query: Steam is not the gaseous state of water.

pos: Water Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity .   Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior .   Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals .   Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % .   Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving .

neg: Reservoir A reservoir ( etymology : from French réservoir a `` storehouse '' ) is a storage space for fluids . These fluids may be water , hydrocarbons or gas . A reservoir usually means an enlarged natural or artificial lake , storage pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water .  Reservoirs can be created by controlling a stream that drains an existing body of water . They can also be constructed in river valleys using a dam . Alternately , a reservoir can be built by excavating flat ground or constructing retaining walls and levees .   Tank reservoirs store liquids or gases in storage tanks that may be elevated , at grade level , or buried . Tank reservoirs for water are also called cisterns .   Underground reservoirs are used to store liquids , principally either water or petroleum , below ground .

neg: Magmatic water Magmatic water or juvenile water is water that exists within , and in equilibrium with , a magma or water-rich volatile fluids that are derived from a magma . This magmatic water is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption . Magmatic water may also be released as hydrothermal fluids during the late stages of magmatic crystallization or solidification within the Earth 's crust . The crystallization of hydroxyl bearing amphibole and mica minerals acts to contain part of the magmatic water within a solidified igneous rock . Ultimate sources of this magmatic water includes water and hydrous minerals in rocks melted during subduction as well as primordial water brought up from the deep mantle .

neg: Ultrapure water Ultrapure water ( also UPW or high-purity water ) is water that has been purified to uncommonly stringent specifications . Ultrapure water is a commonly used term in the semiconductor industry to emphasize the fact that the water is treated to the highest levels of purity for all contaminant types , including : organic and inorganic compounds ; dissolved and particulate matter ; volatile and non-volatile , reactive and inert ; hydrophilic and hydrophobic ; and dissolved gases .   UPW and commonly used term deionized ( DI ) water are not the same . In addition to the fact that UPW has organic particles and dissolved gases removed , a typical UPW system has three stages : a pretreatment stage to produce purified water , a primary stage to further purify the water , and a polishing stage , the most expensive part of the treatment process.The polishing stage is a set of treatment steps and is usually a recirculation and distribution system , continuously treating and recirculating the purified water in order to maintain stable high purity quality of supplied water . Traditionally the resistivity of water serves as an indication of the level of purity of UPW . Deionized ( DI ) water may have a purity of at least one million ohms-centimeter or one Mohm ∙ cm . Typical UPW quality is at the theoretical maximum of water resistivity ( 18.18 Mohm ∙ cm at 25 ° C ) . Therefore the term has acquired measurable standards that further define both advancing needs and advancing technology in ultrapure water production .   A number of organizations and groups develop and publish standards associated with the production of UPW . For microelectronics and power , they include Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International ( SEMI ) ( microelectronics and photovoltaic ) , American Society for Testing and Materials International ( ASTM International ) ( semiconductor , power ) , Electric Power Research Institute ( EPRI ) ( power ) , American Society of Mechanical Engineers ( ASME ) ( power ) , and International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam ( IAPWS ) ( power ) . Pharmaceutical plants follow water quality standards as developed by pharmacopeias , of which three examples are the United States Pharmacopeia , European Pharmacopeia , and Japanese Pharmacopeia .   The most widely used requirements for UPW quality are documented by ASTM D5127 `` Standard Guide for Ultra-Pure Water Used in the Electronics and Semiconductor Industries '' and SEMI F63 `` Guide for ultrapure water used in semiconductor processing '' .

neg: Steam infusion Steam Infusion is a direct-contact heating process in which steam condenses on the surface of a pumpable food product . Its primary use is for the gentle and rapid heating of a variety of food ingredients and products including milk , cream , soymilk , ketchup , soups and sauces .   Unlike steam injection and traditional vesselled steam heating ; the steam infusion process surrounds the liquid food product with steam as opposed to passing steam through the liquid .   Steam Infusion cooking technology from OAL is believed to be the fastest growing food processing solution in the UK with annual sales up 10 fold to # 6 million . Steam Infusion allows food product to be cooked , mixed and pumped within a single unit , often removing the need for multiple stages of processing . Steam Infusion is being used at more than 30 sites globally , producing sauces , soups and meat products to great effect .   `` Steam infusion has allowed us to nearly double our previous throughput rates , furthermore our meat sauce quality and consistency has improved dramatically . '' Mark Carnaghan , Factory Manager , Greencore   Steam Infusion from Olympus Automation has been dubbed low risk by commentators because of the ease with which manufacturers can easily match existing products . The PDX ™ steam infusion unit can be run in steam injector mode cutting production times but with no change to final product .

neg: Masonry heater A masonry heater ( or masonry stove , ceramic stove , tile stove ) is a device for warming an interior space through radiant heating , by capturing the heat from periodic burning of fuel ( usually wood ) , and then radiating the heat at a fairly constant temperature for a long period . The technology has existed in different forms , from back into the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods . Archeological digs have revealed excavations of ancient inhabitants utilizing hot smoke from fires in their subterranean dwellings , to radiate into the living spaces . These early forms have evolved into modern systems . Evidence found from 5,000 B.C. of massive blocks of masonry used to retain heat foreshadowed early forms of fire hearths that were used as multifunctional heating sources . Later evolutions came in the Roman hypocaust , Austrian/German ( kachelofen , baths ) using the smoke and exhaust of a single fire . In Eastern and Northern Europe and North Asia , these kachelofens ( or steinofens ) evolved in many different forms and names : for example the Russian Stove/Fireplace ( -LSB- : ru : Русская печь , Русская печь -RSB- ) , the Finnish Stove ( in Finnish : pystyuuni or kaakeliuuni , `` tile oven '' ) and the Swedish Stove ( in Swedish : kakelugn , `` tile stove '' or `` contra-flow stove '' ) associated with Carl Johan Cronstedt . The Chinese developed the same principle into their Kang bed-stove . The masonry heater has gained renewed domestic popularity recently because of its heating efficiency .   ASTM International calls a masonry heater `` a vented heating system of predominantly masonry construction having a mass of at least 800 kg ( 1760 lbs ) , excluding the chimney and masonry heater base . In particular , a masonry heater is designed specifically to capture and store a substantial portion of the heat energy from a solid fuel fire in the mass of the masonry heater through internal heat exchange flue channels , enable a charge of solid fuel mixed with an adequate amount of air to burn rapidly and more completely at high temperatures in order to reduce emission of unburned hydrocarbons , and be constructed of sufficient mass and surface area such that under normal operating conditions , the external surface temperature of the masonry heater ( except in the region immediately surrounding the fuel loading door ( s ) ) , does not exceed 110 ° C ( 230 ° F ) . ''

