query: Charles Woodruff Yost was appointed to act or speak to the United Nations for the United States.

pos: Charles Woodruff Yost Charles Woodruff Yost ( November 6 , 1907 -- May 21 , 1981 ) was a career U.S. diplomat who was assigned as his country 's representative to the United Nations from 1969 to 1971 .

neg: Todd Stern Todd D. Stern ( born May 4 , 1951 ) served as the United States Special Envoy for Climate Change , leading talks at the United Nations climate change conferences and smaller sessions , appointed by U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on January 26 , 2009 . He was the United State 's chief negotiator at the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement .   Stern previously served under the Bill Clinton administration as Assistant to the President and Staff Secretary in the White House from 1993 to 1998 , during which time he also acted as the senior White House negotiator at the Kyoto Protocol and Buenos Aires negotiations .

neg: United States Congress The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers : the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington , D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment . Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party , and only rarely to a third party or as independents . Congress has 535 voting members : 435 Representatives and 100 Senators . The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members . These members can , however , sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation . These members represent Washington , D.C. , Puerto Rico , American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands .   The members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency , known as a `` district '' . Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results , provided that each state has at least one congressional representative . Each state , regardless of population or size , has two senators . Currently , there are 100 senators representing the 50 states . Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term , with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election .

neg: Combined Shipping Adjustment Board The Combined Shipping Adjustment Board or Combined Shipping Board was a joint American-British war agency 1942-45 nominally in charge of commercial shipping . It proved ineffective as much more powerful boards , such as the Combined Munitions Assignments Board , ignored it . The U.S. Army and Navy controlled most shipping and refused to share responsibility with the Board as did the powerful War Shipping Administration . For practical purposes the agency was inactive by spring 1943 .   President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill set it up in January 1942 with a 6-point mandate :  1 . In principle the shipping resources of the two countries will be deemed to be pooled . The fullest information will be interchanged .  2 . Owing to the military and physical facts of the situation around the British Isles , the entire movement of shipping now under the control of Great Britain will continue to be directed by the Ministry of War Transport .  3 . Similarly , the appropriate authority in the United States will continue to direct the movements and allocations of U.S. shipping or shipping of other Powers under U.S. control .  4 . In order to adjust and concert in one harmonious policy the work of the British Ministry of War Transport and the shipping authorities of the U.S. Government , there wilt be established forthwith in Washington a Combined Shipping Adjustment Board consisting of a representative of the United States and a representative of the British Government who will represent and act under the instructions of the British Minister of War Transport .  5 . A similar Adjustment Board will be set up in London consisting of the Minister of War Transport and a representative of the U.S. Government .  6 . In both cases the executive power will be exercised solely by the appropriate shipping agency in Washington and by the Minister of War Transport in London .

neg: Special Relationship The Special Relationship is the unofficial term for the exceptionally close political , diplomatic , cultural , economic , military and historical relations between the United Kingdom and the United States . It was used in a 1946 speech by Winston Churchill . Although both the United Kingdom and United States have close relationships with many other nations , the level of cooperation between them in economic activity , trade and commerce , military planning , execution of military operations , nuclear weapons technology , and intelligence sharing has been described as `` unparalleled '' among major powers .   The United Kingdom and United States have been close allies in numerous military and political conflicts throughout the 20th and 21st centuries including World War I , World War II , the Korean War , the Cold War , the Gulf War , and the War on Terror .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1435 United Nations Security Council resolution 1435 , adopted on 24 September 2002 , after recalling resolutions 242 ( 1967 ) , 338 ( 1973 ) , 1397 ( 2002 ) , 1402 ( 2002 ) and 1403 ( 2002 ) , the Council demanded the end to Israeli measures in Ramallah , including the destruction of Palestinian infrastructure .   The Security Council reiterated its concern at events that had taken place in the region since September 2000 and their deterioration , particularly terrorist attacks against civilians in Israel and at a Palestinian school in Hebron . It demanded the end of the occupation of the headquarters of the President of the Palestinian Authority Yasser Arafat . Furthermore , there was alarm at the reoccupation of Palestinian cities and restrictions on the freedom of movement of people and goods and the need for all to respect the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 .   The resolution reiterated the need for a complete cessation of all acts of violence , demanding that Israel end measures in and around Ramallah and to withdraw occupying forces from Palestinian cities to positions held before September 2000 . The Palestinian Authority was called upon to ensure that those responsible for the terrorist acts would be brought to justice . It also supported further diplomatic efforts by the Quartet on the Middle East and others in the region and recognised the initiative adopted at the Arab League Summit in Beirut which stated that peace between Israel and the Palestinians could be achieved through the abandonment of the right to return of Palestinian refugees in exchange for the establishment of a Palestinian state in the 1967 borders and the sharing of Jerusalem .   Resolution 1435 was adopted by 14 votes to none against and one abstention from the United States . American representatives John Negroponte and James Cunningham stated that the country would not support a `` one-sided resolution '' which did not explicitly condemn the terrorists or those who gave them safe haven .

neg: Terrence L. Bracy Terrence L. Bracy , a St. Louis native , is a leading expert on Congressional legislation . As an aide to former Congressman Morris K. Udall , Terry Bracy did crucial behind-the-scenes work on important reform measures , including the Alaska Native Claims Act , the Campaign Reform Acts of 1971 and 1974 , the Colorado River Basin Act of 1968 , as well as numerous other bills dealing with parks and wilderness , clean energy technologies , and governmental reorganization .   Terry Bracy served as an aide to Congressman Udall from 1966-1976 . He convinced Congressman Udall to run for President in 1976 and conceived Udall 's successful campaign strategy , at a time when very few Congressmen ran for President .   In January 1977 , President Jimmy Carter appointed Terry Bracy Assistant Secretary of Transportation . From 1977-1979 , Bracy was a major player in the advent of airbags in cars , and of the nation 's first fuel economy standards . He was also the department 's liaison to Congress , to the White House , to the nation 's governors and mayors , and to the press . Bracy led the effort to put the first user fee on America 's waterway system , and in 1979 he led the first Federal effort to `` reinvent the auto '' and modernize Detroit .   In 1981 , Bracy founded the consulting firm that is now Bracy Tucker Brown and Valanzano , and has directed that firm ever since . Bracy Tucker has had many Fortune 500 clients , as well as major U.S. cities , airports , Native American tribes , European and Asian concerns and the U.S. government .   In 1992 , the Udall Foundation was established by the U.S. Congress to honor the 30-year legacy of public service by Congressman Mo Udall and enhanced in 2009 to honor Secretary Stewart L. Udall . In 1994 , Terry Bracy was appointed by President Bill Clinton to the board of trustees of the Udall Foundation and subsequently elected the first chair . He was reappointed by President Clinton in 1998 , and by President George W. Bush in 2006 . Bracy led the Foundation from its first class of Udall Scholars in 1995 and under his leadership , the Foundation also created the Native American Internship on Capitol Hill , co-founded the Native Nations Institute , and accepted from Congress the stewardship of the US Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution .   On October 27 , 2011 , Bracy stepped down from his role as chair of the Udall Foundation board . There was a dinner to honor Bracy and his distinguished service to the Udall Foundation the same day in Tucson , Ariz. . Bill Bradley , former three-term U.S. Senator from New Jersey and 2000 Presidential candidate , was the keynote speaker at the dinner . `` Terry Bracy is a true master of the legislative process . He is smart , intuitive , trustworthy , knows his business , and he really cares about the mission of the Udall Foundation , '' said Senator Bradley . Bracy is now `` retired chair emeritus '' of the Foundation .   Several elected officials issued formal statements about Bracy 's contributions to the Udall Foundation . `` Terry 's dedicated service has been critical to advancing the tremendous legacies of Mo and Stewart Udall , '' said Senator John McCain of Arizona . `` I wish him the best . '' `` Terry served many years to make sure the Udall legacy would be enshrined in the national consciousness , not just today but in the future , '' said Congressman Raúl Grijalva of Arizona . `` He has the sincere thanks of all of us who know how important the Udall Foundation and its work are to this country . I was happy to work with him , and he will be missed . '' Senator Mark Udall of Colorado made a statement on the floor of the U.S. Senate about Bracy . `` In light of his impending retirement from the Udall Foundation board , it is fitting that we commemorate Terry 's groundbreaking work on behalf of the foundation . ''  In addition , Senator Tom Udall of New Mexico made a similar floor statement , noting `` The Udall Foundation would not be what it is today without the tireless work of one man -- Terrence L. Bracy . '' There was significant media attention regarding Bracy stepping down .   On the occasion of his retirement , an annual award was created in Bracy 's honor . The Terrence L. Bracy Distinguished Alumnus Award recognizes outstanding contributions from Udall alumni in four principal areas of public service : conflict resolution , environmental work , health care ( including social services ) , and tribal public policy .   Bracy was married to Nancy Kay Muhlitner in 1966 . They have two sons , Michael and Timothy , and three grandchildren .

