .   McKee also has over 50 songwriting credits for songs that have been recorded by other artists . Eight of these have topped either the British or the American charts . McKee has collaborated with pop singer Katy Perry , and the pair have written five of Perry 's number-one singles together : `` California Gurls '' , `` Teenage Dream '' , `` Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) '' , `` Part of Me '' and `` Roar '' . McKee has also written four other songs recorded by Perry . She co-wrote five songs on Britney Spears ' seventh studio album Femme Fatale , including `` Hold It Against Me '' , which topped the Billboard Hot 100 . McKee has co-written two singles that reached the number-one position on the UK Singles Chart : `` Dynamite '' by Taio Cruz and `` How We Do ( Party ) '' by Rita Ora . `` Dynamite '' became the second-best-selling song by a British artist in the digital era . In 2012 , McKee co-wrote three songs on Adam Lambert 's album Trespassing and two songs for Ke $ ha 's album Warrior , `` C'Mon '' and `` Supernatural '' , the former of which served as the second single from the record . She also co-wrote two songs that appear on Leona Lewis ' album Glassheart , including the album 's second single `` Lovebird '' . McKee has also co-written songs that have been recorded by Christina Aguilera , Kelly Clarkson , Cher , Carly Rae Jepsen and Ellie Goulding among others .

neg: Unsigned artist An unsigned artist , unsigned band or independent artist is a musician or musical group not under a contract with a record label . The terms are used in the music industry as a marketing technique . Bands that release their own material on self-published CDs can also be considered unsigned bands . Often unsigned bands primarily exist to perform at concerts .   In more recent years , the Internet has helped promote the music of unsigned bands . Artists often post their music as MP3s on websites such as Bandcamp , SoundCloud , Myspace , PureVolume , GarageBand.com and SoundClick .   In 2016 , the Unsigned Music Awards was established in the UK as the first ever televised international awards ceremony to champion artists without the backing of a record label .   UK unsigned bands and musicians are able to use such services as The Unsigned Guide and to gather music industry contact names , phone numbers , websites and social media links , as well as information on how to get signed or market music independently .   Song pitching websites , such as TAXI allow unsigned musicians to see which record labels ( and other music companies ) are currently seeking new music .   Further , companies like Sentric Music and the royalty payment service offered by Last.fm can help in generating income streams for unsigned bands .


query: Tardigrades have been found in at least one habitat.

pos: Tardigrade Tardigrades ( -LSB- ˈtɑrdᵻˌgreɪd -RSB- also known as water bears , space bears , or moss piglets ) are water-dwelling , eight-legged , segmented micro-animals . They were first discovered by the German zoologist Johann August Ephraim Goeze in 1773 . The name Tardigrada ( meaning `` slow stepper '' ) was given three years later by the Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani . They have been found everywhere from mountaintops to the deep sea , mud volcanoes , and from tropical rain forests to the Antarctic .   Tardigrades are one of the most resilient animals known : they can survive extreme conditions that would be rapidly fatal to nearly all other known life forms . They can withstand temperature ranges from 1 K ( close to absolute zero ) to about 420 K for several minutes , pressures about six times greater than those found in the deepest ocean trenches , ionizing radiation at doses hundreds of times higher than the lethal dose for a human , and the vacuum of outer space . They can go without food or water for more than 30 years , drying out to the point where they are 3 % or less water , only to rehydrate , forage , and reproduce . Tardigrades living in harsh conditions undergo an annual process of cyclomorphosis .   They are not considered extremophilic because they are not adapted to exploit these conditions . This means that their chances of dying increase the longer they are exposed to the extreme environments , whereas true extremophiles thrive in a physically or geochemically extreme environment that would harm most other organisms .   Usually , tardigrades are about 0.5 mm long when they are fully grown . They are short and plump with four pairs of legs , each with four to eight claws also known as `` disks '' . The first three pairs of legs are directed ventrolaterally and are the primary means of locomotion , while the fourth pair is directed posteriorly on the terminal segment of the trunk and is used primarily for grasping the substrate . Tardigrades are prevalent in mosses and lichens and feed on plant cells , algae , and small invertebrates . When collected , they may be viewed under a very low-power microscope , making them accessible to students and amateur scientists .   Tardigrades form the phylum Tardigrada , part of the superphylum Ecdysozoa . It is an ancient group , with fossils dating from 530 million years ago , in the Cambrian period . About 1,150 species of tardigrades have been described . Tardigrades can be found throughout the world , from the Himalayas ( above 6000 m ) , to the deep sea ( below 4000 m ) and from the polar regions to the equator .

neg: Globidonta Globidonta is a clade of alligatoroids that includes alligators , caimans , and closely related extinct forms . It is defined as a stem-based clade including Alligator mississippiensis ( the American Alligator ) and all forms more closely related to it than to Diplocynodon . The group 's fossil range extends back into the Late Cretaceous with early alligatoroids such as Albertochampsa and Brachychampsa . Extinct globidontans were particularly common in North America and Eurasia , and their modern range also includes South America . The oldest known globidontan is Acynodon from France , which is also the most basal .   Basal globidontans are characterized by their blunt snouts and bulbous teeth . Modern globidontans have flattened snouts and more conical teeth , and are seen as more generalized than earlier globidontans . Generalized forms are usually expected to be ancestral to more specialized forms rather than descendants of them , so it is unusual for basal members of the group to appear specialized . This seems to conflict with the `` Law of the Unspecialized '' first proposed by Edward Drinker Cope in 1894 . Under the Law of the Unspecialized , morphological change is always directed toward specialization , and specialized forms can never become `` unspecialized '' again . This pattern of change , while not seen in globidontans , can be observed in basal members of Alligatoroidea and Crocodyloidea .   Flat-snouted globidontans occurred two times in the evolution of the clade : once in caimans and once in alligators . Alligator sinensis , the Chinese Alligator , has a snout that is somewhat blunt and could be considered specialized . However , its snout is not nearly as blunt as those of more basal globidontans such as Albertachampsa .   If the last common ancestor of Diplocynodon and globidontans was more like Diplocynodon , it would have had a generalized snout shape . It is also possible that the generalized form of Diplocynodon may also have arisen from a specialized blunt-snouted ancestor . Baryphracta , a diplocynodontine closely related to Diplocynondon , has a blunt snout and may have been similar in appearance to such an ancestor .