neg: Dry distillation Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products ( which may condense into liquids or solids ) . The method may not involve pyrolysis or thermolysis . The products are condensed and collected . This method usually requires higher temperatures than classical distillation . The method has been used to obtain liquid fuels from coal and wood . It can also be used to break down mineral salts such as sulfates through thermolysis , in this case producing sulfur dioxide/sulfur trioxide gas which can be dissolved in water to obtain sulfuric acid . By this method sulfuric acid was first identified and artificially produced . When substances of vegetable origin , e.g. coal , oil shale , peat or wood , are heated in the absence of air ( dry distillation ) , they decompose into gas , liquid products and coke/charcoal . The yield and chemical nature of the decomposition products depend on the nature of the raw material and the conditions under which the dry distillation is done . Decomposition within a temperature range of 450 to about 600 ° C is called carbonization or low-temperature degassing . At temperatures above 900 ° C , the process is called coking or high-temperature degassing . If coal is gasified to make coal gas or carbonized to make coke then Coal tar is among the by-products .   When wood is heated above 270 ° C it begins to carbonize . If air is absent the final product , since there is no oxygen present to react with the wood , is charcoal . If air , which contains oxygen , is present , the wood will catch fire and burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400 -- 500 ° C and the fuel product is wood ash . If wood is heated away from air , first the moisture is driven off and until this is complete , the wood temperature remains at about 100 -- 110 ° C . When the wood is dry its temperature rises and at about 270 ° C it begins to spontaneously decompose and , at the same time , heat is evolved . This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in charcoal burning . At this stage evolution of the by-products of wood carbonization starts . These substances are given off gradually as the temperature rises and at about 450 ° C the evolution is complete . The solid residue , charcoal , is mainly carbon ( about 70 % ) and small amounts of tarry substances which can be driven off or decomposed completely only by raising the temperature to above about 600 ° C.   In the common practice of charcoal burning using internal heating of the charged wood by burning a part of it , all the by-product vapors and gas escapes into the atmosphere as smoke . The by-products can be recovered by passing the off-gases through a series of water to yield so-called wood vinegar ( pyroligneous acid ) and the non-condensible wood gas passes on through the condenser and may be burned to provide heat . The wood gas is only usable as fuel and consists typically of 17 % methane ; 2 % hydrogen ; 23 % carbon monoxide ; 38 % carbon dioxide ; 2 % oxygen and 18 % nitrogen . It has a gas calorific value of about 10.8 MJoules per m3 ( 290 BTU/cu . ft. ) i.e. about one third the value of natural gas . When deciduous tree woods are subjected to distillation , the products are methanol ( wood alcohol ) and charcoal . The distillation of pine wood causes Pine tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind charcoal . Birch tar from birch bark is a particularly fine tar , known as `` Russian oil '' , suitable for leather protection . The by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal .   Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens , historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood . They were built close to the forest , from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground . The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole to allow the tar to pour out . The wood is split into dimensions of a finger , stacked densely , and finally covered tight with dirt and moss . If oxygen can enter , the wood might catch fire , and the production would be ruined . On top of this , a fire is stacked and lit . After a few hours , the tar starts to pour out and continues to do so for a few days .

neg: Modern Mars habitability One of the central questions of modern Astrobiology is whether there is , or ever has been life on Mars . Mars probably had oceans in the past , and it definitely had lakes and a thicker atmosphere . Modern Mars has become cold , dry , and almost uninhabitable , yet , if life did ever arise on Mars , some hardy microbes and perhaps even multicellular life might survive there right through to the present . The only missions to search for life on Mars , the two Viking missions , returned results that were inconclusive  . However the instruments were not designed to cope with the unusual conditions which Viking discovered on Mars , which may have confused the results of the experiments . Also , they did n't know enough about Mars at that time to target the regions we now think are most likely to have present day life .   Life would meet many challenges on present day Mars . Liquid water boils at 0 ° C , over much of its surface . Even at the depths of the Hellas basin , any water is close to its boiling point of 10 ° C and will dry out quickly . Ice also evaporates into the atmosphere over geological timescales - and most of the equatorial regions are thought to be dry to depths of tens of meters . As its axial tilt varies , Mars atmosphere is sometimes thicker , and liquid water may then form on the surface - but any dormant life in the top few meters of soil would be destroyed over periods of millions of years by cosmic radiation .   However , in 2008 , droplets were observed on the landing legs of Phoenix . Sadly , there was no way to analyse them , but the leading hypothesis is that they were droplets of salty water . Phoenix also made isotopic measurements which show that the Mars atmosphere has exchanged oxygen molecules with liquid on the surface in the recent geological past . This could indicate either recent episodic occurrences of liquid water ( for instance after a meteorite strike ) or water present every year , in contact with the atmosphere .   We now know of many seasonal changes in the surface of Mars which are only visible in high resolution photographs . Most of these are now thought to be caused by dry ice or wind effects . However , the `` Recurrent slope lineae '' , and some of the `` flow like features '' form in conditions that suggest the occasional presence of small quantities of water on Mars . The evidence of flowing brines in the RSLs is strong , though it 's not known if they are habitable . Curiosity has also found indirect evidence of a brine layer 15 cm below the sands that it drives over , though most scientists think that this layer is not habitable for Earth life . Recent Mars surface simulations by Nilton Renno and his team have shown that small droplets of water can form on salt / ice interfaces for a few hours per day almost anywhere on the surface of Mars , and this may explain the Phoenix leg droplets observations .   In a separate development , research by the German aerospace company DLR in Mars simulation chambers and on the ISS show that some Earth life can survive simulated Mars surface conditions without any water at all , and photosynthesize and metabolize , slowly . It can do this using the high relative humidity of the Mars atmosphere at night . All of this work was done after the Phoenix discoveries in 2008 .   Other potential habitats include lakes formed in the higher latitudes after cometary or meteorite impacts , or as a result of volcanism . Covered by ice , these may remain liquid for centuries , or up to a few thousand years for the largest impacts . The planet may also have underground trapped layers of water heated by geothermal hotspots . Also there are suggestions that Mars may have a deep hydrosphere , a liquid layer below its cryosphere , a few kilometers below the surface . Deep rock habitats on Earth are inhabited by life so if this layer exists , it may also be habitable on Mars .   The main questions are   Do these potential habitats exist ?  Are they habitable ? For instance , liquid water , if present , could be too cold , or too salty for Earth life  Are they in fact inhabited by any forms of life ? As Mars is so inhospitable , life might not be able to spread to new habitats easily . So there might be life in some of the habitats and not in others . Or life on Mars may have gone extinct , or never evolved at all , in which case none of the habitats would be inhabited .   These discoveries have renewed interest in this topic , with many astrobiologists saying that they think present day Mars may be more habitable than previously thought . The first conference on the Present Day Habitability of Mars was held in 2013 in UCLA . The 2017 conference session on Modern Mars Habitability will run from April 24 -- 28 in Mesa , Arizona

neg: Acentric factor The acentric factor is a conceptual number introduced by Kenneth Pitzer in 1955 , proven to be very useful in the description of matter . It has become a standard for the phase characterization of single & pure components . The other state description parameters are molecular weight , critical temperature , critical pressure , and critical volume ( or critical compressibility ) . The acentric factor is said to be a measure of the non-sphericity ( centricity ) of molecules . As it increases , the vapor curve is `` pulled '' down , resulting in higher boiling points .   It is defined as :   .   where  is the reduced temperature ,  is the reduced saturation vapor pressure .   For many monatomic fluids  ,  is close to 0.1 , therefore . In many cases , lies above the boiling temperature of liquids at atmosphere pressure .   Values of can be determined for any fluid from accurate experimental vapor pressure data . Preferably , these data should first be regressed against a reliable vapor pressure equation such as the following :   ln ( P ) = A + B/T + C * ln ( T ) + D * T ^ 6   ( This equation fits vapor pressure over a very wide range of temperature for most components , but is by no means the only one that should be considered . ) In this regression , a careful check for erroneous vapor pressure measurements must be made , preferably using a log ( P ) vs. 1/T graph , and any obviously incorrect or dubious values should be discarded . The regression should then be re-run with the remaining good values until a good fit is obtained . The vapor pressure at Tr = 0.7 can then be used in the defining equation , above , to estimate acentric factor .   Then , using the known critical temperature , Tc , find the temperature at Tr = 0.7 . At this temperature , calculate the vapor pressure , Psat , from the regressed equation .   The definition of gives a zero-value for the noble gases argon , krypton , and xenon . is very close to zero for other spherical molecules .

