query: Napoleon's campaigns are studied at schools.

pos: Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte ( -LSB- nəˈpoʊliən_ˈboʊnəpɑrt -RSB- -LSB- napɔleɔ̃ bɔnapaʁt -RSB- ; 15 August 1769 -- 5 May 1821 ) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars . As Napoleon I , he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814 , and again in 1815 . Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars . He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles , building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815 . One of the greatest commanders in history , his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide . Napoleon 's political and cultural legacy has endured as one of the most celebrated and controversial leaders in human history .   He was born Napoleone di Buonaparte ( -LSB- napoleoŋe dj buɔŋaparte -RSB- ) in Corsica , Republic of Genoa , to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility . When the Revolution broke out in 1789 , Napoleon was serving as an artillery officer in the French army . Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution , he rapidly rose through the ranks of the military , becoming a general at age 24 . The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents . At age 26 , he began his first military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies -- winning virtually every battle , conquering the Italian Peninsula in a year , and becoming a national hero . In 1798 , he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power . He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic . His ambition and public approval inspired him to go further , and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French '' . Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805 . Napoleon shattered this coalition with decisive victories in the Ulm Campaign and a historic triumph over Russia and Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz , which led to the elimination of the thousand year-old Holy Roman Empire . In 1806 , the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent . Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt , then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe and annihilated the Russians in June 1807 at the Battle of Friedland . France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807 , bringing an uneasy peace to the continent . Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire . In 1809 , the Austrians and the British challenged the French again during the War of the Fifth Coalition , but Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after triumphing at the Battle of Wagram in July .   Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland , Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808 . The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support . The Peninsular War lasted six years , featured extensive guerrilla warfare , and ended in victory for the Allies . The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states , especially Russia . Unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade , the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war . The French launched a major invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812 . The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army , the destruction of Russian cities , and inspired a renewed push against Napoleon by his enemies . In 1813 , Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France . A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 . The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814 , forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April . He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power . However , Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again . The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition , which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June . The British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic , where he died six years later at the age of 51 .   Napoleon had an extensive and powerful influence on the modern world , bringing liberal reforms to the numerous territories that he conquered and controlled , such as the Low Countries , Switzerland , and large parts of modern Italy and Germany . He implemented fundamental liberal policies in France and throughout Western Europe . His legal achievement , the Napoleonic Code , has influenced the legal systems of more than 70 nations around the world . British historian Andrew Roberts stated , `` The ideas that underpin our modern world -- meritocracy , equality before the law , property rights , religious toleration , modern secular education , sound finances , and so on -- were championed , consolidated , codified and geographically extended by Napoleon . To them he added a rational and efficient local administration , an end to rural banditry , the encouragement of science and the arts , the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire '' .

neg: Hospital school A hospital school is a school operated in a hospital , generally a children 's hospital which provides instruction to all primary and secondary grade levels . These schools help children regain academic progress during periods of hospitalization or rehabilitation . The schools are most often accredited and run by the local public school system , funded by the state , and are based on the same curriculum and testing mandated by the state as is practical for the students . Enrollments are low when compared to traditional schools and teachers must provide instruction for many grade levels .   Laws and regulations on Hospital School and Domiciliary Learning change from a country to another . The studies related to this field are usually grouped under the term Home and Hospital Education ( HHE ) .

neg: Education Education is the process of facilitating learning , or the acquisition of knowledge , skills , values , beliefs , and habits . Educational methods include storytelling , discussion , teaching , training , and directed research . Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators , but learners may also educate themselves . Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks , feels , or acts may be considered educational . The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy .   Education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten , primary school , secondary school and then college , university , or apprenticeship .   A right to education has been recognized by some governments , including at the global level : Article 13 of the United Nations ' 1966 International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights recognizes a universal right to education . In most regions , education is compulsory up to a certain age .

neg: History of education in England The history of education in England can be documented to the Anglo-Saxons ' settlement of England . During the Middle Ages , schools were established to teach Latin grammar to the sons of the aristocracy , as part of preparation also for the entry of some into the clergy and religious orders . The church preserved literacy and learning during this period , and education was closely tied to the religious vocation , in order to read the Bible and related documents . Apprenticeship was the main way for youths to enter practical occupations . Two universities were established in affiliation with the church : the University of Oxford , followed by the University of Cambridge , both related closely to training for clergy . A reformed system of `` free grammar schools '' was established in the reign of Edward VI .   The Protestant Reformation had a major influence on education and literacy in England , as it encouraged the reading of the Bible in the vernacular of the people . ( Formerly , the Bible was printed only in Latin , the official language of the Catholic Church . ) Counties in the east of England , which had frequent interaction with the Low Countries , where the Reformation movement had flourished , developed a higher rate of literacy in the early years of the Reformation than did other areas of England .   In the 19th century the Church of England sponsored most formal education until the government established free , compulsory education towards the end of that century . University College London was established as the first secular college in England , open to students of all religions ( or none , ) followed by King 's College London ; the two institutions formed the University of London . Durham University was also established in the early nineteenth century . Towards the end of the century , the `` redbrick '' universities , new public universities , were founded .   The 1944 Education Act established the Tripartite System of grammar schools and secondary modern schools . The school leaving age was raised to 16 in 1972 .

neg: Coalition Wars The Coalition Wars ( French : Guerres de Coalitions , German : Koalitionskriege , Dutch : Coalitieoorlogen etc. ) were a set of seven wars waged by various military alliances , known as the Coalitions , between great European powers against Revolutionary France , and from 1799 onwards General and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte .   The Coalition Wars were :  War of the First Coalition ( April 1792 -- October 1797 )  War of the Second Coalition ( 1798/99 -- 1801/02 )  War of the Third Coalition ( 1803/05 -- December 1805 )  War of the Fourth Coalition ( October 1806 -- July 1807 )  War of the Fifth Coalition ( April -- October 1809 )  War of the Sixth Coalition ( March 1813 -- May 1814 )  War of the Seventh Coalition , also known as the Hundred Days ( March -- July 1815 )