neg: Eurypterid Eurypterids ( sea scorpions ) are an extinct group of arthropods related to arachnids that include the largest known arthropods to have ever lived . They are members of the extinct order Eurypterida ( Chelicerata ) ; which is the most diverse Paleozoic chelicerate order in terms of species . The name Eurypterida comes from the Greek words eury - ( meaning `` broad '' or `` wide '' ) and pteron ( meaning `` wing '' ) . This name was chosen due to the pair of wide swimming appendages on the first fossil eurypterids discovered . The largest , such as Jaekelopterus , reached 2.5 m in length , but most species were less than 20 cm . They were formidable predators that thrived in warm shallow water , in both seas and lakes , from the mid Ordovician to late Permian .   Although informally called `` sea scorpions '' , only the earliest ones were marine ( later ones lived in brackish or freshwater ) , and they were not true scorpions . According to theory , the move from the sea to fresh water had probably occurred by the Pennsylvanian subperiod . Eurypterids are believed to have undergone ecdysis , making their significance in ecosystems difficult to assess , because it can be difficult to tell a fossil moult from a true fossil carcass . They became extinct during the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or sometime before the event . Their fossils have a near global distribution .   About two dozen families of eurypterids are known . Perhaps the best-known genus of eurypterid is Eurypterus , of which around 16 fossil species are known . The genus Eurypterus was described in 1825 by James Ellsworth De Kay , a zoologist . He recognized the arthropod nature of the first-ever described eurypterid specimen , found by Dr. S. L. Mitchill . In 1984 , that species , Eurypterus remipes was named the state fossil of New York .   Pentecopterus decorahensis , which lived as early as 467.3 million years ago , is the oldest described eurypterid ; with an estimated length of 1.83 m , it has been described as `` the first real big predator '' .

neg: Gastropoda The Gastropoda or gastropods , more commonly known as snails and slugs , are a large taxonomic class within the phylum Mollusca . The class Gastropoda includes snails and slugs of all kinds and all sizes from microscopic to large . There are many thousands of species of sea snails and sea slugs , as well as freshwater snails , freshwater limpets , land snails and land slugs .   The class Gastropoda contains a vast total of named species , second only to the insects in overall number . The fossil history of this class goes back to the Late Cambrian . There are 611 families of gastropods known , of which 202 are extinct and appear only in the fossil record .   Gastropoda ( previously known as univalves and sometimes spelled `` Gasteropoda '' ) are a major part of the phylum Mollusca , and are the most highly diversified class in the phylum , with 65,000 to 80,000 living snail and slug species . The anatomy , behavior , feeding , and reproductive adaptations of gastropods vary significantly from one clade or group to another . Therefore , it is difficult to state many generalities for all gastropods .   The class Gastropoda has an extraordinary diversification of habitats . Representatives live in gardens , woodland , deserts , and on mountains ; in small ditches , great rivers and lakes ; in estuaries , mudflats , the rocky intertidal , the sandy subtidal , in the abyssal depths of the oceans including the hydrothermal vents , and numerous other ecological niches , including parasitic ones .   Although the name `` snail '' can be , and often is , applied to all the members of this class , commonly this word means only those species with an external shell big enough that the soft parts can withdraw completely into it . Those gastropods without a shell , and those with only a very reduced or internal shell , are usually known as slugs ; those with a shell into which they can not withdraw are termed limpets .   The marine shelled species of gastropod include edible species such as abalone , conches , periwinkles , whelks , and numerous other sea snails that produce seashells that are coiled in the adult stage -- though in some , the coiling may not be very visible , for example in cowries . In a number of families of species , such as all the various limpets , the shell is coiled only in the larval stage , and is a simple conical structure after that .

neg: Grenadiers (fish) Grenadiers or rattails are generally large , brown to black gadiform marine fish of the family Macrouridae . Found at great depths from the Arctic to Antarctic , members of this family are amongst the most abundant of the deep-sea fish .   The macrourids form a large and diverse family with 28 extant genera recognized ( well over half of the total species are contained in just three genera , Coelorinchus , Coryphaenoides , and Nezumia ) . They range in length from about 10 cm in Hymenogadus gracilis to 1.5 m in Albatrossia pectoralis . An important commercial fishery exists for the larger species , such as the giant grenadier and Coryphaenoides rupestris . The family as a whole may represent up to 15 % of the deep-sea fish population .   Typified by large heads with large mouths and eyes , grenadiers have slender bodies that taper greatly to very thin caudal peduncles or tails ( excluding one species with no tail fin ) : this rat-like tail explains the common name ` rattail ' and the family name Macrouridae , from the Greek makros meaning `` great '' and oura meaning `` tail '' . The first dorsal fin is small , high , and pointed ( and may be spinous ) ; the second dorsal fin runs along the rest of the back and merges with the tail and extensive anal fin . The scales are small .   As with many deep-living fish , the lateral line system in grenadiers is well-developed ; it is further aided by numerous chemoreceptors located on the head and lips and chemosensory barbels underneath the chin . Benthic species have gas bladders with unique muscles attached to them . The animals are thought to use these muscles to `` strum '' their gas bladders and produce sound , possibly playing a role in courtship and mate location . Light-producing organs , photophores , are present in some species ; they are located in the middle of the abdomen , just before the anus and underneath the skin .   Living at depths from 200 to , grenadiers are the most common benthic fish of the deep ( however , two genera are known to prefer the midwater ) . They may be solitary or may form large schools , as with the roundnose grenadiers . The benthic species are attracted to structural oases , such as hydrothermal vents , cold seeps , and shipwrecks . They are thought to be generalists , feeding on smaller fish , pelagic crustaceans such as shrimp , amphipods , cumaceans , and less often cephalopods and lanternfish . As well as being important apex predators in the benthic habitat , some species are also notable as scavengers .   As few rattail larvae have been recovered , little is known of their life histories . They are known to produce a large number ( over 100,000 ) of tiny ( 1 - in diameter ) eggs made buoyant by lipid droplets . The eggs are presumed to float up to the thermocline ( the interface between warmer surface waters and cold , deeper waters ) where they develop . The juveniles remain in shallower waters , gradually migrating to greater depths with age .   Spawning may or may not be tied to the seasons , depending on the species . At least one species , Coryphaenoides armatus , is thought to be semelparous ; that is , the adults die after spawning . Nonsemelparous species may live to 56 years or more . The macrourids , in general , are thought to have low resilience ; commercially exploited species may be overfished and this could soon lead to a collapse of their fisheries .