neg: Condenser (heat transfer) In systems involving heat transfer , a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state , by cooling it . In so doing , the latent heat is given up by the substance , and will transfer to the condenser coolant . Condensers can be made according to numerous designs , and come in many sizes ranging from rather small ( hand-held ) to very large ( industrial-scale units used in plant processes ) . For example , a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside air . Condensers are used in air conditioning , industrial chemical processes such as distillation , steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems . Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers .

neg: Steam explosion A steam explosion is an explosion caused by violent boiling or flashing of water into steam , occurring when water is either superheated , rapidly heated by fine hot debris produced within it , or heated by the interaction of molten metals ( as in a fuel -- coolant interaction , or FCI , of molten nuclear-reactor fuel rods with water in a nuclear reactor core following a core-meltdown ) . Pressure vessels , such as pressurized water ( nuclear ) reactors , that operate above atmospheric pressure can also provide the conditions for a steam explosion . The water changes from a liquid to a gas with extreme speed , increasing dramatically in volume . A steam explosion sprays steam and boiling-hot water and the hot medium that heated it in all directions ( if not otherwise confined , e.g. by the walls of a container ) , creating a danger of scalding and burning .   Steam explosions are not normally chemical explosions , although a number of substances react chemically with steam ( for example , zirconium and superheated graphite react with steam and air respectively to give off hydrogen , which burns violently in air ) so that chemical explosions and fires may follow . Some steam explosions appear to be special kinds of boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion ( BLEVE ) , and rely on the release of stored superheat . But many large-scale events , including foundry accidents , show evidence of an energy-release front propagating through the material ( see description of FCI below ) , where the forces create fragments and mix the hot phase into the cold volatile one ; and the rapid heat transfer at the front sustains the propagation .   If a steam explosion occurs in a confined tank of water due to rapid heating of the water , the pressure wave and rapidly expanding steam can cause severe water hammer . This was the mechanism that , in Idaho , USA , in 1961 , caused the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel to jump over 9 ft in the air when it was destroyed by a criticality accident . In the case of SL-1 , the fuel and fuel elements vaporized from instantaneous overheating .   Events of this general type are also possible if the fuel and fuel elements of a liquid-cooled nuclear reactor gradually melt . Such explosions are known as fuel -- coolant interactions ( FCI ) . In these events the passage of the pressure wave through the predispersed material creates flow forces which further fragment the melt , resulting in rapid heat transfer , and thus sustaining the wave . Much of the physical destruction in the Chernobyl disaster , a graphite-moderated , light-water-cooled RBMK-1000 reactor , is thought to have been due to such a steam explosion .   In a nuclear meltdown , the most severe outcome of a steam explosion is early containment failure . Two possibilities are the ejection at high pressure of molten fuel into the containment , causing rapid heating ; or an in-vessel steam explosion causing ejection of a missile ( such as the upper head ) into , and through , the containment . Less dramatic but still significant is that the molten mass of fuel and reactor core melts through the floor of the reactor building and reaches ground water ; a steam explosion might occur , but the debris would probably be contained , and would in fact , being dispersed , probably be more easily cooled . See WASH-1400 for details .   Steam explosions are often encountered where hot lava meets sea water . Such an occurrence is also called a littoral explosion . A dangerous steam explosion can also be created when liquid water encounters hot , molten metal . As the water explodes into steam , it splashes the burning hot liquid metal along with it , causing an extreme risk of severe burns to anyone located nearby and creating a fire hazard .

neg: Hydrogen thioperoxide Hydrogen thioperoxide , also called oxadisulfane or sulfur hydride hydroxide , is the chemical with the structure H -- S -- O -- H . It can be considered as the simple sulfur-substituted analog of the common hydrogen peroxide ( H -- O -- O -- H ) chemical , and as the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide containing more than one type of chalcogen . The chemical has been described as the `` missing link '' between hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen disulfide ( H -- S -- S -- H ) , though it is substantially less stable than either of the other two . It is the inorganic parent structure of the sulfenic acid class of organic compounds ( R -- S -- O -- H ) and also the oxadisulfide linkage ( R1 -- S -- O -- R2 ) , where `` R '' is any organic structure . Sulfur is present in oxidation state 0 .   Hydrogen thioperoxide has been synthesized in labs by photolysis of a mixture of ozone and hydrogen sulfide frozen in argon at 8 K and by pyrolysis of di-tert-butyl sulfoxide .  Yet another synthesis is by an electric discharge through water and sulfur .   In the interstellar medium there is a hypothesis that hydrogen thioperoxide is formed in a reaction of sulfur monoxide with the trihydrogen cation , dihydrogen and an electron . Another possible route , is sulfur monoxide reacting with atomic hydrogen to form HOS and HSO which in turn can add another hydrogen atom . However this mechanism probably needs a dust grain to take away excess energy .

neg: Water-tube boiler A watertube boiler ( also spelled water-tube and water tube ) is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire . Fuel is burned inside the furnace , creating hot gas which heats water in the steam-generating tubes . In smaller boilers , additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace , while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam .   The heated water then rises into the steam drum . Here , saturated steam is drawn off the top of the drum . In some services , the steam will reenter the furnace through a superheater to become superheated . Superheated steam is defined as steam that is heated above the boiling point at a given pressure . Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore used to drive turbines , since water droplets can severely damage turbine blades .   Cool water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the feedwater drum via large-bore ` downcomer tubes ' , where it pre-heats the feedwater supply . ( In large utility boilers , the feedwater is supplied to the steam drum and the downcomers supply water to the bottom of the waterwalls ) . To increase economy of the boiler , exhaust gases are also used to pre-heat the air blown into the furnace and warm the feedwater supply . Such watertube boilers in thermal power stations are also called steam generating units .   The older fire-tube boiler design , in which the water surrounds the heat source and gases from combustion pass through tubes within the water space , is a much weaker structure and is rarely used for pressures above 350 psi . A significant advantage of the watertube boiler is that there is less chance of a catastrophic failure : there is not a large volume of water in the boiler nor are there large mechanical elements subject to failure .   A water tube boiler was patented by Blakey of England in 1766 and was made by Dallery of France in 1780 .

neg: Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans .   Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .

neg: Cloud condensation nuclei Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form .   The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .

neg: Flash reactor As an extension of the fluidized bed family of separation processes , the flash reactor ( FR ) ( or transport reactor ) employs turbulent fluid introduced at high velocities to encourage chemical reactions with feeds and subsequently achieve separation through the chemical conversion of desired substances to different phases and streams . A flash reactor consists of a main reaction chamber and an outlet for separated products to enter downstream processes .   FR vessels facilitate a low gas and solid retention ( and hence reactant contact time ) for industrial applications which give rise to a high throughput , pure product and less than ideal thermal distribution when compared to other fluidized bed reactors . Due to these properties as well as its relative simplicity FRs have the potential for use for pre-treatment and post-treatment processes where these strengths of the FR are prioritized the most .   Various designs of a FR ( e.g. pipeline FR , centrifugal FR , vessel FR ) exist and are currently used in pilot industrial plants for further development . These designs allow for a wide range of current and future applications , including water treatment sterilization , recovery and recycling of steel mill dust , pre-treatment and roasting of metals , chemical looping combustion as well as hydrogen production from biomass .