neg: History of the United States National Security Council 1953–61 This article is about the history of the United States National Security Council during the Eisenhower Administration , 1953 -- 1961 .   Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower , the National Security Council system evolved into the principal arm of the President in formulating and executing policy on military , international , and internal security affairs . Where Harry S. Truman was uncomfortable with the NSC system and only made regular use of it under the pressure of the Korean War , Eisenhower embraced the NSC concept and created a structured system of integrated policy review . Eisenhower had a penchant for careful staff work , and believed that effective planning involved a creative process of discussion and debate among advisers compelled to work toward consensus recommendations .   The genesis of the new NSC system was a report prepared for the President in March 1953 by Robert Cutler , who became the President 's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs . Cutler proposed a systematic flow of recommendation , decision , and implementation that he later described as the `` policy hill '' process . At the bottom of the hill , concerned agencies such as State and Defense produced draft policy recommendations on specific topics and worked for consensus at the agency level . These draft NSC papers went up the hill through the Planning Board , created to review and refine the recommendations before passing them on for full NSC consideration . The NSC Planning Board met on Tuesday and Friday afternoons and was composed of officials at the Assistant Secretary level from the agencies with permanent or standing representation on the Council , as well as advisers from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Central Intelligence Agency . Hundreds of hours were spent by the Board reviewing and reconstructing proposed papers for the NSC . Cutler resigned in 1958 in exhaustion . The top of the foreign policy-making hill was the NSC itself , chaired by the President , which met regularly on Thursday mornings .   The Council consisted of the five statutory members : the President , Vice President , Secretaries of State and Defense , and Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization . Depending on the subject under discussion , as many as a score of other senior Cabinet members and advisers , including the Secretary of the Treasury , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and the Director of Central Intelligence , attended and participated . The agenda included regular briefings by the Director of Central Intelligence on worldwide developments affecting U.S. security , and consideration of the policy papers advanced by the Planning Board . The upshot of the discussions were recommendations to the President in the form of NSC Actions . The President , who participated in the discussion , normally endorsed the NSC Action , and the decision went down the hill for implementation to the Operations Coordinating Board .   President Eisenhower created the Operations Coordinating Board ( OCB ) to follow up on all NSC decisions . The OCB met regularly on Wednesday afternoons at the Department of State , and was composed of the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs , Deputy Secretary of Defense , the Directors of the CIA , the United States Information Agency , and ICA , and the Special Assistants to the President for National Security Affairs and Security Operations Coordination . The OCB was the coordinating and implementing arm of the NSC for all aspects of the implementation of national security policy . NSC action papers were assigned to a team from the OCB for follow-up . More than 40 interagency working groups were established with experts for various countries and subjects . This 24-person staff of the OCB supported these working groups in which officials from various agencies met each other for the first time .   The President 's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs , a post held under Eisenhower by Cutler , Dillon Anderson , William Harding Jackson , and finally Gordon Gray , oversaw the flow of recommendations and decisions up and down the policy hill , and functioned in Council meetings to brief the Council and summarize the sense of discussion . The Special Assistant was an essential facilitator of the decision-making system , but , unlike the National Security Adviser created under Kennedy , had no substantive role in the process . The NSC staff managed by the Special Assistant grew during the Eisenhower years , but again had no independent role in the policy process .   President Eisenhower had great confidence in the efficacy of covert operations as a viable supplement or alternative to previous normal foreign policy initiatives . The seeming clear success of the operations to overthrow Iranian populist leader Mossadegeh in 1953 , and overthrow the democratically elected , left-leaning President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán in Guatemala in 1954 was not without their crisis moments in the White House . In 1954 NSC 5412 provided for the establishment of a panel of designated representatives of the President and the Secretaries of State and Defense to meet regularly to review and recommend covert operations . Gordon Gray assumed the chairmanship of the `` 5412 Committee '' as it was called , and all succeeding National Security Advisers have chaired similar successor committees , variously named `` 303 '' , `` 40 '' , `` Special Coordinating Committee , '' which , in later Presidential administrations , were charged with the review of CIA covert operations .   President Eisenhower also created the position of staff secretary with the responsibility to screen all foreign policy and military documents coming to the President . While Colonel Andrew Goodpaster held this position , he tended to eclipse the Special Assistant for National Security .   The strength of the NSC system under Eisenhower was that it provided for regular , fully staffed , interagency review of major foreign and national security issues , culminating in discussion and decision at the highest level of government . The resulting Presidentially approved NSC papers provided policy guidance at every level of implementation . Eisenhower felt that the regular policy discussions kept his principal advisers fully informed , in step with one another , and prepared to react knowledgeably in the event of crisis . His commitment to the system was such that he chaired every Council meeting he could attend ( 329 of a total of 366 ) . The NSC meetings , including prior briefings and subsequent review of NSC Actions , constituted the largest single item on his weekly agenda .   Secretary of State John Foster Dulles , on the other hand , had reservations about the NSC system . He was the strongest personality in the Eisenhower Cabinet and jealously guarded his role as principal adviser to the President on foreign policy . He had constant , direct access to the President and did not feel that some of the most sensitive issues should be discussed in groups as large as were involved in most NSC meetings . He drew a sharp line between the NSC policy review process and the day-to-day operations of foreign policy , which he maintained were the province of the Department of State . Dulles and his deputies also were not comfortable with the scope the NSC review system gave to Secretary of the Treasury George Humphrey , another strong figure in the Cabinet , to intrude budgetary limitations into policy considerations . Dulles successfully resisted a proposal to substitute the Vice President for the Under Secretary of State as chairman of the OCB , arguing that such a change would impinge on his role as principal adviser to the President on foreign policy .   Critics of the Eisenhower NSC system have argued that it was inflexible , overstaffed , unable to anticipate and react to immediate crises , and weighed down by committees reporting in great detail on long checklists of minor policy concerns . The most thorough critique of the system emerged from the hearings conducted in 1960 ( 1961 by the Senate Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery , known as the Jackson Subcommittee for its chairman , Senator Henry Jackson . Cutler and NSC Executive Secretary James Lay testified in support of the effectiveness of the system , but their testimony was offset by that of former Truman administration officials such as George Kennan , Paul Nitze , and Robert Lovett . They argued that foreign policy was being made by a passive President influenced by a National Security Council rendered virtually useless by ponderous , bureaucratic machinery . Basically , they argued , the NSC was a huge committee , and suffered from all the weaknesses of committees . Composed of representatives of many agencies , its members were not free to adopt the broad , statesmanlike attitude desired by the President , but , rather , were ambassadors of their own departments , clinging to departmental rather than national views . To make matters worse , critics added , the NSC system by its very nature was restricted to continuing and developing already established policies and was incapable of originating new ideas or major innovations . The critics suggested replacement of the formal , `` over-institutionalized '' NSC structure with a smaller , less formal NSC which would offer the President a clear choice of alternatives on a limited number of major problems .   Eisenhower was certainly not a passive President , dominated by his Secretary of State on foreign policy and national security issues . In fact , Eisenhower was actively in command of his administration 's foreign policy , and the established NSC system met his instincts and requirements to the extent he used them . Although there is substance in the criticism that the Eisenhower NSC became to some extent the prisoner of a rigidly bureaucratic process , the criticism misses the point that Eisenhower and Dulles did not attempt to manage fast-breaking foreign policy crises or day-to-day operation through the NSC apparatus . An examination of several of the major foreign policy decisions that confronted the Eisenhower administration reveals that the NSC system was used to manage some , but was essentially bypassed in others . The established NSC process was used when the question involved a policy debate between departments with strongly held , contending positions , as it did in the case of the debate between the Departments of State and Defense in 1956/1957 over whether to introduce a more modern generation of weapons into Korea , where it focused debate and produced the necessary agreed-upon decision after discussion of three draft policy papers .   In fast-breaking crisis situations however , including the concurrent Suez crisis and Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , the first and Second Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1955 and 1958 , and the 1958 Lebanon crisis , these were typically managed through small meetings with the President in the White House , normally involving Dulles and other concerned advisers , and through telephone conversations between Eisenhower , Dulles , and other principal advisers . Eisenhower sometimes used trusted NSC staffers to serve as an intermediary to gain information outside the chain of command as he did with Colonel Goodpaster during the straits crisis in 1955 . There was great similarity between this process of crisis management and that adopted by subsequent Presidents , such as Kennedy , Johnson , and Nixon , except for the fact that the ad hoc meetings in the Eisenhower White House did not involve a National Security Adviser as a substantive participant . And in the event that aspects of crisis management depended on contact with the critical man-on-the-spot , as it did in 1958 when Deputy Under Secretary of State Robert Murphy was dispatched to Lebanon to attempt to defuse the crisis , his instructions came from the Department of State and he reported to the Secretary of State rather than directly to the White House , as became the practice during the height of the Vietnam War .   When Eisenhower briefed President-elect Kennedy on the NSC system , as when Gordon Gray briefed his successor McGeorge Bundy , they both emphasized the importance of the established NSC machinery in the management of foreign policy and national security affairs . They might have been more persuasive in maintaining the system had they pointed to the fact that the NSC apparatus was essentially limited to policy review , but was not used by them to manage foreign policy crises or day-to-day decisions .