neg: Ostracod Ostracods , or ostracodes , are a class of the Crustacea ( class Ostracoda ) , sometimes known as seed shrimp . Some 70,000 species ( only 13,000 of which are extant ) have been identified , grouped into several orders . They are small crustaceans , typically around 1 mm in size , but varying from 0.2 to in the case of Gigantocypris . Their bodies are flattened from side to side and protected by a bivalve-like , chitinous or calcareous valve or `` shell '' . The hinge of the two valves is in the upper ( dorsal ) region of the body . Ostracods are grouped together based on gross morphology , but the group may not be monophyletic ; their molecular phylogeny remains ambiguous .   Ecologically , marine ostracods can be part of the zooplankton or ( most commonly ) are part of the benthos , living on or inside the upper layer of the sea floor . Many ostracods , especially the Podocopida , are also found in fresh water , and terrestrial species of Mesocypris are known from humid forest soils of South Africa , Australia and New Zealand . They have a wide range of diets , and the group includes carnivores , herbivores , scavengers and filter feeders .   As of 2008 , around 2000 species and 200 genera of nonmarine ostracods are found . However , a large portion of diversity is still undescribed , indicated by undocumented diversity hotspots of temporary habitats in Africa and Australia . Of the known specific and generic diversity of nonmarine ostracods , half ( 1000 species , 100 genera ) belongs to one family ( of 13 families ) , Cyprididae . Many Cyprididae occur in temporary water bodies and have drought-resistant eggs , mixed/parthenogenetic reproduction , and the ability to swim . These biological attributes preadapt them to form successful radiations in these habitats .

neg: Chameleon Chameleons or chamaeleons ( family Chamaeleonidae ) are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of Old World lizards with 202 species described as of June 2015 . These species come in a range of colors , and many species have the ability to change color .   Chameleons are distinguished by their zygodactylous feet ; their very extensive , highly modified , rapidly extrudable tongues ; their swaying gait ; and crests or horns on their brow and snout . Most species , the larger ones in particular , also have a prehensile tail . Chameleons ' eyes are independently mobile , but in aiming at a prey item , they focus forward in coordination , affording the animal stereoscopic vision .   Chameleons are adapted for Climbing and visual hunting . They live in warm habitats that range from rain forest to Desert conditions , with various species occurring in Africa , Madagascar , southern Europe , and across southern Asia as far as Sri Lanka . They also have been introduced to Hawaii , California , and Florida , and often are kept as household pets .

neg: Ceratopsia Ceratopsia or Ceratopia ' ( -LSB- ˌsɛrəˈtɒpsiə -RSB- or -LSB- ˌsɛrəˈtoʊpiə -RSB- Greek : `` horned faces '' ) is a group of herbivorous , beaked dinosaurs that thrived in what are now North America , Europe , and Asia , during the Cretaceous Period , although ancestral forms lived earlier , in the Jurassic . The earliest known ceratopsian , Yinlong downsi , lived between 161.2 and 155.7 million years ago . The last ceratopsian species , Triceratops prorsus , became extinct during the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , .   Early members of the ceratopsian group , such as Psittacosaurus , were small bipedal animals . Later members , including ceratopsids like Centrosaurus and Triceratops , became very large quadrupeds and developed elaborate facial horns and frills extending over the neck . While these frills might have served to protect the vulnerable neck from predators , they may also have been used for display , thermoregulation , the attachment of large neck and chewing muscles or some combination of the above . Ceratopsians ranged in size from 1 meter ( 3 ft ) and 23 kilograms ( 50 lb ) to over 9 meters ( 30 ft ) and 9,100 kg ( 20,100 lb ) . Triceratops is by far the best-known ceratopsian to the general public . It is traditional for ceratopsian genus names to end in '' - ceratops '' , although this is not always the case . One of the first named genera was Ceratops itself , which lent its name to the group , although it is considered a nomen dubium '' today as its fossil remains have no distinguishing characteristics that are not also found in other ceratopsians .

neg: Taruga (amphibian) Taruga is the only foam-nesting tree frog in the Old World Tree frog family ( Rhacophoridae ) that is endemic to Sri Lanka .   Genus Taruga was previously assigned to the genus Polypedates . As presently understood , Taruga comprises three named species : T. fastigo , T. eques and T. longinasus . Hence two genera of foam-nesting rhacophorid tree frogs are present in Sri Lanka : ( 1 ) Polypedates , with many species in India and Asia but just two in Sri Lanka ( P. maculatus -- widely distributed in South Asia ; and P. cruciger -- endemic to Sri Lanka , albeit widely distributed ) ; and ( 2 ) Taruga , the Sri Lankan endemic forms , whose three constituent species ( T. eques , T. fastigo and T. longinasus ) each have restricted distributions mostly in the forested highlands .  The best character to distinguish the adults of Taruga from Polypedates are a set of prominent cone-like projections around the vent . Furthermore , the supratympanic fold of Taruga is straighter than those in Polypedates . The snout of Taruga is very much acute than that of Polypedates .   Considering tadpoles , the vent of Polypedates forms a tube between left leg and tail , and in Taruga , there is no such tube , only an opening between leg and tail . There are also several more features of the mouth cavity , such as the number of projections on the tongue , shape of the tongue etc. that helps to distinguish Taruga from Polypedates .   Taruga in Sanskrit ( and early-Sinhala ) means `` tree climber '' . This name is very appropriate as the adults of these are tree inhabiting frogs , and rarely come to the ground . They often even lay their eggs on vegetation overhanging water .   All three frogs need shade in the form of a canopy to survive , and shallow and slow flowing streams or puddles to breed .   The female of the species builds a foamy nest overhanging water where eggs develop for a few days , after which tadpoles fall into water where they undergo further development until metamorphosis occurs . The juvenile frogs that emerge from water return to an arboreal life , on trees .   Sri Lanka is now known to contain clade level endemicity despite many land-bridge connections with India . Taruga is yet another such deeply divergent clade .   Following scientists contributed to this paper : Dr. Madhava Meegaskumbura ( Dept. of Zoology , University of Peradeniya , Sri Lanka ) ; Dr. Suyama Meegaskumbura ( Dept. of Zoology , University of Peradeniya ) , Mr. Gayan Bowatte ( Dept. of Zoology , University of Peradeniya ) , Prof. Christopher J. Schneider ( Boston University , USA ) and Prof. James Hanken ( Harvard University , USA ) .