neg: Hydraulic analogy The electronic -- hydraulic analogy ( derisively referred to as the drain-pipe theory by Oliver Lodge ) is the most widely used analogy for `` electron fluid '' in a metal conductor . Since electric current is invisible and the processes at play in electronics are often difficult to demonstrate , the various electronic components are represented by hydraulic equivalents . Electricity ( as well as heat ) was originally understood to be a kind of fluid , and the names of certain electric quantities ( such as current ) are derived from hydraulic equivalents . As with all analogies , it demands an intuitive and competent understanding of the baseline paradigms ( electronics and hydraulics ) .

neg: Cooling bath A cooling bath , in laboratory chemistry practice , is a liquid mixture which is used to maintain low temperatures , typically between 13 ° C and − 196 ° C . These low temperatures are used to collect liquids after distillation , to remove solvents using a rotary evaporator , or to perform a chemical reaction below room temperature ( see : kinetic control ) .   Cooling baths are generally one of two types : ( a ) a cold fluid ( particularly liquid nitrogen , water , or even air ) -- but most commonly the term refers to ( b ) a mixture of 3 components : ( 1 ) a cooling agent ( such as dry ice or water ice ) ; ( 2 ) a liquid ` carrier ' ( such as liquid water , ethylene glycol , acetone , etc. ) , which transfers heat between the bath and the vessel ; ; and ( 3 ) an additive to depress the melting-point of the solid/liquid system .   A familiar example of this is the use of an ice/rock-salt mixture to freeze ice cream . Adding salt lowers the freezing temperature of water , lowering the minimum temperature attainable with only ice .

neg: Air-free technique Air-free techniques refer to a range of manipulations in the chemistry laboratory for the handling of compounds that are air-sensitive . These techniques prevent the compounds from reacting with components of air , usually water and oxygen ; less commonly carbon dioxide and nitrogen . A common theme among these techniques is the use of a fine ( 100-10 − 3 Torr ) or high ( 10 − 3-10 − 6 Torr ) vacuum to remove air , and the use of an inert gas : preferably argon , but often nitrogen .   The two most common types of air-free technique involve the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line , although some rigorous applications use a high-vacuum line . In both methods , glassware ( often Schlenk tubes ) are pre-dried in ovens prior to use . They may be flame-dried to remove adsorbed water . Prior to coming into an inert atmosphere , vessels are further dried by purge-and-refill -- the vessel is subjected to a vacuum to remove gases and water , and then refilled with inert gas . This cycle is usually repeated three times or the vacuum is applied for an extended period of time . One of the differences between the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line is where the purge-and-refill cycle is applied . When using a glovebox the purge-and-refill is applied to an airlock attached to the glovebox , commonly called the `` port '' or `` ante-chamber '' . In contrast when using a Schlenk line the purge-and-refill is applied directly to the reaction vessel through a hose or ground glass joint that is connected to the manifold .

neg: Model steam engine A model steam engine is a small steam engine built as an educational toy for children ( in which case it is also called a toy steam engine ) or for adult live steam enthusiasts . Between the 18th and early 20th centuries , demonstration models were also in use at universities and engineering schools , frequently designed and built by students as part of their curriculum .   Model steam engines have been made in many forms by a number of manufacturers , but building model steam engines from scratch is popular among adult steam enthusiasts , although this generally requires access to a lathe and/or milling machine . Those without a lathe can alternatively purchase prefabricated parts .

neg: List of thermodynamic properties Within thermodynamics , a physical property is any property that is measurable , and whose value describes a state of a physical system . Some constants , such as the ideal gas constant , R , do not describe the state of a system , and so are not properties . On the other hand , some constants , such as Kf ( the freezing point depression constant , or cryoscopic constant ) , depend on the identity of a substance , and so may be considered to describe the state of a system , and so may be considered physical properties .   `` Specific '' properties are expressed on a per mass basis . If the units were changed from per mass to , for example , per mole , the property would remain as it was ( i.e. , intensive or extensive ) .   Regarding Work and Heat   Work and heat are not thermodynamic properties , but rather process quantities : flows of energy across a system boundary . Systems do not contain work , but can perform work , and likewise , in formal thermodynamics , systems do not contain heat , but can transfer heat . Informally , however , a difference in the energy of a system that occurs solely because of a difference in its temperature is commonly called heat , and the energy that flows across a boundary as a result of a temperature difference is `` heat '' .   Altitude ( or elevation ) is usually not a thermodynamic property . Altitude can help specify the location of a system , but that does not describe the state of the system . An exception would be if the effect of gravity needed to be considered in order to describe a state , in which case altitude could indeed be a thermodynamic property .


query: Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is a novel which received acclaim.

pos: Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series , written by British author J. K. Rowling . The book was released on 21 July 2007 by Bloomsbury Publishing in the United Kingdom , in the United States by Scholastic , and in Canada by Raincoast Books , ending the series that began in 1997 with the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince ( 2005 ) , and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort , as well as revealing the previously concealed back story of several main characters . The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story , collectively known as the `` Deathly Hallows '' -- an unbeatable wand , a stone to bring the dead to life , and a cloak of invisibility .   Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in January 2007 . Before its release , Bloomsbury reportedly spent # 10 million to keep the book 's contents safe before its release date . American publisher Arthur Levine refused any copies of the novel to be released in advance for press review , although two reviews were submitted early . Shortly before release , photos of all 759 pages of the U.S. edition were leaked and transcribed , leading Scholastic to look for the source that had leaked it .   Released globally in 93 countries , Deathly Hallows broke sales records as the fastest-selling book ever , a record it still held in 2012 . It sold 15 million copies in the first 24 hours following its release , including more than 11 million in the U.S. and UK alone . The previous record , 9 million in its first day , had been held by Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince . The novel has also been translated into over 120 languages . The title proved difficult to translate and was often rendered closer to `` Harry Potter and the Relics of Death '' in other languages .   Major themes in the novel are death and living in a corrupted society , and critics have compared them to Christian allegories . Generally well-received , the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award , and the American Library Association named it a `` Best Book for Young Adults '' . A two-part film adaptation began showing in November 2010 when Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 was released ; Part 2 was released on 15 July 2011 .

neg: Big Read (Hungarian) Big Read is the Hungarian version of the BBC Big Read .   The Big Read was imported into Hungary under the name A Nagy Könyv ( lit . `` The Big Book '' ) and took place in 2005 . Around 1400 libraries , 500 book shops and 1300 schools participated in the competition in various ways . It proved to be far more popular in Hungary ( with a population of 10 million ) than in the UK ( with a population of 60 million ) , with 400,000 votes arriving ( as opposed to 140,000 votes in the UK competition in the corresponding period ) .   Voting for the top 100 began in late February : one was allowed to vote for any novel published in Hungarian . It ended on April 23 , when the 50 `` foreign '' and 50 Hungarian most popular novels were selected .   On June 11 , the top 12 novels were chosen in the framework of a television show presented by cultural celebrities . In the next months , 12 short films were made from these novels and screened in television , which competed with each other in pairs .   On December 15 , the population selected their ultimate favourite by SMS and phone . The winning novel , which received the title `` the most liked novel of Hungary 2005 '' , was the same book as the result of the previous round , Eclipse of the Crescent Moon . The other two Hungarian books that participated in the final were The Paul Street Boys and Abigél .