neg: Strategikon of Maurice The Strategikon or Strategicon is a manual of war traditionally regarded as written in the late 6th century and usually attributed to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice . It is moreover a practical manual , `` a rather modest elementary handbook '' in the words of its introduction , `` for those devoting themselves to generalship '' . This book gives a general guide , handbook , of the Byzantine military 's strategies . `` The Strategikon is written in a very straightforward and generally uncomplicated Greek . The translation has tried to render this in the same kind of English '' .   The Strategikon may have been written in an effort to codify the military reforms brought about by the soldier-emperor Maurice . There is debate in academic circles as to the true author of the Strategikon . Maurice may have only commissioned it ; perhaps his brother Peter , or another general of his court , was the true author . The dating is also debated . If it was written in the 6th century , the Strategikon may have been produced to codify the experience of the Balkan and Persian campaigns , or the campaigns may have been carried out in compliance with the manual . However , starting in the late 19th century , some historians have argued for a later date in the eighth or ninth century , on philological or technological grounds . In any case , it is considered one of the most important military texts of the medieval years , along with the 10th century military treatises attributed to the Byzantine emperors Leo VI ( Tactica ) and Nicephorus Phocas ( De velitatione and Praecepta Militaria ) ; Leo 's Tactica in particular drew heavily from the Strategikon .   The text consists of 12 chapters , or `` books '' , on various aspects of the tactics employed by the Byzantine military of the 6th and 7th century A.D. . It is primarily focused on cavalry tactics and formations , yet it also elaborates on matters of infantry , sieges , baggage trains , drilling and marching . Each book has a general topic to be discussed , and each book goes into great detail even separating each book further into subsections and including maps . These maps are not large an extravagant but more symbols to show positions and a standard design of the formations the Byzantine military used at this time . Books seven and eight contain practical advice to the General in the form of instructions and maxims . The eleventh book has ethnographic interest , with its portrayal of various Byzantine enemies ( Franks , Lombards , Avars , Turks , and Slavs ) . The Strategikon also belongs to Byzantine legal literature , since it contains a list of military infractions and their suitable penalties .

neg: Kollegstufe The Kollegstufe , Oberstufe or Sekundarstufe II is the German equivalent of the sixth form of secondary education in the upper stage ( grades 12-13 , or 11-12 ) of German high schools . Class groupings are dissolved and instead students choose an individual combination of courses .   The idea behind this concept is not to prepare students for university , where they have to create their own timetable , as is sometimes claimed based on the mere analogy . The idea is to allow students to diversify and pick subjects of their personal preference . The Kollegstufe does not yet allow students to specialize on one or very few subjects like the university does , so a complex set of rules for the Kollegstufe ensures that important subjects ( e.g. mathematics , languages ) can not be dropped , a sufficient coverage for different fields of education is achieved and the number of lessons per week covers the required minimum . If you finish the Kollegstufe successfully , which means you comply with all the regulations and pass the final exams , you get the `` Abiturzeugnis '' , formally called `` Zeugnis der Allgemeinen Hochschulreife '' , which entitles one to attend a German university .   The regulations for the Kollegstufe and also for the Abitur are different in the different `` Länder '' ( federal states ) of Germany . As educational matters are decided by the governments of the federal states , these differences can be quite big .

neg: Mittelschule Mittelschule is a German term literally translating to `` Middle School '' ( i.e. a level `` intermediate '' between elementary and higher education ) . It is used in various senses in the education systems of the various parts of German-speaking Europe , not necessarily equivalent the English term middle school ( which is itself used in various meanings in various parts of the English-speaking world ) .   Examples of such use include :  Austria , lower secondary education for pupils aged 10 -- 14 , see education in Austria  Germany  in some States of Germany , a school analogous to a Hauptschule  in other States of Germany , a combination of Hauptschule and Realschule  an education level positioned between Hauptschule and Gymnasium ( i.e. the middle group of pupils in terms of academic ability in a system of parallel schools ) .  Switzerland , see also education in Switzerland  a general German term for a Gymnasium , a secondary education , either for ages 15 -- 18/19 ( Sekundarstufe II , upper secondary education ) also known as Kurzzeitmittelschule a.k.a. Kurzgymnasium , or then for ages from 12-18/19 ( Sekundarstufe I & II , lower and upper secondary education ) also known as Langzeitmittelschule a.k.a. Langgymnasium , both leading to university access with a Swiss Federal Matura graduation . There are , however , slight differences among cantons.Other terms used in Switzerland are :  German : Gymnasium , Kantonsschule ( cantonal gymnasium managed by the canton ; or short : Kanti , or KS ) , Kollegium , Lyceum , Maturitätsschule  French : Gymnase , Collège , Lycée , Gymnase/Lyc ée Cantonal ( cantonal gymnasium managed by the canton ) , Lycée-Collège , Lycee-Colege , Écoles du secondaire II , École publique Supérieures  Italian : Liceo , Liceo Cantonale ( cantonal gymnasium managed by the canton )  Romansh : Academia  Fachmittelschule ( formerly Diplommittelschule ) , secondary education ( Sekundarstufe II ) with a Fachmatura graduation leading to access to Fachhochschule tertiary education , but not to university access .

neg: François Carlo Antommarchi Dr François Carlo Antommarchi ( 5 July 1780 in Morsiglia , Corsica -- 4 March 1838 in Santiago de Cuba , Cuba ) was Napoleon 's physician from 1818 to his death in 1821 .   He began his studies in Livorno , Italy , and later earned the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine at the University of Pisa in March 1808 . Antommarchi then went to Florence , Italy , and was attached to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova.Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova Antommarchi earned the diploma of Surgeon in 1812 from the University of Florence ( i.e. Imperial University ) and was appointed by its president as Prosector . While in this capacity , Antommarchi worked under Paolo Mascagni ( 1752 -- 1815 ) starting on 7 July 1813 .   Antommarchi left Florence for Saint Helena to become Napoleon I 's physician until his death . Antommarchi took up this position at the behest of Napoleon 's mother Maria Letizia Ramolino and his uncle Cardinal Joseph Fesch . Antommarchi received a letter of employment on 19 December 1818 . Antommarchi was sent to St. Helena in replacement of Dr Barry Edward O'Meara as Napoleon 's personal physician , because the illustrious captive would not agree to accept medical officers such as Dr Alexander Baxter or Dr James Roch Verling , who were proposed to him by his custodian , or `` gaoler '' , sir Hudson Lowe .  However , Napoleon was not so impressed by Antommarchi 's medical skills and even dismissed him from his service a couple of times , only to let him resume his duty soon after . In the last moments of illness , Antommarchi was assisted by Dr Archibald Arnott , who was accepted by Napoleon at the pressing demands from his two officers , Count Montholon and Grand-Marshal Bertrand .  After Napoleon 's death , Antommarchi wrote The Last Moments of Napoleon where he concluded that Napoleon died of stomach cancer .   In 1831 Antommarchi went to Poland and became the general inspector of Polish hospitals during November Uprising where he assisted the Polish people in an uprising against the Russians . He fled to Paris to escape the czar 's forces .   Antommarchi then immigrated to Louisiana where he donated the bronze death mask of Napoleon to the people of New Orleans in 1834 . Antommarchi lived in Veracruz , Mexico , for a brief period , and was employed there as an itinerant physician . He moved from Mexico and settled in Santiago de Cuba , Cuba , where he again worked as a physician . The move to Cuba was prompted by Antommarchi seeking his cousin Antonio Juan Benjamin Antommarchi , who made his fortune in coffee plantations . Antommarchi became adept at performing surgery for the removal of cataracts . He died in Cuba , of yellow fever , on 3 April 1838 , at the age of 57 .