neg: Mosasaurinae The Mosasaurinae are a subfamily of mosasaurid marine lizards .   Russell ( 1967 , pp. 123 -- 124 ) defined the Mosasurinae as differing from all other mosasaurs as follows : `` Small rostrum present or absent anterior to premaxillary teeth . Fourteen or more teeth present in dentary and maxilla . Cranial nerves X , XI , and XII leave lateral wall of opisthotic through two foramina . No canal or groove in floor of basioccipital or basisphenoid for basilar artery . Suprastapedial process of quadrate distally expanded . Dorsal edge of surangular thin lamina of bone rising anteriorly to posterior surface of coronoid ... At least 31 , usually 42 -- 45 presacral vertebrae present . Length of presacral series exceeds that of postsacral , neural spines of posterior caudal vertebrae elongated to form distinct fin . Appendicular elements with smoothly finished articular surfaces , tarsus and carpus well ossified . '' In his 1997 revision of the phylogeny of the Mosasauroidea , Bell ( pp. 293 -- 332 ) retained the Mosasaurinae as a clade , though he reassigned Russell 's tribe Prognathodontini to the Mosasaurinae and recognized a new tribe of mosasaurines , the Globidensini .    Genera referrable to the Mosasaurinae ( `` mosasaurines '' ) have been found on all continents except Australia and South America . The lineage first appears in the Turonian and thrived until the mass extinction event at the end of the Maastrichtian . They ranged in size from one of the smallest known mosasaurs ( Carinodens , 3 -- 3.5 meters ) , to medium-sized taxa ( Clidastes , 6 + meters ) , to the largest of the mosasaurs ( Mosasaurus hoffamannii ) reaching about 17 m in length . Many genera of mosasaurines were either piscivorous or generalists , preying on fish and other marine reptiles , but one lineage , the Globidensini , evolved specialized crushing teeth , adapting to a diet of ammonites and/or marine turtles .

neg: History of the Burgess Shale The Burgess Shale , a series of fossil beds in the Canadian Rockies , was first noticed in 1886 by Richard McConnell of the Geological Survey of Canada ( GSC ) . His and subsequent finds , all from the Mount Stephen area , came to the attention of palaeontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott , who in 1907 found time to reconnoitre the area . He opened a quarry in 1910 and in a series of field trips brought back 65,000 specimens , which he identified as Middle Cambrian in age . Due to the quantity of fossils and the pressures of his other duties at the Smithsonian Institution , Walcott was only able to publish a series of `` preliminary '' papers , in which he classified the fossils within taxa that were already established . In a series of visits beginning in 1924 , Harvard University professor Percy Raymond collected further fossils from Walcott 's quarry and higher up on Fossil Ridge , where slightly different fossils were preserved .   Interest in the area 's fossil beds faded after Raymond 's 1930s expeditions . In the early 1960s Harry B. Whittington was persuaded that further investigation was required , and organised surveys in partnership with the Geological Survey of Canada . These new specimens led him to set up a team to re-examine Walcott 's fossils , which had languished in a store-room at the Smithsonian since Walcott 's death in 1927 . In the early 1970s the team published papers that diagnosed many of the specimens as fossils of previously unknown types of animals , some possibly belonging to new phyla . These analyses heightened interest in the existing debate about whether the Cambrian explosion represented a truly abrupt evolution of recognisable animals or was the result of a longer development , most of which was hidden by gaps in the known sets of fossils that had been found .   All this time no Canadian museum had its own collection of Burgess Shale fossils . In 1975 the Royal Ontario Museum ( ROM ) began collecting , found 7,750 new specimens around the existing sites , and discovered similar fossil beds up to 40 km away . Their collection currently stands at 140,000 specimens and growing , and the rate at which new species are found suggests that the Burgess Shale will continue to produce important discoveries for the foreseeable future .

neg: List of birds of Brazil Brazil has one of the richest bird diversities in the world . The avifauna of Brazil include a total of 1799 species , of which 231 are endemic . Four have been introduced by humans , 69 are rare or accidental , and four are extinct or extirpated . An additional 24 species are hypothetical ( see below ) .   Brazil hosts about 60 % of the bird species recorded for all of South America . These numbers are still increasing almost every year , due to new occurrences , new species being described , or splits of existing species . About 10 % of the bird species found in Brazil are , nonetheless , threatened .   In June 2013 a simultaneous discovery of fifteen bird species in Brazil was announced , the first such since 1871 , when August von Pelzeln described forty new species . The birds were from the families Corvidae , Thamnophilidae , Dendrocolaptidae , Tyrannidae , and Polioptilidae . Eleven of the new species are endemics of Brazil and four also inhabit Peru and Bolivia .   This list 's taxonomic treatment ( designation and sequence of orders , families , and species ) and nomenclature ( common and scientific names ) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World , 2016 edition . Except as an entry is cited otherwise , the list of species is that of the South American Classification Committee ( SACC ) of the American Ornithologists ' Union . The taxonomy used by the SACC differs from `` Clements '' , and significant differences in names are noted . Especially see typical antbirds and puffbirds ; entries in those families increase the above total species count by two and decrease the endemic count by one , respectively .   Differences from `` Clements '' in the sequence of orders , families , and species within families are not noted . Several new species have been proposed and are under consideration by the SACC ; one is listed here .   The following tags have been used to highlight certain categories , but not all species fall into one of these categories . Those that do not are commonly occurring native species .   ( A ) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in Brazil  ( E ) Endemic - a species endemic to Brazil  ( I ) Introduced - a species introduced to Brazil as a consequence , direct or indirect , of human actions  ( H ) Hypothetical - a species recorded but with `` no tangible evidence '' according to the SACC