neg: An Experiment in Criticism An Experiment in Criticism is a 1961 book by C. S. Lewis in which he proposes that the quality of books should be measured not by how they are written , but by how they are read . To do this , the author describes two kinds of readers . One is what he calls the `` unliterary '' , and the other the `` literary '' . He proceeds to outline some of the differences between these two types of readers . For example , one characterization of an unliterary reader is that the argument `` I 've read it before '' is a conclusive reason not to read a book . In contrast , literary readers reread books many times , savoring certain passages , and attempting to glean more from subsequent readings .   Lewis also argued that judging books by whether they are `` lowbrow '' or `` highbrow '' is not necessarily fruitful ; many `` lowbrow '' books prove to be valuable to a literary reader willing to approach without prejudgment . He noted that books classified as `` lowbrow '' , such as science fiction , are also capable of inducing a passion to re-read and imparting experience which changes reader 's worldview . Lewis suggests that books which are capable of doing this may prove to have enduring merit regardless of their genre of origin . He suggested that attempting to judge the literary merit of books based on traditional criteria may not prove fruitful .   Thus , Lewis suggests that a quality book is one that someone , anyone will re-read . A highbrow view that such a book is poor quality has failed to appreciate whatever qualities merit re-reading by someone .

neg: The Tale of Two Bad Mice The Tale of Two Bad Mice is a children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter , and published by Frederick Warne & Co. in September 1904 . Potter took inspiration for the tale from two mice caught in a cage-trap in her cousin 's home and a dollhouse being constructed by her editor and publisher Norman Warne as a Christmas gift for his niece Winifred . While the tale was being developed , Potter and Warne fell in love and became engaged , much to the annoyance of Potter 's parents , who were grooming their daughter to be a permanent resident and housekeeper in their London home .   The tale is about two mice who vandalize a dollhouse . After finding the food on the dining room table made of plaster , they smash the dishes , throw the doll clothing out the window , tear the bolster , and carry off a number of articles to their mouse-hole . When the little girl who owns the dollhouse discovers the destruction , she positions a policeman doll outside the front door to ward off any future depredation . The two mice atone for their crime spree by putting a crooked sixpence in the doll 's stocking on Christmas Eve and sweeping the house every morning with a dust-pan and broom .   The tale 's themes of rebellion , insurrection , and individualism reflect not only Potter 's desire to free herself of her domineering parents and build a home of her own , but her fears about independence and her frustrations with Victorian domesticity .   The book was critically well received and brought Potter her first fan letter from America . The tale was adapted to a segment in the 1971 Royal Ballet film The Tales of Beatrix Potter and to an animated episode in the BBC series The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends . Merchandise inspired by the tale includes Beswick Pottery porcelain figurines and Schmid music boxes .

neg: List of The New York Times Manga Best Sellers The New York Times Best Seller list for manga published in the United States was introduced on March 5 , 2009 , along with two additional lists for hardcover and paperback graphic novels . The three lists are grouped under the `` Graphic Books '' category . Deborah Hoffman , an editor for the Best Seller lists , explained that the term `` Graphic Books '' was selected to create an `` inclusive and expansive '' list which can extend to works of both fiction and non-fiction . Journalist George Gustines announced , in his introduction of the new lists , `` Comics have finally joined the mainstream . '' The announcement was made the week the film Watchmen , based on the comic book of the same name , was released in movie theaters throughout the U.S. . The Best Seller lists are printed weekly in The New York Times Book Review magazine , which is published in the Sunday edition of The New York Times and as a stand-alone publication .   Gustines explained the methodology used to determine the rankings :   Rankings reflect sales of graphic novels -LSB- ... -RSB- at many thousands of venues where a wide range of books are sold nationwide . These include hundreds of independent book retailers ( statistically weighted to represent all such outlets ) ; national , regional and local chains ; online and multimedia entertainment retailers ; university , gift , supermarket , discount department stores and newsstands . In addition , these rankings also include unit sales reported by retailers nationwide that specialize in graphic novels and comic books .   On multiple occasions , manga have been listed outside its designated list . Mike Kiley , then-Senior Vice President of the publisher Tokyopop , explained in 2010 that it has become more difficult to draw a distinguishing line between works that are manga and manga-inspired , such as Korean manhwa and American original English language ( OEL ) manga . A Drifting Life , an autobiographical manga by Yoshihiro Tatsumi , appeared on the May 3 , 2009 , Best Seller list for paperback graphic novels , where it ranked third . X-Men : Misfits , an original English manga based on the X-Men comic book franchise , ranked fifth at its debut on the August 30 , 2009 , paperback graphic novels list , and stayed on the chart for five consecutive weeks . The first volume of a manhwa adaptation of the popular vampire-themed Twilight novels by Stephenie Meyer remained on the hardcover graphic novels Best Seller list for 27 consecutive weeks in 2010 .   In January 2017 , the Times decided to stop producing the separate manga best seller list .

neg: Penguin Celebrations Penguin Celebrations was a book series released by Penguin Books in 2008 , Penguin re-released 36 modern popular works using Penguin 's distinctive late 1940s style , rebranded ` Penguin Celebrations ' . Following the 1940s style ; Green is for ` mystery ' , Orange for ` fantastic fiction ' , Pink for ` distant lands ' , Dark Blue for ` real lives ' and Purple for ` viewpoints ' .   The ` Penguin Celebrations ' books are as follows :  Fiction  William Boyd - Any Human Heart  Jonathan Coe - What a Carve Up !  Jonathan Safran Foer - Everything Is Illuminated  Zoë Heller - Notes on a Scandal  Nick Hornby - How to Be Good  Marian Keyes - The Other Side of the Story  Matthew Kneale - English Passengers  Hari Kunzru - The Impressionist  Marina Lewycka - A Short History of Tractors in Ukrainian  Meg Rosoff - How I Live Now  Ali Smith - The Accidental  Zadie Smith - White Teeth  Sue Townsend - Adrian Mole and the Weapons of Mass Destruction  Pat Barker - Regeneration   Non-fiction  Noam Chomsky - Hegemony or Survival  Niall Ferguson - Empire  Robin Lane Fox - The Classical World  Malcolm Gladwell - Blink  Brian Greene - The Fabric of the Cosmos  Steven Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner - Freakonomics  James Lovelock - The Revenge of Gaia  Eric Schlosser - Fast Food Nation   Crime  Donna Tartt - The Secret History  P. D. James - A Certain Justice  John Mortimer - Rumpole and the Penge Bungalow Murders  Alex Garland - The Beach  Barbara Vine - The Chimney-sweeper 's Boy   Travel and adventure  Ryszard Kapuściński - The Shadow of the Sun  Redmond O'Hanlon - Congo Journey  Paul Theroux - Dark Star Safari   Biography  Charles Nicholl - Leonardo da Vinci : Flights of the Mind  Claire Tomalin - Jane Austen : A Life  Jeremy Paxman - The English   Essays  Alain de Botton - The Consolations of Philosophy  Jeremy Clarkson - The World According to Clarkson  Alistair Cooke - Letter from America

neg: The King of Elfland's Daughter The King of Elfland 's Daughter is a 1924 fantasy novel written by Lord Dunsany . It is widely recognized as one of the most influential and acclaimed works in all of fantasy literature . Although the novel faded into relative obscurity following its initial release , it found new longevity and wider critical acclaim when a paperback edition was released in 1969 as the second volume of the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series . It has also been included in a more recent series of books reprinting the best of modern fantasy , the Fantasy Masterworks series . While seen as highly influential upon the genre as a whole , the novel was particularly formative in the ( later-named ) subgenres of fairytale fantasy and high fantasy .