neg: List of specialized agencies of the United Nations Specialized agencies are autonomous organizations working with the United Nations and each other through the coordinating machinery of the United Nations Economic and Social Council at the intergovernmental level , and through the Chief Executives Board for coordination ( CEB ) at the inter-secretariat level . Specialized agencies may or may not have been originally created by the United Nations , but they are incorporated into the United Nations System by the United Nations Economic and Social Council acting under Articles 57 and 63 of the United Nations Charter . At present the UN has in total 15 specialized agencies that carry out various functions on behalf of the UN . The specialized agencies are listed below .

neg: 1996 State of the Union Address The 1996 State of the Union address was given by President Bill Clinton to a joint session of the 104th United States Congress on January 23 , 1996 . The speech was the last State of the Union address of President Clinton 's first term . This speech occurred shortly after the federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996 which had resulted from disagreements on the 1996 United States federal budget .   President Clinton discussed the economy and declared that `` the era of big government is over , '' and continued , `` but we can not go back to the time when our citizens were left to fend for themselves . We must go forward as one America , one nation working together , to meet the challenges we face together . Self-reliance and teamwork are not opposing virtues -- we must have both . '' The president discussed welfare reform , the V-chip , education , community policing , crime and the environment . The president also discussed foreign relations and the federal budget .   The Republican Party response was delivered by Senator Bob Dole of Kansas . He stated that '' -LSB- President Clinton -RSB- is the chief obstacle to a balanced budget and the balanced budget amendment ... . While the President 's words speak of change , his deeds are a contradiction . President Clinton claims to embrace the future while clinging to the policies of the past . ''   Donna Shalala , the Secretary of Health and Human Services , served as the designated survivor .

neg: American Committee on United Europe The American Committee on United Europe ( ACUE ) , founded in 1948 , was an American organization which sought to counter the Communist threat in Europe by promoting European political integration . Its first chairman was ex-wartime OSS head William Joseph Donovan .  The vice-chairman was Allen Dulles . A board member was Walter Bedell Smith .   The structure of the organisation was outlined in early summer of 1948 by Donovan and Allen Welsh Dulles by then also reviewing the organization of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . in response to assistance requests by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi and Winston Churchill .   Declassified American government documents have shown that the ACUE was an important early funder of both the European Movement and the European Youth Campaign . The ACUE itself received funding from the Rockefeller and Ford foundations .   The U.S. policy was to promote a United States of Europe , and to this end the committee was used to discreetly funnel CIA funds - by the mid 50 's ACUE was receiving roughly $ 1,000,000 USD per year - to European pro-federalists supporting such organizations as the Council of Europe , the European Coal and Steel Community , and the proposed European Defence Community .   The end of an article appearing in The Daily Telegraph in September 2000 noted that : `` The State Department also played a role . A memo from the European section , dated June 11 , 1965 , advises the vice-president of the European Economic Community , Robert Marjolin , to pursue monetary union by stealth . It recommends suppressing debate until the point at which `` adoption of such proposals would become virtually inescapable '' . ''

neg: Yalta Conference The Yalta Conference , sometimes called the Crimea conference and code named the Argonaut Conference , held from February 4 to 11 , 1945 , was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States , the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union for the purpose of discussing Europe 's postwar reorganization . The three states were represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin , respectively . The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta in Crimea , Soviet Union .   The goal of the conference was to shape a post-war peace that represented not just a collective security order but a plan to give self-determination to the liberated peoples of post-Nazi Europe .   The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe . Within a few years , with the Cold War dividing the continent , Yalta became a subject of intense controversy . To a degree , it has remained controversial .   Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three . It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943 , and was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 , which was attended by Stalin , Churchill ( who was replaced halfway through by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee ) and Harry S. Truman , Roosevelt 's successor .

neg: Charles Hill (diplomat) Charles Hill ( born April 28 , 1936 ) is the Diplomat-in-Residence and a lecturer in International Studies at Yale University . A career foreign service officer , Mr. Hill was a senior adviser to George Shultz , Henry Kissinger , and Ronald Reagan , as well as Boutros Boutros-Ghali , the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations . At Yale , he teaches , along with Paul Kennedy and John Gaddis , the seminar `` Studies in Grand Strategy '' , a rigorous interdisciplinary study of leadership , statecraft and diplomacy . He also teaches students enrolled in the Directed Studies program . Beginning in 2006 , Hill offered a new course , Oratory in Statecraft . Not since Rollin G. Osterweis , who taught `` The History and Practice of American Oratory '' , had oratory been taught at Yale .   Hill received a B.A. from Brown University in 1957 , a J.D. and an M.A. in American Studies from the University of Pennsylvania in 1960 and 1961 , respectively . He is a recipient of the Superior Honor Award from the State Department , the Presidential Distinguished Service Award , and the Secretary of State 's Medal . He holds an honorary doctorate of laws from Rowan University .   Hill is a research fellow at Stanford University 's Hoover Institution . Hill is also a Project for the New American Century ( PNAC ) signatory . Hill served as Chief Foreign Policy Advisor to Rudy Giuliani , a Republican candidate for the 2008 presidential election .

neg: Permanent Representative of France to the United Nations The role of the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of France to the United Nations is as the leader of the French delegation to the United Nations in New York and as head of the Permanent Mission of France to the UN . The position has the rank and status of an Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and is also the permanent representative of France in the United Nations Security Council .   The Permanent Representative , currently François Delattre , is charged with representing France , both through its non-permanent seat on the U.N. Security Council and also during plenary meetings of the General Assembly , except in the rare situation in which a more senior officer ( such as the Minister for Foreign Affairs and International Development , the Prime Minister or the President ) is present .

neg: 1940 State of the Union Address The 1940 State of the Union Address was given by the 32nd President of the United States , Franklin D. Roosevelt , on January 3 , 1940 , to both houses of Congress . It was given right before the United States entered World War II . He said , `` You are well aware that dictatorships -- and the philosophy of force that justifies and accompanies dictatorships -- have originated in almost every case in the necessity for drastic action to improve internal conditions in places where democratic action for one reason or another has failed to respond to modern needs and modern demands . ''

neg: Nuclear Posture Review The Nuclear Posture Review is a process `` to determine what the role of nuclear weapons in U.S. security strategy should be . ''   The first NPR of 2002 was the second of these quadrennial reviews of United States nuclear forces undertaken by the United States Department of Defense . The first took place in 1994 . The final report is National Security Classified and submitted to the Congress of the United States .   The 2002 Nuclear Posture Review also included components requiring the `` Pentagon to draft contingency plans for the use of nuclear weapons against at least seven countries , naming not only Russia and the `` axis of evil '' -- Iraq , Iran , and North Korea -- but also China , Libya and Syria . ''   President Barack Obama 's 2010 Nuclear Posture Review was preceded by high expectations because of his 2009 speech in Prague , Czech Republic where he prominently outlined a vision of a world without nuclear weapons . His NPR was hoped by observers to make concrete moves toward this goal . The finished 2010 policy renounces development of any new nuclear weapons such as the bunker-busters proposed by the Bush administration , and for the first time rules out a nuclear attack against non-nuclear-weapon states who are in compliance with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty . This rule pointedly excludes Iran and North Korea .   As part of the implementation of the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review , the U.S. Government is reviewing its nuclear deterrence requirements and nuclear plans to ensure that they are aligned to address today 's threats . Rose Gottemoeller , U.S. Acting Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security , said in early June 2012 that the United States was considering what forces the United States needed to maintain for strategic stability and deterrence , including extended deterrence and assurance to U.S. Allies and partners . Based on this analysis the United States would develop proposals for potential further reductions in its nuclear stockpile .