neg: Saurosphargidae Saurosphargidae is an extinct family of marine reptiles known from the early Middle Triassic ( Anisian stage ) of Europe and China .   The type species of the family is Saurosphargis volzi , named by Friedrich von Huene in 1936 based on a single specimen collected from the lower Anisian Lower Muschelkalk of Gogolin , Poland - a section of 12 incomplete back vertebrae with ribs . The generic name of Saurosphargis is derived from Greek sauros , `` lizard '' , and sphargis , the old genus name for the leatherback turtle , in reference to the dorsal osteoderm `` body armor '' and broadened ribs forming a closed chest rib basket , traits that are seemingly transitional between turtles and other reptiles . However , due to the only known specimen ' destruction during World War II , many authors considered Saurosphargis to be a nomen dubium . Nevertheless , even based on surviving descriptions alone , many differences were noted even from its closest known relative at the time , Eusaurosphargis dalsassoi from the Anisian-Ladinian boundary of the southern Alps . Various hypotheses existed for the affinities of these species , and together with Helveticosaurus , they were originally thought to be placodonts , but later studies suggested relatedness to other sauropterygians and / or ichthyopterygians .   It was n't until nearly a century after the discovery of Saurosphargis , that other specimens closely related to it were found in China . In 2011 , Li et al. described and named three of these specimens , Sinosaurosphargis yunguiensis , referring to this species being the Chinese version of Saurosphargis . The specimens of Sinosaurosphargis were collected from Member II of the Guanling Formation , dating to the Pelsonian ( mid-late Anisian ) . Based on very detailed descriptions and figures of Saurosphargis in Huene ( 1936 ) , and based on comparisons with the well-preserved Sinosauropshargis , Li et al. ( 2011 ) resurrected Saurosphargis volzi as a valid species , and erected the family Saurosphargidae to contain the two . Furthermore , they reported the discovery of material referable to Saurosphargis from the Lower Muschelkalk of Winterswijk , Netherlands , that is under preparation . Saurosphargis and Sinosaurosphargis were included in a phylogenetic analysis , and were recovered in a monophyletic Saurosphargidae which was found to be the sister taxon of Thalattosauriformes . Sauropterygia was recovered as the sister taxon of their combined group , with a clade formed by Eusaurosphargis and Helveticosaurus in a position basal to it .   In 2014 , Li et al. described a second species of Largocephalosaurus , that was initially interpreted as an eosauropterygian due to the limited preparation of the holotype of its type species L. polycarpon . The second species L. qianensis , known from three specimens , and the newly prepared portions of L. polycarpon postcranial skeleton , revealed the same osteoderm `` body armor '' and broadened rib basket that are unique to saurosphargids . Thus , Largocephalosaurus was reinterpreted as a saurosphargid and a phylogenetic analysis recovered both species , forming a monophyletic Largocephalosaurus , as basal to the clade formed by Saurosphargis and Sinosaurosphargis . All four known specimens of Largocephalosaurus came from the Luoping Biota , from Member II of the Guanling Formation , that yielded Sinosaurosphargis , alongside various invertebrates , fish , basal ichthyosaurs , Atopodentatus , and several species of eosauropterygian , including both pachypleurosaurs and nothosaurids .

neg: Desert A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life . The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation . About one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid . This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or `` cold deserts '' . Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls , by the temperature that prevails , by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location .   Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces . Although rain seldom occurs in deserts , there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods . Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the desert floor is further eroded by the wind . This picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms . Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface . Rocks are smoothed down , and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits . The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes . Other deserts are flat , stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones . These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place . Other desert features include rock outcrops , exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water . Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate . There may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers . Where these are found , oases can occur .   Plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment . Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves , water-resistant cuticles and often spines to deter herbivory . Some annual plants germinate , bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture . Animals need to keep cool and find enough food and water to survive . Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day . They tend to be efficient at conserving water , extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine . Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods , ready to become active again when the rare rains fall . They then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy .   People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding semi-arid lands for millennia . Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available and oases have provided opportunities for a more settled way of life . The cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification . Desert farming is possible with the aid of irrigation and the Imperial Valley in California provides an example of how previously barren land can be made productive by the import of water from an outside source . Many trade routes have been forged across deserts , especially across the Sahara Desert , and traditionally were used by caravans of camels carrying salt , gold , ivory and other goods . Large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara . Some mineral extraction also takes place in deserts and the uninterrupted sunlight gives potential for the capture of large quantities of solar energy .

neg: Cestoda Cestoda ( Cestoidea ) is a class of parasitic flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes . Biologists informally refer to them as cestodes . The best-known species are commonly called tapeworms . All cestodes are parasitic and their life histories vary , but typically they live in the digestive tracts of vertebrates as adults , and often in the bodies of other species of animals as juveniles . Over a thousand species have been described , and all vertebrate species may be parasitised by at least one species of tapeworm .   Humans are subject to infection by several species of tapeworms if they eat undercooked meat such as pork ( Taenia solium ) , beef ( T. saginata ) , and fish ( Diphyllobothrium spp . ) , or if they live in , or eat food prepared in , conditions of poor hygiene ( Hymenolepis or Echinococcus species ) .   T. saginata , the beef tapeworm , can grow up to 20 m ( 65 ft ) ; the largest species , the whale tapeworm Polygonoporus giganticus , can grow to over 30 m ( 100 ft ) . Species using small vertebrates as hosts , though , tend to be small . For example , vole and lemming tapeworms are only 13 - in length , and those parasitizing shrews only 0.8 - .   Tapeworm parasites of vertebrates have a long history : recognizable clusters of cestode eggs , one with a developing larva , have been discovered in fossil feces ( coprolites ) of a shark dating to the mid - to late Permian , some 270 million years ago .