neg: Garrison School Garrison School may mean :   Garrison school , a type of school for children of Russian soldiers  Garrison School ( Rockford , Illinois ) , a former public grade school in Winnebago County , Illinois ( NRHP # 06000005 )  Garrison Middle School , a middle school in Baltimore , Maryland  William Lloyd Garrison School , a school in Boston , Suffolk County , Massachusetts ( NRHP # 80000674 )  Garrison School Historic District , an area of Liberty , Clay County , Missouri ( NRHP # 00001607 )  Garrison Union Free School , an operating grade school in Putnam County , New York ( NRHP # 82001244 )  Any of three campuses of Garrison Independent School District in Nacogdoches County , Texas  Kleist Museum , a museum in Frankfurt ( Oder ) , Germany , whose building was formerly the Garnisonsschule ( `` Garrison School '' )  Garrison Cadet College Kohat , a military cadet college in Pakistan

neg: Frankfurt proposals The Frankfurt proposals or Frankfurt memorandum was a Coalition peace initiative designed by Austrian minister Metternich . It was offered to French Emperor Napoleon I in November 1813 after he had suffered a decisive military defeat at the Battle of Leipzig . The goal was a peaceful end to the War of the Sixth Coalition . The Allies had reconquered most of Germany up to the Rhine , but they had not decided on the next step . Metternich took the initiative . The Allies , meeting in Frankfurt , drafted the proposals under Metternich 's close supervision . The British diplomat in attendance , Lord Aberdeen , misunderstood London 's position and accepted the moderate terms .   The proposal was that Napoleon would remain as Emperor of France , but France would be reduced to its `` natural frontiers . '' The natural frontiers in this case were the Pyrenees mountains , the Alps mountains , and the Rhine River . France would retain control of Belgium , Savoy and the Rhineland ( the west bank of the Rhine River ) , while giving up control of all the rest , including all of Spain , Poland and the Netherlands , and most of Italy and Germany .   Metternich and Napoleon , meeting privately at Dresden in June had already discussed the terms . The final version was relayed to Napoleon by the Baron de Saint-Aignon in November .  Metternich told Napoleon these were the best terms the Allies were likely to offer ; after further victories , the terms would become harsher and harsher . Metternich 's motivation was to maintain France as a balance against Russian threats , while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars .   Napoleon , expecting to win the war , delayed too long and lost this opportunity . By December Austria had signed treaties with the Allies , and London rejected the terms because they might allow Belgium to become a base for the invasion of England . The offer was withdrawn . When the Allies invaded France in late 1813 Napoleon was heavily outnumbered ; he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals . The Allies now had new , harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries , which meant the loss of Belgium . Napoleon adamantly refused . He was finally forced to abdicate and lost his throne .

neg: Lecture A lecture ( from the French ` lecture ' , meaning ` reading ' -LSB- process -RSB- ) is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject , for example by a university or college teacher . Lectures are used to convey critical information , history , background , theories , and equations . A politician 's speech , a minister 's sermon , or even a businessman 's sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture . Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of the room and recite information relevant to the lecture 's content .   Though lectures are much criticised as a teaching method , universities have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large majority of their courses . Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation but relies upon passive learning . Therefore , lecturing is often contrasted to active learning . Lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating ; at the very least , lectures have survived in academia as a quick , cheap , and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study .   Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom , as well . Academic and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor , and academic conferences often center on `` keynote addresses '' , i.e. , lectures . The public lecture has a long history in the sciences and in social movements . Union halls , for instance , historically have hosted numerous free and public lectures on a wide variety of matters . Similarly , churches , community centers , libraries , museums , and other organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their constituents ' interests . Lectures represent a continuation of oral tradition in contrast to textual communication in books and other media . Lectures may be considered a type of grey literature .

neg: Comparative history Comparative history is the comparison of different societies which existed during the same time period or shared similar cultural conditions .   The comparative history of societies emerged as an important specialty among intellectuals in the Enlightenment in the 18th century , as typified by Montesquieu , Voltaire , Adam Smith , and others . Sociologists and economists in the 19th century often explored comparative history , as exemplified by Alexis de Tocqueville , Karl Marx , and Max Weber .   In the first half of the 20th century , a large reading public followed the comparative histories of ( German ) Oswald Spengler , ( Russian-American ) Pitirim Sorokin , and ( British ) Arnold J. Toynbee . Since the 1950s , however , comparative history has faded from the public view , and is now the domain of specialized scholars working independently .   Besides the people mentioned above , recent exemplars of comparative history include American historians Herbert E. Bolton and Carroll Quigley , and British historian Geoffrey Barraclough . Several sociologists are also prominent in this field , including Barrington Moore , S. N. Eisenstadt , Seymour Martin Lipset , Charles Tilly , and Michael Mann .   Historians generally accept the comparison of particular institutions ( banking , women 's rights , ethnic identities ) in different societies , but since the hostile reaction to Toynbee in the 1950s , generally do not pay much attention to sweeping comparative studies that cover wide swaths of the world over many centuries .

neg: Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte The military career of Napoleon Bonaparte spanned over 20 years . As emperor , he led the French Armies in the Napoleonic Wars . He is widely regarded as a military genius and one of the finest commanders in world history . He fought 60 battles , losing only seven , mostly at the end . The great French dominion collapsed rapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 . Napoleon was defeated in 1814 ; he returned and was finally defeated in 1815 at Waterloo . He spent his remaining days in British custody on the remote island of St. Helena .

neg: The Underground History of American Education The Underground History of American Education : A Schoolteacher 's Intimate Investigation Into the Problem of Modern Schooling ( ISBN 0-945700-05-9 , pbk . ISBN 0-945700-04-0 ) is a critique of the United States education system by John Taylor Gatto .   A former teacher , Gatto left the classroom the same year he was named New York State Teacher of the Year . He announced his decision in a letter titled `` I Quit , I Think '' .   Using anecdotes gathered from thirty years of teaching , alongside documentation , Gatto presents his view of modern compulsion schooling as opposed to genuine education , describing a `` conflict between systems which offer physical safety and certainty at the cost of suppressing free will , and those which offer liberty at the price of constant risk '' .   Gatto argues that educational strategies promoted by government and industry leaders for over a century included the creation of a system that keeps real power in the hands of very few people .   From the book 's Introduction :  '' ... Underground History is n't a history proper , but a collection of materials toward a history , embedded in a personal essay analyzing why mass compulsion schooling is unreformable . The history I have unearthed is important to our understanding ; it 's a good start , I believe , but much remains undone . ''   '' ... what I 'm trying to describe -LSB- is -RSB- that what has happened to our schools was inherent in the original design for a planned economy and a planned society laid down so proudly at the end of the nineteenth century . ''   Russ Kick offers this in summary :  `` In other words , the captains of industry and government explicitly wanted an educational system that would maintain social order by teaching us just enough to get by but not enough so that we could think for ourselves , question the sociopolitical order , or communicate articulately . ''   The book was read from 2006-2007 for the Unwelcome Guests radio show .   The second edition of the book is expected to be released in November , 2015 , with a foreword by Ron Paul .