neg: Unitary executive theory The unitary executive theory is a theory of American constitutional law holding that the President possesses the power to control the entire executive branch . The doctrine is rooted in Article Two of the United States Constitution , which vests `` the executive power '' of the United States in the President .   Although that general principle is widely accepted , there is disagreement about the strength and scope of the doctrine . It can be said that some favor a `` strongly unitary '' executive , while others favor a `` weakly unitary '' executive . The former group argue , for example , that Congress 's power to interfere with intra-executive decision-making ( such as firing executive branch officials ) is limited , and that the President can control policy-making by all executive agencies within the limits set for those agencies by Congress . Still others agree that the Constitution requires a unitary executive , but believe this to be a bad thing , and propose its abolition by constitutional amendment .   In several states , in contrast to the federal government , executive officers such as lieutenant governor , attorney general , comptroller , secretary of state and others are elected independently of the state 's governor , with Texas being one example . This type of executive structure is known as a plural executive . Another type of plural executive , used in Japan , Israel , and Sweden , though not in any U.S. state , in which a collegial body comprises the executive branch - however , that collegial body does not comprise multiple members elected in elections , but is rather more akin to the US Cabinet in formation and structure .

neg: Superstate A superstate is defined as `` a large and powerful State formed when several smaller countries unite '' , `` A large and powerful state formed from a federation or union of nations '' .  This is distinct from the concept of superpower , although these are frequently seen together . It is also distinct from the concept of empire , where one nation dominates other nations through military , political , and economic power , although an empire may also be a superstate .   In the early 20th century , `` superstate '' had a similar definition as today 's supranational organisations . In a 1927 article by Edward A. Harriman on the League of Nations , a superstate was defined as merely `` an organisation , of which a state is a member , which is superior to the member themselves '' , in that '' -LSB- a -RSB- complete superstate has legislative , executive and judicial organs to make , to execute and to interpret its laws '' . According to this definition , Harriman saw the League of Nations as a `` rudimentary superstate '' , and the United States as `` an example of a complete and perfect superstate '' .   In World Order of Bahá ` u 'll áh , first published in 1938 , Shoghi Effendi , the Guardian of the Bahá ' í Faith , described the anticipated world government of that religion as the `` world 's future super-state '' with the Bahá ' í Faith as the `` State Religion of an independent and Sovereign Power . ''   In the 1970s , academic literature used the term `` superstate '' to indicate a particularly rich and powerful state , in a similar fashion to the term superpower .   In contemporary political debate , especially the one centred on the European Union , the term `` superstate '' is used to indicate a ( usually deemed unwelcome ) development in which the Union takes over the character of a State ( including the monopoly on violence ) thus abolishing the sovereignty and independence of its member states .  For instance , Glyn Morgan opposes the perspective of a `` European superstate '' to the ones of `` a Europe of nation-states '' and of `` a post-sovereign European polity '' . In her definition , a `` European superstate is nothing more than a sovereign state - a tried and tested type of polity that predominates in the modern world - operating on a European wide scale '' , i.e. , `` a unitary European state ''   The term was famously used by Margaret Thatcher in her 1988 Bruges speech , when she decried the perspective of `` a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels '' , and has since entered the eurosceptic lexicon .  Tony Blair argued in 2000 that he welcomed an EU as a `` superpower , not a superstate ''

neg: Counselor of the United States Department of State The Counselor of the United States Department of State is a position within the United States Department of State that serves the Secretary of State as a special advisor and consultant on major problems of foreign policy and who provides guidance to the appropriate bureaus with respect to such matters . The Counselor conducts special international negotiations and consultations , and also undertakes special assignments from time to time , as directed by the Secretary . Currently , the Counselor holds under law a rank equivalent to that of Under Secretary of State .   The Secretary of State created the position of Counselor for the Department of State in 1909 as part of a general Department reorganization . In 1912 , the position became a Presidential appointment . Between 1913 and 1919 , the Counselor served as the Department 's second-ranking officer , assuming the role previously exercised by the Assistant Secretary of State . In 1919 , the newly created position of Under Secretary of State subsumed the duties of the Counselor . An Act of Congress , May 18 , 1937 , re-established the position of Counselor of the Department of State . Between 1961 and 1965 , the Counselor also served as the Chairman of the Policy Planning Council . On April 30 , 1994 , the title was changed to Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs when Counselor Timothy E. Wirth was appointed to that position , but another Counselor was appointed in 1997 .   The most recent Counselor was Ambassador Kristie A. Kenney , who served from February 12 , 2016 to February 17 , 2017 .

neg: Assistant Secretary of State for Arms Control, Verification, and Compliance The Assistant Secretary of State for Arms Control , Verification and Compliance is the head of the Bureau of Arms Control , Verification and Compliance . The position was created on December 12 , 1999 by Secretary Albright as the Assistant Secretary of State for Verification and Compliance . The Bureau became fully operational on February 1 , 2000 . Within the Department , the Assistant Secretary is responsible for all matters relating to the supervision of verification and compliance with international arms control , nonproliferation , and disarmament agreements .   The Assistant Secretary advises the Secretary of State and the Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security/Senior Adviser to the President and the Secretary of State for Arms Control , Nonproliferation and Disarmament on the appropriate uses of the `` Key Verification Assets Fund , '' and manages the fund .   The Assistant Secretary is also responsible for the President 's Annual Report to Congress on Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements , for Verifiability Assessments for all international arms control and nonproliferation agreements , and for specialized compliance reports required by U.S. Senate Resolutions of ratification , such as the Chemical Weapons Convention .

neg: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1090 United Nations Security Council resolution 1090 , adopted without a vote at a closed meeting on 13 December 1996 , having considered the question of the recommendation for the appointment of the Secretary-General of the United Nations , the Council recommended to the General Assembly that Mr. Kofi Annan be appointed for a term of office from 1 January 1997 , to 31 December 2001 .   Kofi Annan , a Ghanaian diplomat , was the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations . The United States had vetoed another term for his predecessor , Boutros Boutros-Ghali , due to lack of reform .   It was the first time that a Security Council resolution had been adopted by acclamation .


query: Victor Hugo wrote about artistic trends.

pos: Victor Hugo Victor Marie Hugo ( -LSB- viktɔʁ maʁi yɡo -RSB- ; 26 February 1802 -- 22 May 1885 ) was a French poet , novelist , and dramatist of the Romantic movement . He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers . Outside France , his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables , 1862 , and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame ( Notre-Dame de Paris ) , 1831 . In France , Hugo is known primarily for his poetry collections , such as Les Contemplations ( The Contemplations ) and La Légende des siècles ( The Legend of the Ages ) . He produced more than 4,000 drawings and also campaigned for social causes such as the abolition of capital punishment .   Though a committed royalist when he was young , Hugo 's views changed as the decades passed , and he became a passionate supporter of republicanism ; his work touches upon most of the political and social issues and the artistic trends of his time . He is buried in the Panthéon in Paris . His legacy has been honoured in many ways , including his portrait being placed on French currency .