neg: Pack hunter A pack hunter or social predator is a predator belonging to the animal kingdom which has evolved to hunt its prey by working together with other members of its species . Normally animals hunting in this way are closely related , and with the exceptions of humans and chimpanzees where only males normally hunt , all individuals in a family group will contribute to hunting . The most commonly known pack hunter is the gray wolf , the closest wild relative of all breeds of domesticated dog . Humans and their closest-living relatives chimpanzees are also pack hunters . Other pack hunting mammals include dolphins , lions , dwarf and banded mongooses and spotted hyenas . A number of avian social predators exist , including the Harris 's hawk , butcherbirds , three of four kookaburra species and many helmetshrikes . There are a few cold-blooded pack hunters including simple arthropods such as army ants , the yellow saddle goatfish and occasionally crocodiles .   There is a possibility that some non-avian theropod dinosaurs displayed pack behavior as well .   A social animal that always hunts , singly such as the domestic cat , is not a pack hunter .   Pack hunting is typically associated with cooperative breeding and its concentration in the Afrotropical Region is a reflection of this . Most pack hunters are found in the southern African savannas , with a notable absence in tropical rainforests and with the exception of the wolf and coyote , higher latitudes . It is thought that either on the ancient and poor soils of the southern African savanna it is not possible for individual predators to find adequate food , or that the environment 's inherent unpredictability due to ENSO or IOD events means that in very bad conditions it will not be possible to raise the young necessary to prevent declining populations from adult mortality . It is also argued that Africa 's very large area of continuous flat and open country , which was even more extensive while rainforest contracted during glacial periods of the Quaternary , may have helped encourage pack hunting to become much more common than on any other continent .   A shared pack hunting history is thought to be the main conduit through which humans have been able to form a mutual relationship with dogs ( that is , domestication ) , as both species are highly social and inter-dependent . Humans easily take over the dominance hierarchy of dogs as subordinates instinctively follow the `` alpha '' individual and dogs are accustomed to living very close together   When wolves hunt a Moose or Elk , it sometimes takes to deep water to avoid the pack . A wolf response to this behavior is that the pack rests with one or two wolves annoying the prey until it gets fatigued .

neg: Evolution of birds The evolution of birds began in the Jurassic Period , with the earliest birds derived from a clade of theropoda dinosaurs named Paraves . Birds are categorized as a biological class , Aves . The earliest known is Archaeopteryx lithographica , from the Late Jurassic period , though Archaeopteryx is not commonly considered to have been a true bird . Modern phylogenies place birds in the dinosaur clade Theropoda . According to the current consensus , Aves and a sister group , the order Crocodilia , together are the sole living members of an unranked `` reptile '' clade , the Archosauria . Four distinct lineages of bird survived the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event 66 million years ago , giving rise to ostriches and relatives ( Paleognathae ) , ducks and relatives ( Anseriformes ) , ground-living fowl ( Galliformes ) , and `` modern birds '' ( Neoaves ) .   Phylogenetically , Aves is usually defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of a specific modern bird species ( such as the house sparrow , Passer domesticus ) , and either Archaeopteryx , or some prehistoric species closer to Neornithes ( to avoid the problems caused by the unclear relationships of Archaeopteryx to other theropods ) . If the latter classification is used then the larger group is termed Avialae . Currently , the relationship between dinosaurs , Archaeopteryx , and modern birds is still under debate .

neg: Taiga Taiga ( -LSB- ˈtaɪɡə -RSB- -LSB- тайга́ , p = tɐjˈɡa -RSB- from Turkic ) also known as boreal forest or snow forest , is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines , spruces and larches .   The taiga is the world 's largest biome apart from the oceans . In North America it covers most of inland Canada and Alaska as well as parts of the extreme northern continental United States ( northern Minnesota through the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to Upstate New York and northern New England ) , where it is known as the Northwoods or `` North woods '' . In Eurasia , it covers most of Sweden , Finland , much of Norway , some of the Scottish Highlands , some lowland/coastal areas of Iceland , much of Russia from Karelia in the west to the Pacific Ocean ( including much of Siberia ) , and areas of northern Kazakhstan , northern Mongolia , and northern Japan ( on the island of Hokkaidō ) . However , the main tree species , the length of the growing season and summer temperatures vary . For example , the taiga of North America mostly consists of spruces ; Scandinavian and Finnish taiga consists of a mix of spruce , pines and birch ; Russian taiga has spruces , pines and larches depending on the region , while the Eastern Siberian taiga is a vast larch forest .   A different use of the term taiga is often encountered in the English language , with `` boreal forest '' used in the United States and Canada to refer to only the more southerly part of the biome , while `` taiga '' is used to describe the more barren areas of the northernmost part of the biome approaching the tree line and the tundra biome . Hoffman ( 1958 ) discusses the origin of this differential use in North America and why it is an inappropriate differentiation of the Russian term . Although at high elevations taiga grades into alpine tundra through Krummholz , it is not exclusively an alpine biome ; and unlike subalpine forest , much of taiga is lowlands .

neg: Predator trap A predator trap is a natural hazard such as a tar pit . Predators would become attracted to struggling animals that have become entrapped in viscous or glutinous material , such as a heavy sedimentary deposit or tar and , in the process , become entrapped themselves . More predators , scavengers , insects and birds become attracted to this mounting accumulation of carrion , until a wide variety of animals are caught and ultimately killed by the hazard . This may happen many times over . Typically , the number of lured predators will greatly outnumber the prey , thus providing the name .   A famous example is the La Brea Tar Pits site . The Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry may yet prove to be a further example , although still nowadays it is debated if it 's a predator trap or not . The Gobi Desert dinosaur death traps may have been sauropod footprints that have been filled with a mixture of thick mud & sandstone in the former wetland .