neg: Battle of Toulouse (1814) The Battle of Toulouse ( 10 April 1814 ) was one of the final battles of the Napoleonic Wars , four days after Napoleon 's surrender of the French Empire to the nations of the Sixth Coalition . Having pushed the demoralised and disintegrating French Imperial armies out of Spain in a difficult campaign the previous autumn , the Allied British-Portuguese and Spanish army under the Marquess of Wellington pursued the war into southern France in the spring of 1814 .   Toulouse , the regional capital , proved stoutly defended by Marshal Soult . One British and two Spanish divisions were badly mauled in bloody fighting on 10 April , with Allied losses exceeding French casualties by 1,400 . As Wellington pulled back to reorganize his shattered units , Soult held the city for an additional day before orchestrating an escape from the town with his entire army .   Wellington 's entry on the morning of 12 April was acclaimed by a great number of French Royalists , validating Soult 's earlier fears of potential fifth column elements within the city . That afternoon , the official word of Napoleon 's abdication and the end of the war reached Wellington . Soult agreed to an armistice on 17 April .

neg: Veterinary education in France Veterinary education in France is ensured by four specialised grandes écoles , the veterinary schools , located in Lyon , Maisons-Alfort , Nantes and Toulouse . The studies last at least seven years after the baccalauréat and ends with an exertion thesis giving the right to the state diploma of veterinary physician .   The course starts with two years of scientific studies at the end of which students spends a national contest to enter into a veterinary school , where studies will then continue over five years .   France was the first country where the teaching of veterinary medicine has become institutionalized , through the establishment of the first veterinary schools in the eighteenth century .

neg: Napoleon in Holland End September 1811 Napoleon I visited the former Kingdom of Holland ; he explained to Armand Augustin Louis de Caulaincourt his goals : a war at sea with England , to form a government , and ordering the `` Routes impériales '' .

neg: France France ( -LSB- fʁɑ̃s -RSB- ) , officially the French Republic ( -LSB- ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz -RSB- ) , is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories . The European , or metropolitan , area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea , and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean . Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic , Pacific and Indian oceans . France spans 643801 km2 and had a total population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017 . It is a unitary semi-presidential republic with the capital in Paris , the country 's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre . Other major urban centres include Marseille , Lyon , Lille , Nice , Toulouse and Bordeaux .   During the Iron Age , what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls , a Celtic people . The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome , which held Gaul until 486 , when the Germanic Franks conquered the region and formed the Kingdom of France . France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages , with its victory in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 to 1453 ) strengthening state-building and political centralisation . During the Renaissance , French culture flourished and a global colonial empire was established , which by the 20th century would be the second largest in the world . The 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots ) . France became Europe 's dominant cultural , political , and military power under Louis XIV . In the late 18th century , the French Revolution overthrew the absolute monarchy , established one of modern history 's earliest republics , and saw the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which expresses the nation 's ideals to this day .   In the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire , whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe . Following the collapse of the Empire , France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870 . France was a major participant in the First World War , from which it emerged victorious , and was one of the Allied Powers in the Second World War , but came under occupation by the Axis Powers in 1940 . Following liberation in 1944 , a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War . The Fifth Republic , led by Charles de Gaulle , was formed in 1958 and remains to this day . Algeria and nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s and typically retained close economic and military connections with France .   France has long been a global centre of art , science , and philosophy . It hosts Europe 's fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually , the most of any country in the world . France is a developed country with the world 's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity . In terms of aggregate household wealth , it ranks fourth in the world . France performs well in international rankings of education , health care , life expectancy , and human development . France remains a great power in the world , being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state . It is a leading member state of the European Union and the Eurozone . It is also a member of the Group of 7 , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , and La Francophonie .

neg: 18th century The 18th century lasted from January 1 , 1701 to December 31 , 1800 in the Gregorian calendar . During the 18th century , the Enlightenment culminated in the French and American revolutions . Philosophy and science increased in prominence . Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age . This dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789 - , though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror ( 1793-1794 ) under Maximilien Robespierre . At first , many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals , but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power and formed broad coalitions for the counter-revolution . The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion , taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768 . As a consequence the empire did not share in Europe 's military improvements during the Seven Years ' War ( 1756-1763 ) , causing its military to fall behind and suffer defeats against Russia in the second half of the century .   The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state . The once-powerful and vast kingdom , which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies , collapsed under numerous invasions . Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring monarchies of the Kingdom of Prussia , the Russian Empire and the Archduchy of Austria which divided the Commonwealth territories between themselves , changing the landscape of Central European politics for the next hundred years .   European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued . Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s and the conquest of large parts of India . However , Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution , which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America . The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the improved steam engine . Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century , steam-powered machinery would radically change human society and the environment .   Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work . For example , the `` short '' 18th century may be defined as 1715 -- 1789 , denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution , with an emphasis on directly interconnected events . To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements , the `` long '' 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later .

neg: L'Empereur is a turn-based strategy video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System released by the Koei company in 1989 .   The user controls Napoleon Bonaparte during the Napoleonic Wars of the late 18th and early 19th Centuries . The goal is to conquer Europe . The game begins with Napoleon as an army officer , but with victories in combat , the user may get promoted to Commander-in-Chief , First Consul , and finally Emperor of the French , with more powers and actions available at each level . As Emperor , the user also controls Napoleon 's brothers , Louis , Jérôme , Lucien , and Joseph , as well as Napoleon 's stepson , Eugene Beauharnais . The game has both military and civilian aspects . The user can lead armies , act as mayor of cities , and depending on the level achieved , engage in diplomacy with other nations . This historically accurate game reproduces many historical figures and the militaries of Europe with great detail .


query: A loss of supply only has nothing to do with prime ministers.