neg: Art Nouveau furniture Furniture created in the Art Nouveau style was prominent from the late 19th century to the advent of the First World War . Unlike furniture made by the British Arts and Crafts movement , from which it emerged in stylistic respects , most Art Nouveau furniture was produced in factories by normal manufacturing techniques , which led to tensions with Arts and Crafts figures in England , who criticised continental Art Nouveau furniture for not being '' ` honestly ' constructed . It also tended to be expensive , as a fine finish , usually polished or varnished , was regarded as essential , and continental designs were usually very complex , with curving shapes that were expensive to make . It by no means entirely replaced other styles of furniture , which continued to be popular , with Art Nouveau styles largely restricted to an expensive `` art furniture '' category . The style was named for Siegfried Bing 's Maison de l'Art Nouveau gallery and shop in Paris , which opened in 1895 , and in France and Belgium furniture designers took up the style with more enthusiasm than those of most countries .   Several notable designers were architects who designed furniture for specific buildings they had also designed , a way of working inherited from the Arts and Crafts movement ; these include Charles Rennie Mackintosh , Antoni Gaudí , Hector Guimard and Victor Horta . Mackintosh 's furniture was relatively austere and geometrical , marked by elongated dimensions and right-angles . Continental designs were much more elaborate , often using curved shapes both in the basic shapes of the piece , and in applied decorative motifs . In many ways the old vocabulary and techniques of classic French 18th-century Rococo furniture were re-interpreted in a new style . Luxury veneers were used in the furniture of leading cabinetmakers Georges de Feure and others .   Alphonse Mucha produced a few designs , but was little involved with production . The École de Nancy ( School of Nancy in France ) , the Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna and the Deutscher Werkbund were groupings including many designers of Art Nouveau furniture . The Exposition Universelle de Paris in 1900 was an important showcase for designers , and the Prima Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna at Turin in 1902 heavily featured the work of furniture designer Carlo Bugatti of Milan .

neg: Gil Blas (periodical) Gil Blas ( or Le Gil Blas ) was a Parisian literary periodical named for Alain-René Lesage 's novel Gil Blas . It was founded by the sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont in November 1879 .   Gil Blas serialized famous novels such as Émile Zola 's Germinal ( 1884 ) and L'Œuvre ( 1885 ) before they appeared in book form . Guy de Maupassant regularly published short stories in Gil Blas . The journal was also known for its opinionated arts and theatre criticism . Contributors included René Blum , Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești , and Abel Hermant . Théophile Steinlen and Albert Guillaume provided illustrations .   Gil Blas was published regularly until 1914 , when it went on a short hiatus due to the outbreak of World War I. Afterwards , it was published intermittently until 1938 .   In addition to Germinal , Gil Blas serialized the Zola novels L'Argent , Au Bonheur des Dames , and La Joie de vivre . Guy de Maupassant stories which debuted in Gil Blas include '' À vendre , '' `` Imprudence , '' `` L'Inconnue , '' `` La Bête à Maît ' Belhomme , '' `` La Confidence , '' `` La Baptême , '' `` Tribunaux Rustiques '' and perhaps most famously `` Le Horla '' .   Gil Blas critic Louis Vauxcelles 's phrase `` Donatello chez les fauves ! '' ( `` Donatello among the wild beasts '' ) brought notoriety and attention to the works of Henri Matisse and Les Fauves exhibited at the Salon d'Automne of 1905 . Vauxcelles ' comment was printed on 17 October 1905 and passed into popular usage .

neg: Aesthetics Aesthetics ( -LSB- ɛsˈθɛtɪks -RSB- or -LSB- i : sˈθɛtɪks -RSB- also spelled æsthetics and esthetics also known in Greek as Αισθητική , or `` Aisthētiké '' ) is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art , beauty , and taste , with the creation and appreciation of beauty .   In its more technically epistemological perspective , it is defined as the study of subjective and sensori-emotional values , sometimes called judgements of sentiment and taste . More broadly , scholars in the field define aesthetics as `` critical reflection on art , culture and nature '' . In modern English , the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory : one speaks , for example , of the Cubist aesthetic .

neg: The Fortune Teller (de La Tour) The Fortune Teller is an oil painting of circa 1630 by the French artist Georges de La Tour . The work was uncovered in about 1960 and purchased that year by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York . François Georges Pariset described the painting in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin , attributing it to La Tour -- a likely choice given the calligraphic signature at top right : `` G. de La Tour Fecit Luneuilla Lothar '' ( `` G -LSB- eorges -RSB- de La Tour made this , Lunéville , Lorraine '' ) . Its authenticity has been questioned in the intervening years , notably by the English art historian Christopher Wright , but The Fortune Teller is generally accepted as La Tour 's work . The artist is better known for his chiaroscuro religious compositions , in which the figures are illuminated by a single light source and lack the elaborate costume detail of the The Fortune Teller 's characters .   The painting catches a moment in which a young man of some wealth is having his fortune told by the old woman at right ; she takes the coin from his hand , not only in payment , but as part of the ritual in which she will cross his hand with it . Most or all of the women portrayed are gypsies , and , furthering the stereotype of the time , they are depicted as thieves . As the young man is engrossed in the fortune-telling -- an act which , if discovered , would have repercussions for both him and the gypsies -- the leftmost woman is stealing the coin purse from his pocket , while her companion in profile has a hand ready to receive the loot . The pale-faced girl on the boy 's left is less clearly a gypsy , but is also in on the act as she cuts a medal worn by the boy from its chain . The figures in the painting are close together , as if in a play , and the composition may have been influenced by a theatrical scene .   The modern discovery of the painting is said to be traced to a French prisoner of war who viewed La Tour 's works in a monograph and found a likeness with a painting hung in a relative 's castle . A knowledgeable priest identified it as a La Tour work and informed the Louvre , which entered negotiations to buy the painting . The art dealer Georges Wildenstein outbid the museum , however , purchasing the painting in 1949 for 7.5 million francs . For a decade it remained with the dealer , until in 1960 the Metropolitan Museum of Art paid an undisclosed but `` very high sum of money '' for The Fortune Teller . How the painting had been able to leave France became a matter of controversy in the French press , and the writer André Malraux , then French Minister of Culture , attempted to explain to the National Assembly why the work did not end up in the Louvre . It later emerged that the export licence was signed by the art historian Germain Bazin , who was head of old master paintings at the Louvre ; Wright speculates that he had sufficient doubt about the work not to want it for the Louvre .

neg: Vu (magazine) Vu , stylized as VU , was a weekly French pictorial magazine , created and directed by Lucien Vogel , which was published from March 21 , 1928 to May 29 , 1940 ; it ran for just over 600 issues . In 1931 , Vogel founded a companion magazine named Lu ( read ) , a survey of the foreign press translated into French ; this merged with Vu in March 1937 .   Vu was the first large weekly to systematically feature photographs in essay form , and as such was an important precursor to , and proponent of , the magazine format of photojournalism ( which came to prominence a decade after its print run in magazines such as Life and Look ) . Although inspired in part by the German magazine Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung , VU featured a constructivist aesthetic and was innovative in its layouts , especially in its double-page spreads . Notable contributors included Cartier-Bresson , Man Ray , Brassaï , and André Kertész . It was particularly advanced in its use of picture essays .   The magazine published special issues on the Soviet Union ( VU au pays des Soviets , November 18 , 1931 ) , Germany ( L'énigme allemande , 1932 ) , the ascent of technology ( Fin d'une civilisation , 1933 ) , China ( Interrogatoire de la Chine , 1934 ) , and Spain ( '' VU en Espagne , 1936 ) .   A major retrospective was hosted by the Maison Européenne de la Photographie ( MEP ) in late 2006/early 2007 .

neg: Neo-romanticism The term neo-romanticism is used to cover a variety of movements in philosophy , literature , music , painting , and architecture , as well as social movements , that exist after and incorporate elements from the era of Romanticism . It has been used with reference to late-19th-century composers such as Richard Wagner particularly by Carl Dahlhaus who describes his music as `` a late flowering of romanticism in a positivist age '' . He regards it as synonymous with `` the age of Wagner '' , from about 1850 until 1890 -- the start of the era of modernism , whose leading early representatives were Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler . It has been applied to writers , painters , and composers who rejected , abandoned , or opposed realism , naturalism , or avant-garde modernism at various points in time from about 1840 down to the present .