neg: Gammarus Gammarus is an amphipod crustacean genus in the family Gammaridae . It contains more than 200 described species , making it one of the most speciose genera of crustaceans . Different species have different optimal conditions , particularly in terms of salinity , and different tolerances ; Gammarus pulex , for instance , is a purely freshwater species , while Gammarus locusta is estuarine , only living where the salinity is greater than 25 ‰ .   Species of Gammarus are the typical `` scuds '' of North America and range widely throughout the Holarctic . A considerable number are also found southwards into the Northern Hemisphere tropics , particularly in Southeast Asia .   The following species are included :   Gammarus abscisus G. Karaman , 1973  Gammarus abstrusus Hou , Platvoet & Li , 2006  Gammarus acalceolatus Pinkster , 1970  Gammarus accolae G. Karaman , 1973  Gammarus accretus Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus acherondytes Hubricht & Mackins , 1940  Gammarus aequicauda ( Martynov , 1931 )  Gammarus agrarius G. Karaman , 1973  Gammarus albimanus G. Karaman , 1968  Gammarus alsaticus Van Straelen , 1924 †  Gammarus anatoliensis Schellenberg , 1937  Gammarus angulatus ( Martynov , 1930 )  Gammarus angusticoxalis Martynov , 1935  Gammarus annandalei ( Monod , 1924 )  Gammarus annulatus Smith , 1873  Gammarus anodon Stock , Mirzajani , Vonk , Naderi & Kiabi , 1998  Gammarus aoculus Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus araxenius Derzhavin , 1938  Gammarus arduus G. Karaman , 1975  Gammarus argaeus Vávra , 1905  Gammarus bakhteyaricus Khalayi-Pirbalanty & Sari , 2004  Gammarus balcanicus Schaferna , 1922  Gammarus barnaulensis Schellenberg , 1937  Gammarus baysali Özbek et al. , 2013  Gammarus belli G. Karaman , 1984  Gammarus bergi Martynov , 1930  Gammarus birsteini Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus bosniacus Schäferna , 1922  Gammarus bousfieldi Cole & Minckley , 1961  Gammarus brevicornis ( Martynov , 1935 )  Gammarus brevipodus Hou , Li & Platvoet , 2004  Gammarus breviramus Bousfield & Elwood , 1971  Gammarus bucharensis Martynov , 1935  Gammarus caparti Petre-Stroobants , 1981  Gammarus caucasicus Martynov , 1932  Gammarus caudisetus Viviani , 1805  Gammarus chaohuensis Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus chevreuxi Sexton , 1913  Gammarus chimkenti G. Karaman , 1984  Gammarus chostensis Martynov , 1932  Gammarus cohabitus Hosinger , Shafer , Fong & Culver , 2008  Gammarus comosus Hou , Li & Gao , 2005  Gammarus craspedotrichus Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus crenulatus G. S. Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus crinicaudatus Stock , Mirzajani , Vonk , Naderi & Kiabi , 1998  Gammarus crinicornis Stock , 1966  Gammarus crispus Martynov , 1932  Gammarus curvativus Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus dabanus Tachteew & Mekhanikova , 2000  Gammarus daiberi Bousfield , 1969  Gammarus decorosus Meng , Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus denticulatus Hou , Li & Morino , 2002  Gammarus desperatus Cole , 1981  Gammarus dorsosetosus Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus duebeni Liljeborg , 1852  Gammarus dulensis S. Karaman , 1929  Gammarus edwardsi Bate , 1862  Gammarus effultus G. Karaman , 1975  Gammarus electrus Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus elevatus Hou , Li & Morino , 2002  Gammarus elvirae Iannilli & Ruffo , 2002  Gammarus emeiensis Hou , Li & Koenemann , 2002  Gammarus fasciatus Say , 1818  Gammarus finmarchicus Dahl , 1938  Gammarus flabellifera Stimpson , 1856  Gammarus fluviatilis Milne-Edwards , 1840 †  Gammarus fontinalis Costa , 1883  Gammarus fossarum Koch , 1836  Gammarus frater Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus frigidus Hou & Li , 2004  Gammarus galgosensis Lee & Kim , 2004  Gammarus galgosensis Lee & Kim , 1980  Gammarus gauthieri ( S. Karaman , 1935 )  Gammarus glabratus Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus goedmakersae G. S. Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus gracilis Martynov , 1935  Gammarus gregoryi Tattersall , 1924  Gammarus halilicae G. Karaman , 1969  Gammarus hegmatanensis Hekmatara , Sari & Baladehi , 2011  Gammarus hirsutus Martynov , 1935  Gammarus hongyuanensis Barnard & Dai , 1988  Gammarus hoonsooi Lee , 1986  Gammarus hyalelloides Cole , 1976  Gammarus ibericus Margalef , 1951  Gammarus inaequicauda Stock , 1966  Gammarus inberbus Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus inopinatus Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus insensibilis Stock , 1966  Gammarus italicus Goedmakers & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus izmirensis Özbek , 2007  Gammarus jacksoni Morino & Whitman , 1995  Gammarus jaspidus Hou & Li , 2004  Gammarus jenneri Bynum & Fox , 1977  Gammarus kamtschaticus Tzvetkova , 1972  Gammarus kasymovi Aliev , 1997  Gammarus katagani Özbek , 2012  Gammarus kesanensis Özbek & Camur-Elipek , 2010  Gammarus kesslerianus Martynov , 1931  Gammarus kischineffensis Schellenberg , 1937  Gammarus komareki ( Schaferna , 1922 )  Gammarus korbuensis Martynov , 1930  Gammarus koshovi Bazikalova , 1946  Gammarus kyonggiensis Lee & Seo , 1990  Gammarus laborifer Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus lacustris G. O. Sars , 1864  Gammarus lasaensis Barnard & Dai , 1988  Gammarus laticoxalis Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus lawrencianus Bousfield , 1956  Gammarus lecroyae Thoma & Heard , 2009  Gammarus ledoyeri G. Karaman , 1987  Gammarus lepoliensis Jazdzewski & Konopacka , 1989  Gammarus lichuanensis Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus limnaeus S. I. smith , 1874  Gammarus lobifer Stock , Mirzajani , Vonk , Naderi & Kiabi , 1998  Gammarus locusta ( Linnaeus , 1758 )  Gammarus longipedis Karaman & Pinkster , 1987  Gammarus longisaeta Lee & Seo , 1992  Gammarus lophacanthus Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus lordeganensis Khalayi-Pirbalanty & Sari , 2004  Gammarus lychnidensis Schellenberg , 1943  Gammarus macedonicus G. Karaman , 1976  Gammarus madidus Hou & Li , 2005  Gammarus marmouchensis Fadil , 2006  Gammarus maroccanus Fadil & Dakki , 2001  Gammarus martensi Hou & Li , 2004  Gammarus matienus Derzhavin , 1938  Gammarus miae Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus microps Pinkster & Goedmakers , 1975  Gammarus minus Say , 1818  Gammarus mladeni Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus monospeliensis Pinkster , 1972  Gammarus montanus Hou , Li & Platvoet , 2004  Gammarus mucronatus Say , 1818  Gammarus murarius Hou & Li , 2004  Gammarus nekkensis Uchida , 1935  Gammarus ninglangensis Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus nipponensis Uéno , 1940  Gammarus nox Stock , 1995  Gammarus nudus Martynov , 1931  Gammarus obnixus Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus obruki Özbek , 2012  Gammarus oceanicus Segerstråle , 1947  Gammarus ocellatus Martynov , 1930  Gammarus ochridensis ( Schäferna , 1926 )  Gammarus odaensis Lee & Kim , 1980  Gammarus odettae Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus oeningensis Heer , 1865 †  Gammarus orinos Pinkster & Schol , 1984  Gammarus oronticus Alouf , 1979  Gammarus osellai Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus pageti Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus palustris Bousfield , 1969  Gammarus parechiniformis G. Karaman , 1977  Gammarus paricrenatus Stock , Mirzajani , Vonk , Naderi & Kiabi , 1998  Gammarus parthicus Stock , Mirzajani , Vonk , Naderi & Kiabi , 1998  Gammarus paucispinus Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus pavlovici  Gammarus pavo Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus paynei Delong , 1992  Gammarus pecos Cole & Bousfield , 1970  Gammarus pellucidus Gurjanova , 1930  Gammarus pexus Hou & Li , 2005  Gammarus platvoeti Hou & Li , 2003  Gammarus pljakici G. Karaman , 1964  Gammarus plumipes Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus praecyrius Derzhavin , 1941 †  Gammarus preciosus Wang , Hou & Li , 2009  Gammarus pretzmanni Mateus & Mateus , 1990  Gammarus proiectus Stock , Mirzajani , Vonk , Naderi & Kiabi , 1998  Gammarus pseudoanatoliensis Karaman & Pinkster , 1987  Gammarus pseudolimnaeus Bousfield , 1958  Gammarus pseudosyriacus Karaman & Pinkster , 1977  Gammarus pulex Linnaeus , 1758  Gammarus qiani Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus rambouseki S. Karaman , 1931  Gammarus retzi Maikovsky , 1941 †  Gammarus rifatlensis Fadil , 2006  Gammarus riparius Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus roeselii Gervais , 1835  Gammarus rouxi Pinkster & Goedmakers , 1975  Gammarus salemaai G. Karaman , 1985  Gammarus salinus Spooner , 1947  Gammarus sepidannus Zamanpoore , Poeckl , Grabowski & Schiemer , 2009  Gammarus setosus Dementieva , 1931  Gammarus shanxiensis Barnard & Dai , 1988  Gammarus shenmuensis Hou & Li , 2004  Gammarus sichuanensis Hou , Li & Zheng , 2002  Gammarus sinuolatus Hou & Li , 2004  Gammarus sirvannus Hekmatara , Sari & Baladehi , 2011  Gammarus sketi G. Karaman , 1989  Gammarus sobaegensis G. Karaman , 1984  Gammarus solidus G. Karaman , 1977  Gammarus songirdaki G. Karaman , 1984  Gammarus soyoensis Lee & Kim , 1980  Gammarus spelaeus Martynov , 1931  Gammarus spinipalmus ( Chen , 1939 )  Gammarus spooneri G. Karaman , 1991  Gammarus stagnarius Hou , Li & Morino , 2002  Gammarus stalagmiticus Hou & Li , 2005  Gammarus stankokaramani G. Karaman , 1976  Gammarus stojicevici ( S. Karaman , 1929 )  Gammarus stupendus Pinkster , 1983  Gammarus subtypicus Stock , 1966  Gammarus suifunensis Martynov , 1925  Gammarus syriacus Chevreux , 1895  Gammarus takesensis Hou , Li & Platvoet , 2004  Gammarus taliensis Shen , 1954  Gammarus tauricus Martynov , 1931  Gammarus teletzkensis Martynov , 1930  Gammarus tigrinus Sexton , 1939  Gammarus topkarai Özbek & Balik , 2009  Gammarus translucidus Hou , Li & Li , 2004  Gammarus troglophilus Hubricht & Mackins , 1940  Gammarus truncatus Martynov , 1930  Gammarus turanus Martynov , 1935  Gammarus uludagi G. S. Karaman , 1975  Gammarus unguiserratus Costa , 1853  Gammarus ustaoglui Özbek & Guloglu , 2005  Gammarus varsoviensis Jazdzewski , 1975  Gammarus vignai Pinkster & Karaman , 1978  Gammarus wangbangensis Lee & Seo , 1990  Gammarus wautieri Roux , 1967  Gammarus wilkitzkii Birula , 1897  Gammarus xiangfengensis Hou & Li , 2002  Gammarus zaddachi Sexton , 1912  Gammarus zagrosensis Zamanpoore , Poeckl , Grabowski & Schiemer , 2009  Gammarus zeongogensis Lee & Kim , 1980