pos: Loss of supply Loss of supply occurs where a government in a parliamentary democracy using the Westminster System or a system derived from it is denied a supply of treasury or exchequer funds , by whichever house or houses of parliament or head of state is constitutionally entitled to grant and deny supply . A defeat on a budgetary vote is one such way by which supply can be denied . Loss of supply is typically interpreted as indicating a loss of confidence in the government . Not all `` money bills '' are necessarily supply bills . For instance , in Australia , supply bills are defined as `` bills which are required by the Government to carry on its day-to-day business '' .   When a loss of supply occurs , a prime minister is generally required either by constitutional convention or by explicit constitutional instruction to either resign immediately or seek a parliamentary dissolution .   Some constitutions , however , do not allow the option of parliamentary dissolution but rather require the government to be dissolved or to resign .   A similar deadlock can occur within a presidential system , where it is also known as a budget crisis . In contrast to parliamentary systems , the failure of the legislature to authorize spending may not in all circumstances result in an election , because some such legislatures enjoy fixed terms and so can not be dissolved before a date of termination , which can result in a prolonged crisis .   A deadlock between a head of state and the legislative body can give rise and cause for a head of state to prematurely dismiss the elected government , requiring it to seek re-election . If a government maintains the support of a majority of legislators or the elected parliamentary representatives , the blocking of supply by a head of state would be seen as an abuse of authority and power . Many western countries have removed or restricted the right of a head of state to block supply or veto a government budget unless there is overwhelming justification and cause for such action .

neg: Money creation Money creation ( also known as credit creation ) is the process by which the money supply of a country or a monetary region ( such as the Eurozone ) is increased . A central bank may introduce new money into the economy ( termed `` expansionary monetary policy '' , or by detractors `` printing money '' ) by purchasing financial assets or lending money to financial institutions . However , in most countries today , most of the money supply is in the form of bank deposits , which is created by private banks in a fractional reserve banking system . Bank lending increases the amount of broad money beyond the amount of base money originally created by the central bank . Reserve requirements , capital adequacy ratios , and other policies of the central bank influence this process .   Central banks monitor the amount of money in the economy by measuring monetary aggregates such as M2 . The effect of monetary policy on the money supply is indicated by comparing these measurements on various dates . For example , in the United States , money supply measured as M2 grew from $ 6.407 trillion in January 2005 , to $ 8.319 trillion in January 2009 .

neg: Postmaster General of the United Kingdom The Postmaster General of the United Kingdom was a Cabinet-level ministerial position in HM Government . Aside from maintaining the postal system , the Telegraph Act of 1868 established the Postmaster General 's right to exclusively maintain electric telegraphs . This would subsequently extend to telecommunications and broadcasting .   The office was abolished in 1969 by the Post Office Act 1969 . A replacement public authority governed by a chairman was established under the name of the `` Post Office ( that part subsumed by Royal Mail ) '' . The position of `` Postmaster General '' was , with reduced powers , replaced with `` Minister of Posts and Telecommunications '' ; since which most such regulation instead has been delegated to the Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport however the present-day Royal Mail Group was overseen by the Secretary of State for Business , Innovation and Skills prior to flotation .

neg: Sustainable investment rule The sustainable investment rule , as referred to in the United Kingdom , is one of several fiscal policy principles set out by the incoming Labour government in 1997 . These were first set out by then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown in his 1997 budget speech . Subsequently they were formalised in the Finance Act 1998 and in the Code for Fiscal Stability , approved by the House of Commons in December 1998 .   The sustainable investment rule states that public sector net debt as a proportion of gross domestic product ( GDP ) will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level . The Chancellor has stated that , other things being equal , net government debt will be maintained below 40 % of GDP over the current economic cycle .   This `` rule '' is however merely a stated aim with no sanctions against the incumbent government if broken , unlike some balanced budget provisions used in other countries .   The sustainable investment rule is the counterpart to the Golden Rule , introduced at the same time .

neg: Big Six energy suppliers The Big Six are the United Kingdom 's largest energy suppliers , supplying gas and electricity to over 50 million homes and businesses in Britain , with over 90 % share of domestic customers . `` Supplier '' is meant by the business of buying wholesale power ( or gas ) , paying network and government policy costs and charges , and charging the customers of that supplier , for their electricity ( or gas ) . The assets of a supplier , which is a separate licensed business , are its people , and its offices . The business of four of the big energy Suppliers , including of their wider company groups , does not entail owning , or running , any actual network assets - underground cables , overhead lines , or pipes - to physically deliver electricity or gas . The two exceptions to this , are the two big Scottish Supplier firms , whose wider company groups do own some network assets .   Confusingly , the term `` Big Six '' has recently been used prominently in the British media to refer , instead , to Britain 's energy network firms such as UK Power Networks ( which are generally independent of the biggest six British energy suppliers ) . There has also been a tendency in the media to wrongly refer to electricity network firms as `` electricity suppliers '' , thus sowing further confusion and misunderstanding ,   The `` Big Six '' as the term has most often been used , tends to be a reference to the oldest British electricity companies ( which are all also involved in the retail Supply of gas ) plus British Gas . This comprises ( 1 ) British Gas ( owned by UK firm Centrica which is listed on the LSE ) , ( 2 ) EDF Energy ( owned by French firm Électricité de France which is listed on the Paris Stock Exchange , ( 3 ) npower , ( 4 ) E.ON UK ( each German-owned ) , ( 5 ) Scottish Power ( Spanish-owned ) , and ( 6 ) SSE ( listed on the LSE ) .   According to SERIS , the generation businesses of the ` Big Six ' energy firms amount to around three-quarters of British generating capacity . Three out of the ` Big Ten ' generators in the UK can probably still be categorised as majority-owned by British shareholders ; the other seven are listed firms that are owned by their many shareholders , some of whom will be British , but many of whom may not be British .   Figures from independent research group Cornwall Energy suggest that by September 2014 Britain 's big six energy companies had a 92.4 % share of the market -- a decrease from 99.8 % in 2009 .