neg: Genre Genre ( -LSB- ˈʒɒ̃rə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈʒɒnrə -RSB- or -LSB- ˈdʒɒnrə -RSB- from French genre -LSB- ʒɑ̃ʁ -RSB- , `` kind '' or `` sort '' , from Latin genus ( stem gener - ) , Greek γένος , génos ) is any form or type of communication in any mode ( written , spoken , digital , artistic , etc. ) with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time . Genre is most popularly known as a category of literature , music , or other forms of art or entertainment , whether written or spoken , audio or visual , based on some set of stylistic criteria , yet genres can be aesthetic , rhetorical , communicative , or functional . Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented and the use of old ones is discontinued . Often , works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions . Stand alone texts , works , or pieces of communication may have individual styles , but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed upon or socially inferred conventions . Some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible .   Genre began as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature . Poetry , prose , and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story . Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy , and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best .  In later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators . Genre became a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art . Because art is often a response to a social state , in that people write/paint/sing / dance about what they know about , the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings .   Genre suffers from the same ills of any classification system . Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized and to weigh works on their unique merit . It has been suggested that genres resonate with people because of the familiarity , the shorthand communication , as well as the tendency of genres to shift with public mores and to reflect the zeitgeist . While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions , admiration has grown . Proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation , recombination , and evolution of the codes .

neg: Old master print An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition . The term remains current in the art trade , and there is no easy alternative in English to distinguish the works of `` fine art '' produced in printmaking from the vast range of decorative , utilitarian and popular prints that grew rapidly alongside the artistic print from the 15th century onwards . Fifteenth-century prints are sufficiently rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality . A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term .   The main techniques used , in order of their introduction , are woodcut , engraving , etching , mezzotint and aquatint , although there are others . Different techniques are often combined in a single print . With rare exceptions printed on textiles , such as silk , or on vellum , old master prints are printed on paper . This article is concerned with the artistic , historical and social aspects of the subject ; the article on printmaking summarizes the techniques used in making old master prints , from a modern perspective .   Many great European artists , such as Albrecht Dürer , Rembrandt , and Francisco Goya , were dedicated printmakers . In their own day , their international reputations largely came from their prints , which were spread far more widely than their paintings . Influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints ( and sometimes drawings ) , for the same reason . Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history . Today , thanks to colour photo reproductions , and public galleries , their paintings are much better known , whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited , for conservation reasons . But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection , sometimes only by appointment .

neg: Impressionism in music Impressionism in music was a movement among various composers in Western classical music , mainly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , whose music focuses on suggestion and atmosphere , `` conveying the moods and emotions aroused by the subject rather than a detailed tone‐picture '' . `` Impressionism '' is a philosophical and aesthetic term borrowed from late 19th century French painting after Monet 's Impression , Sunrise . Composers were labeled impressionists by analogy to the impressionist painters who use starkly contrasting colors , effect of light on an object blurry foreground and background , flattening perspective to make us focus our attention on the overall impression .   The most prominent in musical impressionism is the use of `` color '' , or in musical term , timbre , which can be achieved through orchestration , harmonic usage , texture , etc. . Other elements of music impressionism also involve new chord combinations , ambiguous tonality , extended harmonies , use of modes and exotic scales , parallel motions , extra-musicality , and evocative titles such as Reflets dans l'eau ( Reflections on the water , 1905 ) , Brouillards ( Mists , 1913 ) etc. .

neg: Cuban art Cuban art is an exceptionally diverse cultural blend of African , South American , European and North American elements , reflecting the diverse demographic makeup of the island . Cuban artists embraced European modernism , and the early part of the 20th century saw a growth in Cuban vanguardist movements , which were characterized by the mixing of modern artistic genres . Some of the more celebrated 20th-century Cuban artists include Amelia Peláez ( 1896 -- 1968 ) , best known for a series of mural projects , and painter Wifredo Lam ( Dec 8,1902 -- September 11 , 1982 ) , who created a highly personal version of modern primitivism . The Cuban born painter Federico Beltran Masses ( 1885-1949 ) , was renowned as a colourist whose seductive portrayals of women sometimes made overt references to the tropical settings of his childhood .   Better known internationally is the work of photographer Alberto Korda , whose photographs following the early days of the Cuban Revolution included a picture of Che Guevara which was to become one of the most recognizable images of the 20th century .   There is a flourishing street art movement influenced by Latin American artists José Guadalupe Posada and the muralist Diego Rivera .   After the Cuban Revolution of 1959 , some artists felt it was in their best interests to leave Cuba and produce their art , while others stayed behind , either happy or merely content to be creating art in Cuba , which was sponsored by the government . Because it was state sponsored , an implied censorship occurred , since artists would n't want to make art that was against the revolutionary movement as that was the source of their funding . It was during the 1980s in which art began to reflect true uninfluenced expression . The `` rebirth '' of expression in Cuban art was greatly affected by the emergence of a new generation of Cuban , which did not remember the revolution directly .   In 1981 Cubans saw the introduction of `` Volumen Uno '' , a series of one man exhibitions featuring contemporary Cuban artists . Three years later , the introduction of the `` Havana Bienal '' assisted in the further progression of the liberation of art and free speech therein .

neg: Chivalric romance As a literary genre of high culture , romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe . They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures , often of a knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities , who goes on a quest , yet it is `` the emphasis on love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic , in which masculine military heroism predominates . '' Popular literature also drew on themes of romance , but with ironic , satiric or burlesque intent . Romances reworked legends , fairy tales , and history to suit the readers ' and hearers ' tastes , but by c. 1600 they were out of fashion , and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote . Still , the modern image of `` medieval '' is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre , and the word medieval evokes knights , distressed damsels , dragons , and other romantic tropes .   Originally , romance literature was written in Old French , Anglo-Norman , Occitan , and Provençal , and later in Portuguese , in Castilian , in English , in Italian ( particularly with the Sicilian poetry ) and German . During the early 13th century , romances were increasingly written as prose . In later romances , particularly those of French origin , there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love , such as faithfulness in adversity .

neg: Life imitating art Anti-mimesis is a philosophical position that holds the direct opposite of Aristotelian mimesis . Its most notable proponent is Oscar Wilde , who opined in his 1889 essay The Decay of Lying that , `` Life imitates Art far more than Art imitates Life '' . In the essay , written as a Platonic dialogue , Wilde holds that anti-mimesis `` results not merely from Life 's imitative instinct , but from the fact that the self-conscious aim of Life is to find expression , and that Art offers it certain beautiful forms through which it may realise that energy . '' .   What is found in life and nature is not what is really there , but is that which artists have taught people to find there , through art . As in an example posited by Wilde , although there has been fog in London for centuries , one notices the beauty and wonder of the fog because `` poets and painters have taught the loveliness of such effects ... They did not exist till Art had invented them . '' .   McGrath places the antimimetic philosophy in a tradition of Irish writing , including Wilde and writers such as Synge and Joyce in a group that `` elevate blarney ( in the form of linguistic idealism ) to aesthetic and philosophical distinction '' , noting that Terry Eagleton observes an even longer tradition that stretches `` as far back in Irish thought as the ninth-century theology of John Scottus Eriugena '' and `` the fantastic hyperbole of the ancient sagas '' . Wilde 's antimimetic idealism , specifically , McGrath describes to be part of the late nineteenth century debate between Romanticism and Realism . Wilde 's antimimetic philosophy has also had influence on later Irish writers , including Brian Friel .   Halliwell asserts that the idea that life imitates art derives from classical notions that can be traced as far back as the writings of Aristophanes of Byzantium , and does not negate mimesis but rather `` displace -LSB- s -RSB- its purpose onto the artlike fashioning of life itself '' . Halliwell draws a parallel between Wilde 's philosophy and Aristophanes ' famous question about the comedies written by Menander : `` O Menander and Life ! Which of you took the other as your model ? '' , noting , however , that Aristophanes was a precursor to Wilde , and not necessarily espousing the positions that Wilde was later to propound .   In George Bernard Shaw 's preface to Three Plays he wrote , `` I have noticed that when a certain type of feature appears in painting and is admired as beautiful , it presently becomes common in nature ; so that the Beatrices and Francescas in the picture galleries of one generation come to life as the parlor-maids and waitresses of the next . '' He stated that he created the aristocratic characters in Cashel Byron 's Profession as unrealistically priggish even without his later understanding that `` the real world does not exist ... men and women are made by their own fancies in the image of the imaginary creatures in my youthful fictions , only much stupider . '' Shaw , however , disagreed with Wilde on some points . He considered most attempts by life to imitate art to be reprehensible , in part because the art that people generally chose to imitate was idealistic and romanticized .   An example of life imitating art is that of singer/actress Miley Cyrus , whose role as the famous fictional popstar Hannah Montana in the Disney Channel sitcom of the same name gave rise to her own singing career . Hannah 's fictional popularity translated into a real-life fan-base for Cyrus as several singles credited to the character charted on the Billboard Hot 100 ( including `` The Best of Both Worlds '' , `` Life 's What You Make It '' , `` He Could Be the One '' , etc , though all of the songs were performed by Cyrus ) and when she embarked on her sold-out Best of Both Worlds Tour in 2007 , where she performed the first set of songs as Hannah Montana and the second set as herself . Cyrus ' song `` The Climb '' was the first song , credited to herself instead of the character , from an official Hannah Montana soundtrack album to become a hit single ( peaking at # 4 on the Billboard charts , making it her `` crossover song '' into mainstream pop , while Hoedown Throwdown ( off the same soundtrack album ) was her first Top 10 . Cyrus also performed several duets on the show while in-character as Hannah with real-life singers such as Sheryl Crow , David Archuleta , The Jonas Brothers , Iyaz and her real-life father Billy Ray Cyrus , as well as an unofficial duet with her real-life godmother country singer Dolly Parton .