neg: Habitat A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal , plant , or other type of organism . The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and where it can find food , shelter , protection and mates for reproduction . It is the natural environment in which an organism lives , or the physical environment that surrounds a species population .   A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil , moisture , range of temperature , and light intensity as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence or absence of predators . Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive , but some are tolerant of wide variations while others are very specific in their requirements . A habitat is not necessarily a geographical area , it can be the interior of a stem , a rotten log , a rock or a clump of moss , and for a parasitic organism it is the body of its host , part of the host 's body such as the digestive tract , or a single cell within the host 's body .   Habitat types include polar , temperate , subtropical and tropical . The terrestrial vegetation type may be forest , steppe , grassland , semi-arid or desert . Fresh water habitats include marshes , streams , rivers , lakes , ponds and estuaries , and marine habitats include salt marshes , the coast , the intertidal zone , reefs , bays , the open sea , the sea bed , deep water and submarine vents .   Habitats change over time . This may be due to a violent event such as the eruption of a volcano , an earthquake , a tsunami , a wildfire or a change in oceanic currents ; or the change may be more gradual over millennia with alterations in the climate , as ice sheets and glaciers advance and retreat , and as different weather patterns bring changes of precipitation and solar radiation . Other changes come as a direct result of human activities ; deforestation , the ploughing of ancient grasslands , the diversion and damming of rivers , the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed . The introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife , through increased predation , through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the native species have no immunity .