neg: Black Budget (New Zealand) In New Zealand , the term Black Budget refers to the government budget of 26 June 1958 in which Finance Minister Arnold Nordmeyer increased taxes on beer , tobacco , cars and petrol .   The second Labour government took office in 1957 , the 32nd Parliament . Within a year , the government was confronted with a balance of payments crisis caused by the collapse of the price of butter in Britain ( at the time New Zealand 's largest export market ) . Nordmeyer 's colleagues were reluctant to cut government spending or break expensive election promises , so Nordmeyer was left with little option but to raise taxes .   The budget increased social security benefits but was very unpopular , not least with Labour 's traditional working-class supporters . The term ` black budget ' is believed to have been coined by union leader Fintan Patrick Walsh , but was taken up by the National Party opposition , and became the commonly used term for the budget .   The budget was prepared by the cabinet finance committee of Walter Nash , Arnold Nordmeyer , Phil Holloway and Tom Skinner ; and Warren Freer was told by Holloway that it was Nash rather than Nordmeyer who fought for the `` draconian measures '' finally adopted . While export prices had `` had a real bashing '' with butter at half its normal level and wool and meat also down , Holloway and Skinner felt that prices of both wool and meat were likely to rise and drastic measures were not fully justified . In caucus the measures were criticised by Michael Moohan , Frank Kitts and Bill Fox and , despite his cabinet position , Moohan continued to agitate against the beer price rise in private . Philip Connolly said of Nash , who had said that there was no alternative , that he was `` telling a bloody big lie '' as Nash was rubbing the gold cross on his watch chain when he said it . Freer saw some saving grace in the tightening of import controls and emphasis on local manufacture .   The government 's popularity never recovered from the budget , which is generally believed to have cost it the 1960 election . Nordmeyer was forever tainted by the ` black budget ' , which gave him a reputation as a puritanical ` wowser ' who was opposed to simple working class pleasures such as beer and cigarettes . Despite this , he became the leader of the Labour Party in 1963 , but was replaced by Norman Kirk less than three years later .   In 2010 , DB Breweries ran an advertising campaign attributing the creation of one of its brands , DB Export Gold to the increased taxes on beer introduced by the ` black budget ' . However , the brewery was forced to pull the campaign from television and internet in February 2011 ( though Newspaper ads were unaffected ) after the New Zealand Advertising Standards Authority partially upheld a complaint laid by Progressive Party leader Jim Anderton that the campaign was `` unethical , inaccurate and distorted history '' as little beer was then imported to New Zealand and the budget raised the excise only to the same as local beers .

neg: Do Nothing Do Nothing may refer to :   `` Do Nothing '' ( song ) , a 1980 single by The Specials included on the album More Specials  Do Nothing Congress , an epithet applied to the 80th United States Congress ( 1947 -- 49 )  Do Nothing Farming , an ecological farming approach established by Masanobu Fukuoka ( 1913 -- 2008 )  Do nothing grinder ( AKA Kentucky do-nothing , or do nothing machine ) , a novelty or toy version of the Trammel of Archimedes , which draws an ellipse  Do nothing instruction ( AKA NOP or NOOP ) , in computer programming  Do nothing kings , English name for the rois fainéants of the later kings of the Merovingian dynasty ( 7th and 8th centuries AD )

neg: Prime Minister of Australia The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia is the head of government of Australia . The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown , the leader of the Cabinet and the chairperson of the National Security Committee . The Prime Minister also has the responsibility of administering the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet . The office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through longstanding political convention and tradition . Despite this , in practice it is the most powerful parliamentary position in Australia . The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor-General of Australia .   Almost always and according to convention , the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives . However , there is no constitutional requirement that the Prime Minister sit in the House of Representatives , though by convention this is always the case . The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed Prime Minister was John Gorton , who subsequently resigned his Senate position and was elected as a member of the House of Representatives ( Senator George Pearce was acting Prime Minister for seven months in 1916 while Billy Hughes was overseas ) .   Malcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015 . He received his commission after replacing Tony Abbott as the leader of the Liberal Party , the dominant party in the Coalition government , following the outcome of the September 2015 Liberal leadership ballot .

neg: Long Depression The Long Depression was a worldwide price and economic recession , beginning in 1873 and running either through the spring of 1879 , or 1896 , depending on the metrics used . It was the most severe in Europe and the United States , which had been experiencing strong economic growth fueled by the Second Industrial Revolution in the decade following the American Civil War . The episode was labeled the `` Great Depression '' at the time , and it held that designation until the Great Depression of the 1930s . Though a period of general deflation and a general contraction , it did not have the severe economic retrogression of the Great Depression .   It was most notable in Western Europe and North America , at least in part because reliable data from the period is most readily available in those parts of the world . The United Kingdom is often considered to have been the hardest hit ; during this period it lost some of its large industrial lead over the economies of Continental Europe . While it was occurring , the view was prominent that the economy of the United Kingdom had been in continuous depression from 1873 to as late as 1896 and some texts refer to the period as the Great Depression of 1873 -- 96 .   In the United States , economists typically refer to the Long Depression as the Depression of 1873 -- 79 , kicked off by the Panic of 1873 , and followed by the Panic of 1893 , book-ending the entire period of the wider Long Depression . The National Bureau of Economic Research dates the contraction following the panic as lasting from October 1873 to March 1879 . At 65 months , it is the longest-lasting contraction identified by the NBER , eclipsing the Great Depression 's 43 months of contraction .   In the US , from 1873 to 1879 , 18,000 businesses went bankrupt , including 89 railroads . Ten states and hundreds of banks went bankrupt . Unemployment peaked in 1878 , long after the panic ended . Different sources peg the peak U.S. unemployment rate anywhere from 8.25 % to 14 % .

neg: Victorian Liberal Party The Victorian Liberal Party ( VLP ) , often called the Hollway Liberals , was an independent political party formed on 27 October 1954 from a grouping of supporters of Thomas Hollway , a former leader of the Liberal and Country Party and Premier of Victoria . The extant Liberal and Country Party was the actual Victorian division of the Liberal Party of Australia .   The party was originally the Electoral Reform League , a political group formed by Hollway after his expulsion from the Liberal and Country Party , with the goal of re-distributing Victoria 's electoral boundaries , which Hollway and his supporters saw as mal-apportioned in favour of the Country Party . With electoral reform implemented by John Cain 's Labor government , the group became known as the `` Hollway group '' . On 27 October 1954 , the Speaker informed the assembly that Hollway 's group had formally become an Opposition party . Hollway told reporters that he had attempted to unify opposition against the Labor Party , but that the Liberal and Country Party had rejected his overtures , leaving him no option but to form a `` separate political entity '' . He stated that the VLP had been formed to bring `` the true principles of liberalism to the Parliament '' .   In December 1954 Hollway issued an ultimatum to the Cain government , demanding it remove price controls or his party would use its two votes in the Victorian Legislative Council to defeat the Price Control Extension Bill , which would have extended government control of prices a further twelve months from its expiration date of 31 December . The government ignored the ultimatum , and the bill was defeated in the upper house , but Cain came to an agreement with Hollway to maintain supply .   The party ceased to exist in 1955 when all four members of the party ( Hollway , Alexander Dennett , John Don and Ray Tovell ) lost their seats in the Legislative Assembly at the 1955 state election .

neg: Rare disasters A rare disaster is an economic collapse that is infrequent and large in magnitude , having a negative effect on an economy . Rare disasters are important because they provide an explanation of the equity premium puzzle , the behavior of interest rates , and other economic phenomena .   The parameters for a rare disaster are a substantial drop in GDP and at least a 10 % decrease in consumption . Examples include financial disasters : the Great Depression and the 1997 Asian financial crisis ; wars : World War I , World War II , and regional conflicts ; epidemics : influenza outbreaks and the Asian Flu ; weather events ; and earthquakes and tsunamis ; however , any event that has a substantial impact on GDP and consumption could be considered a rare disaster .   The idea was first proposed by Rietz in 1988 , as a way to explain the equity premium puzzle . Since then , other economists have added to and strengthened the idea with evidence , but many economists are still skeptical of the theory .