neg: Jan van Herwijnen Johannes Adrianus George van Herwijnen ( 4 November 1889 in Delft -- 12 April 1965 in Bergen ) was a Dutch painter .   -LSB- f.e. . THE INSANITY DRAWINGS -RSB-   `` To really see art you first must detach from it , that 's what it all about . A painting is like music , you should not view , you should listen . ''   Van Herwijnen was born in Delft and grew up in the Jordaan ( Amsterdam ) . He was different from the rest of the family . At nine he went to the Rijksmuseum a tile table for copying , his master had given him a box of paints . Concerts and museums hold him up as he began his eleventh year to earn a living . When he was 21 he was clear : `` Suddenly I knew I could see '' . Then I gained consciousness only . Before that time I had looked into the world through the eyes of a child . But then I knew who I was and what to do . I started in the Rijksmuseum , because I knew the road . Every day I sat there and it was like I had always painted . ''   He wants no classes , no academy . He represents himself by copying the old masters . In 1912 he goes to Paris without a penny . Half starved he comes back .  He begins to draw people . Poor models of the street and blind and deaf . With the insanity life-size drawings from 1919 he established his name . He works hard on these drawings and identifies himself with his models , he is exhausted . The craziness with which he has handled this matter radiates from each drawing : heavy black lines and contours of a figure on a chair in an empty room . Van Herwijnen is now supported by many prominent figures , among which Prof. RN Roland Holst .   He went to France with his family and lived from 1921 to 1923 in Collioure . The paintings of Collioure feature the clean lines of the drawings in which the paint is filled with lots of blue and purple . Then follows a gloomy period when his wife leaves him . Paintings reflect his depressive state and are very dark . When he goes to Florence , his work is lightened . `` The conquest of light '' in all newspapers and magazines celebrated with superlatives . `` Van Herwijnen in the front ranks of contemporary painters came . ''  In the autumn of 1934 , he moved a house in the new studio complex on the Summer Dijkstraat . Van Herwijnen married again and moved to Bergen in 1945 .  His work is still cheering `` A picture of joy - great development of a strong talent - refined spirituality - colored music - this country equaled by no other . ''  Van Herwijnen is suspicious . His work is than heavier , sometimes lighter . A pattern of doubt in his entire oeuvre can be seen . In its lightest years he painted many flowers .   He sometimes tries to explain : `` I paint the light . Not the physical light , a light that casts shadows . I paint the light in the shade . ''   The special treatment of his paint and his brush was repeatedly emphasized . One critic in 1937 writes : `` Perhaps our most gifted painter of today , is usually attracted to very simple matters .  Twenty years later , another note : `` There is never a dead spot , every square inch of a living painting , as if the light is gently shaking . ''   Lunatics  In 1919 the artist signed a series of life-size portraits of the insane from the Utrecht William Arntz Foundation . In his own life he would himself have to deal with mental breakdowns . Sometimes he went to the utmost of his ability . Shortly after World War II Van Herwijnen painted a series of portraits of dead .   Colorful and light - powerful and sombre  The born in Delft Van Herwijnen grew up as child in Amsterdam . He was a self-taught and developed in its own direction , without having to join an art group . He is sometimes conveniently classified in a group of artists ( the Bergen School ) , but that 's not right .   The delusion , the insane  The series is loosely inspired by the iconographic series `` The insane ' . After a psychological crisis , the self-taught artist Jan van Herwijnen ( 1889 -- 1965 ) had created drawings of psychiatric patients in the William Arntz Foundation in Utrecht . He quickly gets the interest from treating physicians and teachers of the medical faculty . The ` insanity drawings ' in 1920 are exhibited .  Since 2005 the Museum of Modern Art Arnhem received a long term loan of this impressive series of drawings made with black chalk at life-size format .   Seven  The number seven , the seven paintings bear the idea of perfection in themselves as in Christianity God in seven days the earth . The classical education is related to the ideal of the seven liberal arts . Liberal arts is originally a classical European education concept , which at the founding of the first Dutch universities ( late 16th century ) was planned . This means that students need a broad training in the liberal arts course and then specialized in industries such as Law or Medicine .   The seven deadly sins and virtues .  Head Sin is a term primarily used in the Catholic Church . These are seven sins , each underlying many other sins . These are : pride , greed , lust , jealousy , intemperance , revenge and laziness . Besides the seven deadly sins that play a role in the Catholic tradition there is also a list of their counterparts , the seven virtues : wisdom , justice , temperance , courage , faith , hope and charity .

neg: Victor Burgin: Objets Temporels Victor Burgin : Objets Temporels is an art historical publication in the series `` Métiers de l'Exposition , '' a collection in which one book is published per year by the Presses Universitaires de Rennes in cooperation with the Master 's programme in Critical and Curatorial Studies ( `` Métiers et Arts de l'Exposition , '' in French ) at the University of Rennes 2 -- Upper Brittany .   The publication contains reproductions of video stills , an interview of Victor Burgin , and descriptive and analytical texts by Valérie Mavridorakis , Nathalie Boulouche , and David Perreau , professors and adjunct faculty of the University of Rennes 2 - Upper Brittany .   Boulouche , Nathalie ; Mavridorakis , Valérie ; Perreau , David ( Eds . ) ( 2007 ) . `` Victor Burgin : Objets Temporels '' . Rennes : Presses Universitaires de Rennes . .

neg: Heinrich Gustav Hotho Heinrich Gustav Hotho ( Berlin , 1802 -- Berlin , December 25 , 1873 ) was a German historian of art and Right Hegelian . He is famous for being the compiler and editor of Hegel 's posthumous work Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik ( `` Lectures on Aesthetics '' ) .   During boyhood he was affected for two years with blindness consequent on an attack of measles . But recovering his sight he studied so hard as to take his degree at Berlin in 1826 . A year of travel spent in visiting Paris , London and the Low Countries determined his vocation .   He came home delighted with the treasures which he had seen , worked laboriously for a higher examination and passed as `` docent '' in aesthetics and art history . In 1829 he was made professor at the university of Berlin . In 1833 GF Waagen accepted him as assistant in the museum of the Prussian capital ; and in 1858 he was promoted to the directorship of the Berlin print-room .   During a long and busy life , in which his time was divided between literature and official duties , Hotho 's ambition had always been to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands . Accordingly what he published was generally confined to those countries . In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account of German and Flemish painting . From 1853 to 1858 he revised and published anew a part of this work , which he called `` The school of Hubert van Eyck , with his German precursors and contemporaries . ''   His attempt later on to write a history of Christian painting overtasked his strength , and remained unfinished . Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics as having developed Hegel 's theories ; but he was deficient in knowledge of Italian painting .   Category :1802 births  Category :1873 deaths  Category : German art historians  Category : German male writers