neg: Southern Ontario Gothic Southern Ontario Gothic is a subgenre of the Gothic novel genre and a feature of Canadian literature that comes from Southern Ontario . This region includes Toronto , Southern Ontario 's major industrial cities ( Windsor , London , Hamilton , St. Thomas , Oshawa , St. Catharines ) , and the surrounding countryside . While the genre may also feature other areas of Ontario , Canada , and the world as narrative locales , this region provides the core settings .   The term was first used in Graeme Gibson 's Eleven Canadian Novelists ( 1972 ) to recognize an existing tendency to apply aspects of the Gothic novel to writing based in and around Southern Ontario . In an interview with Timothy Findley , Gibson commented that Findley 's novel The Last of the Crazy People shared similarities with the American Southern Gothic genre , to which Findley replied , '' ... sure , it 's Southern Gothic : Southern Ontario Gothic . ''   Notable writers of this subgenre include Alice Munro , Margaret Atwood , Robertson Davies , Jane Urquhart , Marian Engel , James Reaney and Barbara Gowdy .   Like the Southern Gothic of American writers such as William Faulkner , Flannery O'Connor and Eudora Welty , Southern Ontario Gothic analyzes and critiques social conditions such as race , gender , religion and politics , but in a Southern Ontario context . Southern Ontario Gothic is generally characterized by a stern realism set against the dour small-town Protestant morality stereotypical of the region , and often has underlying themes of moral hypocrisy . Actions and people that act against humanity , logic , and morality all are portrayed unfavourably , and one or more characters may be suffering from some form of mental illness . In a review of Alice Munro 's Dear Life for Quill & Quire , literary critic James Grainger writes that `` Violence , illness , and reputations ruined by a single indiscretion are accepted in Munro 's secretive , repressed communities as a kind of levelling mechanism , rough justice for those who dare to strive for something finer . ''   The Gothic novel has traditionally examined the role of evil in the human soul , and has incorporated dark or horrific imagery to create the desired setting . Some ( but not all ) writers of Southern Ontario Gothic use supernatural or magic realist elements ; a few deviate from realism entirely , in the manner of the fantastical gothic novel . Virtually all dwell to a certain extent upon the grotesque .   Notable works of the genre include Davies ' Deptford Trilogy , Findley 's Headhunter , Atwood 's Alias Grace and The Blind Assassin , and Munro 's Selected Stories .   The genre has been criticised as having `` little or nothing to distinguish it from everyday , garden-variety type realism . ''

neg: Pan Book of Horror Stories The Pan Book of Horror Stories was a paperback series of short horror story anthologies published by Pan Books Ltd. . The series ran to thirty volumes , the first published in 1959 .   The series was initially collected and edited by Herbert Van Thal . On Van Thal 's death Clarence Paget edited the series , from volume twenty-six until its demise with volume thirty in 1989 .   The early editions of the Pan Book of Horror Stories were notable for their lurid cover art and Van Thal 's introduction of stories by new authors alongside classics of the genre . The first edition included works by Peter Fleming , Muriel Spark , Bram Stoker and C. S. Forester . Later volumes featured Ray Bradbury and Lord Dunsany among others . Basil Copper made his debut in fifth volume , with the story `` The Spider '' . The series also published work by Charles Birkin , R. Chetwynd-Hayes and Alex Hamilton . After volume nine , Van Thal placed a heavier reliance on new authors . The series grew in popularity and was the stepping stone for much new talent . In the 1970s , the increasingly violent content of the Pan Books provoked some controversy . In the early eighties a slow decline in standards was observed . Popularity rose again in the late eighties but a multitude of reprint stories from Stephen King and a severe slide in quality ended the iconic series in 1989 . The last book is now a rare collectors item , due to the small print run it received .   A U.S Edition of the first Pan book was released by Gold Medal , an imprint of Fawcett Publications and books 3 - 5 were released by Berkley Medallion . While the first book was complete in its contents - the other three books gave only a small selection of its UK counterparts . There is no evidence to support PBoH # 2 ever having a US release .   Screaming Terror published under the Arthur Baker imprint is a collection from the first three Pan Book of Horror Stories and is also edited by Herbert Van Thal .

neg: A Wizard of Earthsea A Wizard of Earthsea is a young adult fantasy novel written by the American author Ursula K. Le Guin , first published by the small press Parnassus in 1968 . The novel received highly positive reviews , initially as a work for children , and later among a general audience as well .   Set in the fictional archipelago of Earthsea , the story centers around a young mage named Ged , born in a village on the island Gont . Displaying great power while still a boy , he joins the school of wizardry , where his prickly nature drives him into conflict with one of his fellows . During a magical duel , Ged 's spell goes awry and releases a shadow creature that attacks him . The novel follows his journey as he seeks to be free of the creature .   The book has often been described as a Bildungsroman or coming of age story , as it explores Ged 's process of learning to cope with power and come to terms with death . The novel also carries Taoist themes about a fundamental balance in the universe of Earthsea , which wizards are supposed to maintain , closely tied to the idea that language and names have power to affect the material world and alter this balance . Although the structure of the story is similar to that of a traditional epic , critics also described it as subverting this genre in many ways , such as by making the protagonist dark-skinned , in comparison to more typical white-skinned heroes .   A Wizard of Earthsea is widely regarded as a classic of fantasy and young-adult literature and was one of the final recipients of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award . The book was widely influential within the genre of fantasy ; Margaret Atwood , for instance , called A Wizard of Earthsea one of the `` wellsprings '' of fantasy literature . Le Guin would later write five subsequent books that , together with A Wizard of Earthsea , are referred to as the Earthsea Cycle : The Tombs of Atuan ( 1971 ) , The Farthest Shore ( 1972 ) , Tehanu ( 1990 ) , The Other Wind ( 2001 ) , and Tales from Earthsea ( 2001 ) . George Slusser has described the series as a `` work of high style and imagination '' .

neg: Timeline of Shakespeare criticism Timeline of Shakespeare criticism is an informal term that presents a chronological collection of critical quotations about William Shakespeare and his works , which illustrate the article Shakespeare 's reputation .   Shakespeare enjoyed recognition in his own time , but in the 17th century , poets and authors began to consider him as the supreme dramatist and poet of all times of the English language . In fact , even today , no other dramatist has been performed even remotely as often on the British ( and later the world ) stage as Shakespeare   Since then , several editors and critics of theater began to focus on the dramatic text and the language of Shakespeare , creating a study that focused on extracting all the power of his literary texts , being used in studies on the printed page rather than in the theater . This attitude reached a high point with the Romantics , which saw his figure as a genius , prophet , and Bard -- and continued important in the last century , receiving analysis not only by poets and authors , but also by psychoanalysts , psychologists and philosophers .