neg: Deflation In economics , deflation is a decrease in the general price level of goods and services . Deflation occurs when the inflation rate falls below 0 % ( a negative inflation rate ) . Inflation reduces the real value of money over time ; conversely , deflation increases the real value of money the currency of a national or regional economy . This allows one to buy more goods and services than before with the same amount of money .   Economists generally believe that deflation is a problem in a modern economy because it may increase the real value of debt , especially if the deflation was unexpected . Deflation may also aggravate recessions and lead to a deflationary spiral .   Deflation is distinct from disinflation , a slow-down in the inflation rate , i.e. when inflation declines to a lower rate but is still positive .

neg: Prime Minister of Northern Cyprus The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic , whereby the President is head of state and the Prime Minister head of government , and of a multi-party system . Executive power is exercised by the government . Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of the Republic . The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature . The Prime Minister must control a majority of parliament in order to govern .   There have been ten Prime Ministers of Northern Cyprus since 1983 . The premiership 's precursor was a post known as the `` President of the Turkish Cypriot Communal Chamber '' . The only man to occupy this post was Rauf Denktaş from December 29 , 1969 to July 5 , 1976 . There were three prime ministers before the Turkish Cypriot community 's unilateral declaration of independence in 1983 .

neg: Economic operator An economic operator is a business or other organisation which supplies goods , works or services within the context of market operations . The term is used in public procurement to cover suppliers , contractors and service providers .   The term is defined in the UK 's Public Contracts Regulations as :   `` any person or public entity or group of such persons and entities , including any temporary association of undertakings , which offers the execution of works or a work , the supply of products or the provision of services on the market '' .   Early European Union legislation on public procurement was contained within three separate Directives on purchasing of services , goods and works , but once a single directive was adopted in 2004 , a term was needed which would cover suppliers , contractors and service providers without implying or being limited to private sector operations . The terms ` business ' or ` undertaking ' would therefore have been inappropriate and the term ` economic operator ' was therefore adopted . In introducing the new term within the 2004 Directive , the text explained that the terms `` contractor '' , `` supplier '' and `` service provider '' ( as used within the Directive ) would mean ` any natural or legal person or public entity or group of such persons and/or bodies which offers on the market , respectively , the execution of works and/or a work , products or services ' and the term `` economic operator '' shall cover equally the concepts of contractor , supplier and service provider . It is used merely in the interest of simplification . '

neg: Royal Commission on the Depression in Trade and Industry The Royal Commission on the Depression in Trade and Industry was a Royal Commission of the United Kingdom set up by the Prime Minister Lord Salisbury 's minority Conservative government in August 1885 and completed in December 1886 . It occurred during the Great Depression of 1873 -- 96 .   The decision by Salisbury to appoint this Royal Commission has been seen as a way of easing the pressure on the Conservative Party from `` fair traders '' who opposed the prevailing free trade orthodoxy . The former Liberal ministers who Salisbury wished to appoint to the Royal Commission , such as John Kynaston Cross , declined to do so because such an inquiry implicitly questioned the validity of free trade .   The Commission was chaired by Lord Iddesleigh , a free trader . W. D. Rubinstein has noted that `` This commission was notable for being one of the first to acknowledge Britain 's disadvantages as the earliest industrial country at a time of intense foreign competition . Its recommendations were moderate , and Iddesleigh 's chairmanship ensured that it did not stray from free-trade orthodoxy despite the growing calls for protection from many tories '' .

neg: False economy In economics , a false economy is an action that saves money at the beginning but which , over a longer period of time , results in more money being spent or wasted than being saved . For example , it may be false economy if a city government decided to purchase the least expensive automobiles for use by city workers , as cheap automobiles have a record of needing more frequent repairs in the long term and the additional repair costs would eradicate any initial savings .   Motivating factors on the part of the party engaging in false economies may be linked to the long-term involvement of this party . For example , a real estate developer who builds a condominium may turn the finished structure over to the ensuing condominium corporation which is run by its members once the last unit is sold and the building has passed a final inspection . Longevity of the components of the structure beyond the final turnover of the facility may not be a major motivating factor for the developer , meaning that the result of the application of false economies may be more detrimental to the end user , as opposed to the developer .   Individuals may also practise false economy in their personal lives . A notable practitioner of false economy was King Frederick William I of Prussia , who was said by Thomas Macaulay to have saved five or six reichsthalers a year feeding his family unwholesome cabbages even though the poor diet sickened his children and the resulting medical care cost him many times what he saved .   The concept is related to planned obsolescence , whereby the lower initial cost of a false economy attracts buyers mostly on the basis of low cost , who may later be at a disadvantage .   Poor people are often forced into false economies when they ca n't afford the better long term option in the short term .

neg: 1952 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Economic Conference The 1952 Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Economic Conference was an emergency Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations . It was called by the British government of Sir Winston Churchill and held in the United Kingdom in December 1952 as a follow-up to a Commonwealth Finance Minister 's conference held in January 1952 . The conference was held in the context of British economic and military decline and the United States ' surging role in the world .   The principal topic of the conference was the convertibility and liquidity of Pound sterling into American dollars and British concerns that non-sterling Commonwealth countries were building up sterling balances for the purpose of conversion into American dollars , the future of the Pound sterling area , and the alleviation of Commonwealth trade restrictions and imperial preference , particularly in the light of the surging American economy and the desire of Commonwealth countries such as Australia for American investment in order for economic development to occur against British concerns that American economic dominance threatened Britain 's economic position . This discussion was necessary as the Commonwealth , with the exception of Canada , had a common pool of gold and dollar reserves . Little was accomplished in the economic discussion with the final communique being described as an `` agreement in platitudes '' .   British concerns at being excluded from the ANZUS military treaty between Australia , New Zealand and the United States were also a topic and were addressed by a communique issued by the prime ministers supporting Britain 's demand for a voice in ANZUS .   In addition , Commonwealth prime ministers , after months of discussion on whether the newly ascended Queen Elizabeth II should have a uniform Royal Styles and Titles throughout the Commonwealth or whether realms should adopt their own styles and titles , it was agreed that each member of the Commonwealth `` should use for its own purposes a form of the Royal Style and Titles which suits its own particular circumstances but retains a substantial element which is common to all '' and agreed to pass appropriate legislation in their respective parliaments . The prime ministers also agreed to proclaim the new Queen , Elizabeth II , Head of the Commonwealth in succession of her late father , George VI .