neg: Notre-Dame, une fin d'après-midi Notre-Dame , une fin d'après-midi ( `` A Glimpse of Notre-Dame in the Late Afternoon '' ) is a painting by Henri Matisse from 1902 . Its somber coloration is typical of Matisse 's works executed between the end of 1901 and the end of 1903 , a period of personal difficulties for the artist . This episode has been called Matisse 's Dark Period .   Between 1896 and 1901 , Matisse 's painting had progressed from the subdued tones of his earliest works to an intense colorism that prefigured the Fauvism to come . In 1896 and 1897 he had traveled to Brittany , where the Australian painter John Peter Russell encouraged him to paint en plein air . Through Russell he met Camille Pissarro , whose influence was decisive in making a colorist of Matisse . In 1898 he traveled to London , where he studied the works of J. M. W. Turner ; then , after a year spent in Corsica and Toulouse , he returned to Paris , where the startling boldness of his work was admired by other young artists . His paintings found few buyers , however , and his wife , Amélie , had to open a dress shop to support their household .   In May 1902 a major financial scandal , the Humbert Affair , unexpectedly ensnared Amélie 's family . Her mother was the Humbert family 's housekeeper , and both she and her husband became scapegoats in the scandal . As a result , Matisse was forced to spend much of his time during the next year dealing with lawyers and journalists . His studio was searched by detectives , and his wife 's family was menaced by angry mobs of fraud victims . According to art historian Hilary Spurling , `` their public exposure , followed by the arrest of his father-in-law , left Matisse as the sole breadwinner for an extended family of seven . This is why he switched to painting canvases that were at least potentially saleable '' .   Inspired by Rodin and Barye , Matisse struggled to master volume in sculpture as well as in painting . He darkened his palette , with the results seen in the present work , and in such paintings as Carmelina ( 1903 , in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston ) .   The medium is oil on paper mounted on canvas and it measures 72.5 × 54.5 cm ( 28 1/2 × 21 1/2 in ) . The painting is in the Albright -- Knox Art Gallery , Buffalo , New York .

neg: Portrait of Louis Guillaume Portrait of Louis Guillaume is an oil on canvas portrait by Paul Cézanne painted c. 1882 . Guillaume was the son of friends of the artist and a friend of Cézanne 's son , Paul . Here he is portrayed in a highly sculpted manner with a near-expressionless , uncommunicative face , and an immobile , lifeless body . In form and complexity , the painting is ahead of its time . It contains many abstractions , mostly in its presentation of the head and body as simple , solid shapes , a technique later taken up and developed by Henri Matisse .   The work 's low-key colours , mostly greys , whites and dark greens , achieve a sombre tone , echoed by the shy reserve on the boy 's face . While his skin is rendered with pearly white paint , giving the surface a lively sheen or glow , this contrasts with his black , severely cropped hair and dark clothes , while his eyes are only black hollows . Heavy-lidded , they are , according to art critic Meyer Schapiro , `` without spiritual light ... they belong to a world of shadow . ''   One critic famously wrote that Cézanne painted the heads of friends as if they were apples , and that sense of cool detachment is evident in this work . Its formal qualities are reminiscent of a still-life or landscape , however while at first look there is evidence of the artist 's awareness of the `` abyss between human beings '' , there are signs of hope and connection in the delicately rendered tones of the cheeks , the ornament of the wall , the folds of the dress , and the cravat which echoes the verticals of the folds of the face and wall .   The painting was purchased by Ambroise Vollard by 1906 . It was sold to a Florentine collector c 1907 before it was sold in 1927 to Chester Dale in New York . In 1963 Dale donated the work to the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. where it is on permanent display .

neg: Hugo (film) Hugo is a 2011 historical adventure drama film directed and co-produced by Martin Scorsese and adapted for the screen by John Logan . Based on Brian Selznick 's book The Invention of Hugo Cabret , it is about a boy who lives alone in the Gare Montparnasse railway station in Paris in the 1930s . A co-production between Graham King 's GK Films and Johnny Depp 's Infinitum Nihil , the film stars Ben Kingsley , Sacha Baron Cohen , Asa Butterfield , Chloë Grace Moretz , Ray Winstone , Emily Mortimer , Jude Law , Helen McCrory , and Christopher Lee .   Hugo is Scorsese 's first film shot in 3D , of which the filmmaker remarked : `` I found 3D to be really interesting , because the actors were more upfront emotionally . Their slightest move , their slightest intention is picked up much more precisely . '' The film was released in the United States on November 23 , 2011 .   When it was released , Hugo received critical acclaim and received 11 Academy Award nominations ( including Best Picture ) , more than any other film that year , and won five awards : Best Cinematography , Best Art Direction , Best Sound Mixing , Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects . It was also nominated for eight BAFTAs , winning two , and was nominated for three Golden Globe awards , earning Scorsese his third Golden Globe Award for Best Director . The film grossed $ 185 million against a budget of $ 150 -- $ 170 million .

neg: Sylvie (novel) Sylvie ( 1853 ) is a novella by French Romanticist Gérard de Nerval . It was first published in the periodical La Revue des Deux Mondes in 1853 , and as a book in Les Filles du feu in 1854 , just a few months before Nerval killed himself in January 1855 . Sylvie is often considered to be Nerval 's prose masterpiece , and has been a favorite of Marcel Proust , André Breton , Joseph Cornell and Umberto Eco . Harold Bloom included it in The Western Canon ( 1994 ) .   An idyll written in the form of a reminiscence , the story is about a hero 's love for three women , all of whom he loses ; a hymn to unattainable , unrequited love . The story begins when a paragraph in a newspaper plunges the narrator into his memories as a younger man . The perspective seems to shift back and forth between the past and present , so the reader is never entirely sure if the narrator is recounting past events from memory , or retelling current events as they happen . Critics have praised the writing for its lucid and lyrical style . The narrator , of noble status who has recently come into an inheritance , decides to leave Paris , where he is living a debauched life of theater and drink , and return to the love of his youth , a peasant girl named Sylvie who has classic features and brunette hair , a `` timeless ideal '' . She sews gloves for a living and ends up marrying another man more equal to her class . The narrator also loves a seductive actress in Paris named Aurelia , who has many suitors who tell her empty idylls of love , but none love her for who she really is , including the narrator , who sees her as a lovely illusion that fades in the daylight of reality . The narrator also loves Adrienne , of noble birth , tall with blonde hair , she is an `` ideal beauty '' , but she lives in a convent , and dies an early death . In the end , he loves all three but obtains none , seemingly for reasons both beyond and within his making .   Sylvie has many features of Romanticism , including flowing descriptions of a beautiful but lost natural world , appreciation for the architecture and traditions of the Middle Ages , and Greek traditions . The use of color appears to be unique , with binary oppositions serving as a simplifying mechanism to make distant memories emerge more strikingly from the mist .   The novel contains autobiographical elements . As in the story , Nerval often traveled to Germany and the east . Nerval had an unhappy love for a real actress , Jenny Colon . He had a female childhood friend named Adrienne , who he unhappily lost earlier in life . These unattainable and lost female figures are represented in the story , as well in his other works and real life , Nerval lost his mother at an early age .   Guillaume Apollinaire relates ( in La Vie Anecdotique ) that while writing Sylvie , Nerval spent eight days in Chantilly solely to study a sunset that he needed for it .   Julien Gracq wrote of Sylvie in 1966 : `` I know of no more enchanted narrative in our language '' ( `` Je ne connais aucun récit plus enchanté dans notre langue '' ) .

neg: La valse La valse , poème chorégraphique pour orchestre ( a choreographic poem for orchestra ) , is a work written by Maurice Ravel between February 1919 and 1920 ; it was first performed on 12 December 1920 in Paris . It was conceived as a ballet but is now more often heard as a concert work . The work has been described as a tribute to the waltz , and the composer George Benjamin , in his analysis of La valse , summarized the ethos of the work :   Whether or not it was intended as a metaphor for the predicament of European civilization in the aftermath of the Great War , its one-movement design plots the birth , decay and destruction of a musical genre : the waltz .   Ravel himself , however , denied that it is a reflection of post-World War I Europe , saying :   While some discover an attempt at parody , indeed caricature , others categorically see a tragic allusion in it -- the end of the Second Empire , the situation in Vienna after the war , etc. . . This dance may seem tragic , like any other emotion ... pushed to the extreme . But one should only see in it what the music expresses : an ascending progression of sonority , to which the stage comes along to add light and movement .   He also commented , in 1922 , that `` It does n't have anything to do with the present situation in Vienna , and it also does n't have any symbolic meaning in that regard . In the course of La Valse , I did not envision a dance of death or a struggle between life and death . ( The year of the choreographic setting , 1855 , repudiates such an assumption . ) ''   In his tribute to Ravel after the composer 's death in 1937 , Paul Landormy described the work as follows :   ... the most unexpected of the compositions of Ravel , revealing to us heretofore unexpected depths of Romanticism , power , vigor , and rapture in this musician whose expression is usually limited to the manifestations of an essentially classical genius .