neg: Ghost Story Society The Ghost Story Society was a not-for-profit literary society whose members shared an interest in supernatural fiction . Founded in Britain in 1988 by Rosemary Pardoe , Jeffrey Dempsey , David Cowperthwaite and Mark Valentine , it had an international membership and was later administered by joint organizers Christopher Roden and Barbara Roden , owners of Ash-Tree Press , with the assistance of David G. Rowlands , Richard Dalby , Jan Arter , and Roger Dobson . It has not been active since 2007 .   The society produced the journal All Hallows , which featured new ghostly fiction , along with studies of the works and lives of such authors of classic ghost stories as M. R. James , J. Sheridan Le Fanu , Algernon Blackwood , H. Russell Wakefield , E. F. Benson , A. N. L. Munby , and R. R. Ryan , as well as more recent authors such as Robert Aickman , Elizabeth Jane Howard , Terry Lamsley , and Jonathan Aycliffe . It also included detailed reviews and notices of recent ghostly publications and films , letters from members , and a column by Ramsey Campbell . All Hallows received the 2003 International Horror Guild Award for best periodical .

neg: Culture of the United Kingdom The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by the UK 's history as a developed island country , a liberal democracy and a major power ; its predominantly Christian religious life ; and its composition of four countries -- England , Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland -- each of which has distinct customs , cultures and symbolism . The wider culture of Europe has also influenced British culture , and Humanism , Protestantism and representative democracy developed from broader Western culture .   British literature , music , cinema , art , theatre , comedy , media , television , philosophy , architecture and education are important aspects of British culture . The United Kingdom is also prominent in science and technology , producing world-leading scientists ( e.g. Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin ) and inventions . Sport is an important part of British culture ; numerous sports originated in the country , including football . The UK has been described as a `` cultural superpower '' , and London has been described as a world cultural capital .   The Industrial Revolution , which started in the UK , had a profound effect on the socio-economic and cultural conditions of the world . As a result of the British Empire , significant British influence can be observed in the language , law , culture and institutions of a geographically wide assortment of countries , including Australia , Canada , India , the Republic of Ireland , New Zealand , Nigeria , Pakistan , South Africa , the United States and English speaking Caribbean nations . These states are sometimes collectively known as the Anglosphere , and are among Britain 's closest allies . In turn the empire also influenced British culture , particularly British cuisine .   The cultures of England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland are diverse and have varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness .

neg: Novel in Scotland The novel in Scotland includes all long prose fiction published in Scotland and by Scottish authors since the development of the literary format in the eighteenth century . The novel was soon a major element of Scottish literary and critical life . Tobias Smollett 's picaresque novels , such as The Adventures of Roderick Random and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle mean that he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . Other Scots who contributed to the development of the novel in the eighteenth century include Henry Mackenzie and John Moore .   There was a tradition of moral and domestic fiction in the early nineteenth century that included the work of Elizabeth Hamilton , Mary Brunton and Christian Johnstone . The outstanding literary figure of the early nineteenth century was Walter Scott , whose Waverley is often called the first historical novel . He had a major worldwide influence . His success led to a publishing boom in Scotland . Major figures that benefited included James Hogg , John Galt , John Gibson Lockhart , John Wilson and Susan Ferrier . In the mid-nineteenth century major literary figures that contributed to the development of the novel included David Macbeth Moir , John Stuart Blackie , William Edmondstoune Aytoun and Margaret Oliphant . In the late nineteenth century , a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations , including Robert Louis Stevenson and Arthur Conan Doyle , whose Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction . In the last two decades of the century the `` kailyard school '' ( cabbage patch ) depicted Scotland in a rural and nostalgic fashion , often seen as a `` failure of nerve '' in dealing with the rapid changes that had swept across Scotland in the industrial revolution . Figures associated with the movement include Ian Maclaren , S. R. Crockett and J. M. Barrie , best known for his creation of Peter Pan , which helped develop the genre of fantasy , as did the work of George MacDonald .   Among the most important novels of the early twentieth century was The House with the Green Shutters by George Douglas Brown , which broke with the Kailyard tradition . John Buchan played a major role in the creation of the modern thriller with The Thirty-Nine Steps and Greenmantle . The Scottish literary Renaissance attempted to introduce modernism into art and create of a distinctive national literature . It increasingly focused on the novel . Major figures included Neil Gunn , George Blake , A. J. Cronin , Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon . There were also a large number of female authors associated with the movement , who included Catherine Carswell , Willa Muir , Nan Shepherd and Naomi Mitchison . Many major Scottish post-war novelists , such as Robin Jenkins , Jessie Kesson , Muriel Spark , Alexander Trocchi and James Kennaway spent most of their lives outside Scotland , but often dealt with Scottish themes . Successful mass-market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett . A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Allan Massie , Shena Mackay and Alan Spence . Working class identity continued to be explored by Archie Hind , Alan Sharp , George Friel and William McIlvanney .   From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival , with figures including Alasdair Gray , James Kelman , Irvine Welsh , Alan Warner , Janice Galloway , A. L. Kennedy , Iain Banks , Candia McWilliam , Frank Kuppner and Andrew O'Hagan . In genre fiction Iain Banks , writing as Iain M. Banks , produced ground-breaking science fiction and Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Frederic Lindsay , Quintin Jardine , Val McDermid , Denise Mina , Christopher Brookmyre , and particularly Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels . The most successful author of Scottish origins in recent years has been J. K. Rowling , author of the Harry Potter series .

neg: The Famous Five (series) The Famous Five is the name of a series of children 's adventure novels written by English author Enid Blyton . The first book , Five on a Treasure Island , was published in 1942 . The novels feature the adventures of a group of young children -- Julian , Dick , Anne and Georgina ( George ) -- and their dog Timmy .   The stories take place in the children 's school holidays after they have returned from their respective boarding schools . Each time they meet they get caught up in an adventure , often involving criminals or lost treasure . Sometimes the scene is set close to George 's family home at Kirrin Cottage in Dorset , such as the picturesque Kirrin Island , owned by George and her family in Kirrin Bay . George 's own home and various other houses the children visit or stay in are hundreds of years old and often contain secret passages or smugglers ' tunnels .   In some books the children go camping in the countryside , on a hike or holiday together elsewhere . The settings , however , are almost always rural and enable the children to discover the simple joys of cottages , islands , the English and Welsh countryside and sea shores , as well as an outdoor life of picnics , lemonade , bicycle trips and swimming .   Blyton intended to write only six or eight books in the series , but owing to their high sales and immense commercial success she went on to write twenty-one full-length Famous Five novels , as well as a number of other series in similar style following groups of children discovering crime on holiday in the countryside . By the end of 1953 more than six million copies had been sold . Today , more than two million copies of the books are sold each year , making them one of the biggest-selling series for children ever written , with sales totalling over a hundred million . All the novels have been adapted for television , and several have been adapted as films in various countries .   Blyton 's publisher , Hodder & Stoughton , first used the term `` The Famous Five '' in 1951 , after nine books in the series had been published . Before this , the series was referred to as `` The ` Fives ' Books '' .

neg: Welsh literature in English Anglo-Welsh literature and Welsh writing in English are terms used to describe works written in the English language by Welsh writers . It has been recognised as a distinctive entity only since the 20th century . The need for a separate identity for this kind of writing arose because of the parallel development of modern Welsh-language literature ; as such it is perhaps the youngest branch of English-language literature in the British Isles .   Welsh writers in English have traditionally favoured the short story form over the novel for two main reasons : in a society lacking sufficient wealth to support professional writers , the amateur writer was able to spare time only for short bursts of creativity ; and , like poetry , it concentrated linguistic delight and exuberance . However , the genre did not develop in these writers much beyond its origin in rural sketches . Satire was avoided , and , since the main market was London publishers , the short stories tended to focus on the eccentricities ( as seen from a metropolitan viewpoint ) of Welsh life .