neg: Second Menzies Ministry The Second Menzies Ministry was the twenty-seventh Australian Commonwealth ministry , and ran from 14 March 1940 to 28 October 1940 .   United Australia Party -- Australian Country Party Coalition   Rt Hon Robert Menzies , KC MP : Prime Minister , Minister for Defence Co-ordination , Minister for Information . Minister for Munitions ( from 11 June 1940 ) ( UAP )  Hon Archie Cameron , MP : Minister for Commerce , Minister for the Navy ( CP )  Rt Hon Billy Hughes , KC MP : Attorney-General , Minister for Industry ( UAP )  Hon Geoffrey Street , MP : Minister for the Army , Minister for Repatriation ( to 13 August 1940 ) ( UAP )  Hon Sir Henry Gullett , KCMG MP : Vice-President of the Executive Council , Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research ( to 13 August 1940 ) ( UAP )  Senator Hon George McLeay : Minister for Trade and Customs ( UAP )  Hon James Fairbairn , MP : Minister for Civil Aviation , Minister for Air ( to 13 August 1940 ) ( UAP )  Hon Sir Frederick Stewart , MP : Minister for Social Services , Minister for Supply and Development ( UAP )  Senator Hon Harry Foll : Minister for the Interior ( UAP )  Senator Hon Herbert Collett : Minister without portfolio in charge of War Service Homes , Minister without portfolio assisting the Minister for Repatriation ( to 14 August 1940 ) . Minister in charge of War Service Homes , Vice-President of the Executive Council , Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research ( from 14 August 1940 ) . ( UAP )  Senator Hon Philip McBride : Minister without portfolio assisting the Minister for the Minister for Commerce ( to 14 August 1940 ) , Minister for the Army , Minister for Repatriation ( from 14 August 1940 ) ( UAP )  Hon Percy Spender , KC MP : Treasurer ( UAP )  Hon John McEwen , MP : Minister for External Affairs ( CP )  Hon Harold Thorby , MP : Minister for Health , Postmaster-General ( CP )  Hon Arthur Fadden , MP : Minister without portfolio assisting the Minister for Supply and Development , Minister without portfolio assisting the Treasurer ( CP ) ( to 14 August 1940 ) . Minister for Air , Minister for Civil Aviation , Minister assisting the Treasurer ( from 14 August 1940 ) ( CP )  Hon Horace Nock , MP : Minister without portfolio assisting the Prime Minister , Minister without portfolio in charge of External Territories , Minister without portfolio assisting the Minister for the Interior ( CP )

neg: 2012 British cabinet reshuffle British prime minister David Cameron conducted the first major reshuffle of his coalition government on 4 September 2012 . The reshuffle , nearly two and a half years after the government was sworn in , was highly anticipated , and eschewed the trend of annual reshuffles which had become common under the governments of the 1990s and 2000s . As a result , many ministers had been in place not just since the government was elected in 2010 , but had covered the portfolio in Cameron 's shadow cabinet or even earlier ; Andrew Lansley had covered the health brief since 2004 , when Michael Howard led the Conservatives in opposition .   Despite this , Cameron 's room to manoeuvre was limited by his coalition agreement with Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg 's Liberal Democrats , which guaranteed the minority party seats in government , and Clegg the right to select his ministers . Further , Cameron 's personal aversion to reshuffles and belief that ministers were most effective when given time at a department led to him viewing many cabinet members , including the holders of the Great Offices of State , as immovable .   The reshuffle , which was criticised by the opposition for resulting in a cabinet with only four female members out of twenty-two , ultimately shifted Cameron 's government significantly to the right on business , justice , and the environment , and rid the government of perceived weaknesses , while maintaining stability at the top . In an official statement , Number 10 stated that the impetus for the reshuffle was the fact that after more than two years , the government was `` at the delivery phase '' and that ministers had `` been appointed with that in mind '' .

neg: Hunger in the United Kingdom Chronic hunger has affected a sizable proportion of the UK 's population throughout most of its history . The problem was largely solved with the improved economic conditions that followed World War II . Yet since the lasting global inflation in the price of food that began in late 2006 , and especially since the financial crisis of 2008 , severe hunger has once again began to affect thousands of Britons . By December 2013 , according to a group of doctors and academics writing in The British Medical Journal , hunger in the UK had reached the level of a `` public health emergency '' .   In the run up to the 2015 general election , the issue of hunger in the UK became somewhat politicised , with right wing commentators expressing scepticism about figures presented by church groups and left leaning activitists . An All-Party MP group focusing on hunger in the UK has called for activists to be cautious in how they discuss the problem of domestic hunger , as exaggerated claims and political point scoring risk reducing public support for tackling the issue . In a 2016 report , the All-Party group stated it is not possible to accurately quantify the number of people suffering from hunger in the UK , and called for better collection of data .   The UK has seen several changes in prevailing attitudes to the problem of hunger and its relief . In the early 19th century , a view arose that it was counter productive to assist those suffering from hunger ; rather people should be left to fend for themselves , which would help them become more self-sufficient and would also assist the free market to deliver prosperity . By the early 20th century this way of thinking had been largely displaced by the humanitarian view that Britons have a moral duty to help the hungry when they are able .

neg: Say's law Say 's law , or the law of markets , in classical economics , states that aggregate production necessarily creates an equal quantity of aggregate demand . The French economist Jean-Baptiste Say ( 1767 -- 1832 ) introduced the idea in 1803 , in his principal work , A Treatise on Political Economy ( Traité d'économie politique ) :  A product is no sooner created , than it , from that instant , affords a market for other products to the full extent of its own value .  and  As each of us can only purchase the productions of others with his own productions -- as the value we can buy is equal to the value we can produce , the more men can produce , the more they will purchase .   Say further argued that this law of markets implies that a general glut ( the term used in Say 's time for a widespread excess of supply over demand ) can not occur . If there is a surplus of one good , there must be unmet demand for another : `` If certain goods remain unsold , it is because other goods are not produced . '' Say 's law has been one of the principal doctrines used to support the laissez-faire belief that a capitalist economy will naturally tend toward full employment and prosperity without government intervention .   Over the years , at least two objections to Say 's law have been raised :  General gluts do occur , particularly during recessions and depressions .  Economic agents may collectively choose to increase the amount of money they hold , thereby reducing demand but not supply .   Say 's law was generally accepted throughout the 19th century , though modified to incorporate the idea of a `` boom-and-bust '' cycle . During the worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s , the theories of Keynesian economics disputed Say 's conclusions .   Scholars disagree on the question of whether it was Say who first stated the principle , but by convention , Say 's law has been another name for the law of markets ever since John Maynard Keynes used the term in the 1930s .