neg: Book of Shadows A Book of Shadows is a book containing religious texts and instructions for magical rituals found within the Neopagan religion of Wicca.Throughout the centuries many practicing witches would account their knowledge in their Book Of Shadows , however once witches were threatened by the prospect of being executed many , wisely , stopped and destroyed their BoS in order to stay safe and alive . However there are still several books that have managed to survived through history . One famous Book of Shadows was created by the pioneering Wiccan Gerald Gardner sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s , and which he utilised first in his Bricket Wood coven and then in other covens which he founded in following decades . The Book of Shadows is also used by other Wiccan traditions , such as Alexandrianism and Mohsianism , and with the rise of books teaching people how to begin following Wicca in the 1970s onward , the idea of the Book of Shadows was then further propagated amongst solitary practitioners unconnected to earlier traditions .   Initially , when Wicca was still dominated by covens , `` only one copy -LSB- of the Book -RSB- existed for an entire coven , kept by the high priestess or high priest . That rule has proved unfeasible , and it is -LSB- now -RSB- commonplace for all Witches to have their own copies . '' In the various traditions that make up British Traditional Wicca , copies of the original Book composed by Gerald Gardner with the aid of his High Priestess Doreen Valiente , along with alterations and additions that have been made since then , is followed by adherents . They have tried to keep the contents of this Book a secret , although it has been published on a number of occasions by figures such as Charles Cardell , Lady Sheba , and Janet and Stewart Farrar . In other Wiccan traditions and amongst a number of solitary practitioners , alternate versions of the Book have been written that are independent of Gardner 's original .   Numerous associations and traditions have since grown up around the Book of Shadows . Traditionally , `` a Witch 's book of shadows is destroyed upon death . '' The concept of the Book of Shadows has subsequently appeared in popular culture , for instance being utilised in the American television series Charmed and providing the title of films , musical albums and comics . However , in all these cases it was taken out of its original Wiccan context .

neg: The Magic Mountain The Magic Mountain ( German : Der Zauberberg ) is a novel by Thomas Mann , first published in November 1924 . It is widely considered to be one of the most influential works of 20th century German literature .   Mann started writing what was to become The Magic Mountain in 1912 . It began as a much shorter narrative which revisited in a comic manner aspects of Death in Venice , a novella that he was then preparing for publication . The newer work reflected his experiences and impressions during a period when his wife , who was suffering from a lung complaint , was confined to Dr. Friedrich Jessen 's Waldsanatorium in Davos , Switzerland for several months . In May and June 1912 Mann visited her and became acquainted with the team of doctors who were treating her in this cosmopolitan institution . According to Mann , in the afterword that was later included in the English translation , this stay became the foundation of the opening chapter ( Arrival ) of the completed novel .   The outbreak of the First World War interrupted work on the book . The conflict and its aftermath led the author to undertake a major re-examination of European bourgeois society , including the sources of the willful , perverse destructiveness displayed by much of civilised humanity . He was also drawn to speculate about more general questions surrounding personal attitudes to life , health , illness , sexuality and mortality . Given this , Mann felt compelled to radically revise and expand the pre-war text before completing it in 1924 . Der Zauberberg was eventually published in two volumes by S. Fischer Verlag in Berlin .   Mann 's vast composition is erudite , subtle , ambitious , but , most of all , ambiguous ; since its original publication it has been subject to a variety of critical assessments . For example , the book blends a scrupulous realism with deeper symbolic undertones . Given this complexity , each reader is obliged to weigh up the artistic significance of the pattern of events set out within the narrative , a task made more difficult by the author 's irony . Mann himself was well aware of his book 's elusiveness , but offered few clues about approaches to the text . He later compared it to a symphonic work orchestrated with a number of themes and , in a playful commentary on the problems of interpretation , recommended that those who wished to understand it should read it through twice .

neg: Harry Potter (character) Harry James Potter is the title character and protagonist of J. K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series . The majority of the books ' plot covers seven years in the life of the orphan Potter , who , on his eleventh birthday , learns he is a wizard . Thus , he attends Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry to practise magic under the guidance of the kindly headmaster Albus Dumbledore and other school professors . Harry also discovers that he is already famous throughout the novel 's magical community , and that his fate is tied with that of Lord Voldemort , the internationally feared Dark Wizard and murderer of his parents , Lily and James .

neg: Aurealis Award for best young adult novel The Aurealis Awards are presented annually by the Australia-based Chimaera Publications and WASFF to published works to `` recognise the achievements of Australian science fiction , fantasy , horror writers '' . To qualify , a work must have been first published by an Australian citizen or permanent resident between 1 January and 31 December of the corresponding year ; the presentation ceremony is held the following year . It has grown from a small function of around 20 people to a two-day event attended by over 200 people .   Since their creation in 1995 , awards have been given in various categories of speculative fiction . Categories currently include science fiction , fantasy , horror , speculative young adult fiction -- with separate awards for novels and short fiction -- collections , anthologies , illustrative works or graphic novels , children 's books , and an award for excellence in speculative fiction . The awards have attracted the attention of publishers by setting down a benchmark in science fiction and fantasy . The continued sponsorship by publishers such as HarperCollins and Orbit has added weight to the honour of the award .   The results are decided by a panel of judges from a list of submitted nominees ; the long-list of nominees is reduced to a short-list of finalists . Ties can occur if the panel decides that both entries show equal merit , however they are encouraged to choose a single winner . The judges are selected from a public application process by the Award 's management team .   This article lists all the short-list nominees and winners in the best young-adult novel category , as well as novels that have been highly commended . Three people have won the award twice -- Isobelle Carmody , Garth Nix and Scott Westerfeld . Westerfeld holds the record for most nominations with eight , and Rory Barnes has the most nominations without winning , having been a losing finalist five times .

neg: Character (arts) A character ( sometimes known as a fictional character ) is a person or other being in a narrative work of art ( such as a novel , play , television series , or film ) . The character may be entirely fictional or based on a real-life person , in which case the distinction of a `` fictional '' versus `` real '' character may be made . Derived from the ancient Greek word χαρακτήρ , the English word dates from the Restoration , although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749 . From this , the sense of `` a part played by an actor '' developed . Character , particularly when enacted by an actor in the theatre or cinema , involves `` the illusion of being a human person . '' In literature , characters guide readers through their stories , helping them to understand plots and ponder themes . Since the end of the 18th century , the phrase `` in character '' has been used to describe an effective impersonation by an actor . Since the 19th century , the art of creating characters , as practiced by actors or writers , has been called characterisation .   A character who stands as a representative of a particular class or group of people is known as a type . Types include both stock characters and those that are more fully individualised . The characters in Henrik Ibsen 's Hedda Gabler ( 1891 ) and August Strindberg 's Miss Julie ( 1888 ) , for example , are representative of specific positions in the social relations of class and gender , such that the conflicts between the characters reveal ideological conflicts .   The study of a character requires an analysis of its relations with all of the other characters in the work . The individual status of a character is defined through the network of oppositions ( proairetic , pragmatic , linguistic , proxemic ) that it forms with the other characters . The relation between characters and the action of the story shifts historically , often miming shifts in society and its ideas about human individuality , self-determination , and the social order .