query: Alpha House's inspiration is Senator Chuck Schumer.

pos: Alpha House Alpha House is an American political satire web television series produced by Amazon Studios . The show stars John Goodman , Clark Johnson , Matt Malloy and Mark Consuelos as four Republican U.S. Senators who share a house in Washington , D.C. . It was created by Doonesbury creator Garry Trudeau . The show premiered on Amazon.com on April 19 , 2013 .   The series is inspired by several actual Democratic legislators who share a row house in D.C. : Senator Dick Durbin ( D-IL ) , Senator Chuck Schumer ( D-NY ) , and Representative George Miller ( D-CA ) . The series has a number of cameos from celebrities such as Bill Murray ( as Senator Vernon Smits ) and politicians such as Schumer as himself .  Amazon Studios offered the first three episodes of Alpha House for free , with each subsequent episode released weekly thereafter for Amazon Prime members on Amazon Video .   On February 11 , 2014 , the series was renewed for a second season . Production for the second season began filming in July 2014 , and the entire second season became available on Amazon.com on October 24 , 2014 . The series was canceled after the second season .

neg: Troy Carter (New Orleans) Troy Anthony `` C '' Carter ( born October 26 , 1963 ) is the District 7 member of the Louisiana State Senate who formerly served on the New Orleans City Council . In the November 21 runoff election , Carter defeated his fellow Democrat , Jeff Arnold , who is a term-limited former state representative for the Algiers neighborhood of New Orleans .   In 1994 , he was elected to represent District C on the city council , having become the first African-American to represent that portion of the city since Reconstruction . He served until 2002 , when he unsuccessfully sought the office of mayor . Carter was eliminated in the 2002 primary election by Ray Nagin ( the final winner ) and Richard Pennington . Carter previously represented District 102 in the Louisiana House of Representatives from 1992 to 1994 , when he was elected to the city council . He was an unsuccessful candidate for Louisiana 's 2nd congressional district seat in 2006 against then-incumbent William J. Jefferson .   Carter is a graduate of Xavier University of Louisiana , where he majored in business administration and political science . Carter was initiated into the Beta Iota Chapter of Kappa Alpha Psi while a student at Xavier . He embarked on graduate studies in Pittsburgh at Carnegie-Mellon University 's School of Urban and Public Affairs . He has been a political science instructor at his alma mater , Xavier .   Carter received 12,935 votes ( 56.8 percent ) in the 2015 runoff election to Arnold 's 9,852 ( 43.2 percent ) . The position opened with the retirement of the two-term Senator David Heitmeier .

neg: Daniel Schaefer Daniel `` Dan '' Schaefer ( January 25 , 1936 -- April 16 , 2006 ) was a Republican U.S. Representative from Colorado from 1983 to 1999 . He represented a suburban district that stretched from Denver to the southwest .   Born in Guttenberg , Clayton County , Iowa , he attended public schools . He received his B.A. degree from Niagara University , Niagara Falls , New York , in 1961 . He also attended Potsdam University , Potsdam , New York , from 1961 to 1964 . He served in the United States Marine Corps from 1955 to 1957 and attained the rank of sergeant . He was a public relations consultant .   In 1976 , he was elected to a two-year term in the Colorado General Assembly . Two years later , he was elected to the Colorado State Senate , where he served from 1979 to 1983 . He was a delegate to Colorado State Republican conventions between 1972 and 1982 .   Schaefer was elected as a Republican to the Ninety-eighth United States Congress , by special election , to fill the vacancy caused by the death of United States Representative-elect Jack Swigert , a former astronaut who died of cancer before he could take his seat in Congress . Schaefer polled 49,816 votes ( 63 percent ) in the special election to 27,779 ballots ( 35 percent ) for the Democrat Steve Hogan . No Democrat challenged Schaefer in 1984 . In successive elections from 1986 to 1996 , he polled more than 60 percent of the vote against each of his Democratic opponents . In his last race in 1996 , he received 146,018 votes ( 62 percent ) to 88,600 ballots ( 38 percent ) for the Democrat Joan Fitz-Gerald .   Schaefer did not run for reelection to the 106th United States Congress in 1998 . Schaefer was succeeded by Congressman Tom Tancredo , a fellow Republican and noted critic of open immigration . Former White House Press Secretary Dana Perino served as Schaefer 's press secretary for a number of years .   He died at the age of 70 in Wheat Ridge , Colorado .

neg: Alpha course The Alpha course is an evangelistic course which seeks to introduce the basics of the Christian faith through a series of talks and discussions . It is described by its organisers as `` an opportunity to explore the meaning of life '' . Alpha courses are being run in churches , homes , workplaces , prisons , universities and a wide variety of other locations . The course began in the UK and is being run around the world by various Christian denominations .

neg: Ben and Harriet Schulein House The Ben and Harriet Schulein House , also known as the Ben Schulein House , is a two-story historic residence located at 2604 Jackson Street , Sioux City , Iowa , in the United States . Designed in 1913 for a locally prominent Jewish businessman and his wife by William L. Steele ( 1875 -- 1949 ) , it represents a turning point in Steele 's development as an architect by introducing Prairie School features .   Steele had served in the office of the famous Chicago architect Louis Sullivan ( 1856 -- 1924 ) prior to settling in Sioux City in 1904 . Sullivan criticized the then-dominant styles of architecture based on historical revivals or eclectic mixing of historical features , championing instead progressive architecture based on concepts such as elimination of historical styles , simplification , functional and `` true '' expression of a building 's purpose , embrace of new technology , and the frank use of materials without disguise . Another of Sullivan 's protégés , Frank Lloyd Wright ( 1867 -- 1959 ) , was inspired by Sullivan to pioneer the Prairie Style of architecture at the turn of the 20th Century . However , Steele had been relatively unsuccessful in interesting clients in the Sioux City area in his progressive ideas about architecture , although he had designed a number of mildly progressive American Craftsman bungalows and the Davidson Building ( Sioux City , 1912 -- 1913 ) , a Sullivanesque office block .   The wide eaves and strong horizontal lines of the Schulein House represent Steele 's first tentative steps in the direction of the Prairie School . From now on , whenever budget and client could be stretched far enough , Steele would turn away from other architectural styles and pursue Prairie Style . Steele 's evolution as a noted Prairie architect would continue with two Prairie-influenced buildings in 1915 : the Carnegie Library ( Armour , South Dakota ) and the Livestock National Bank ( Sioux City ) . These in turn led to the Woodbury County Courthouse ( 1915 -- 1918 , with George Grant Elmslie as principal designer ) , the First Congregational Church ( 1916 -- 1918 ) , the Charles Mix County Courthouse ( 1916 -- 1917 ) , the H.H. Everist House ( 1916 -- 1920 ) , and many other celebrated Prairie School designs in Sioux City and elsewhere in Iowa , Nebraska , and South Dakota .

neg: John M. McHugh John Michael McHugh ( born September 29 , 1948 ) is an American politician from the U.S. state of New York who served as the 21st United States Secretary of the Army , and represented the state 's 23rd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives .   In June 2009 , President Barack Obama nominated McHugh to the position of United States Secretary of the Army . His nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate and he took office on September 21 , 2009 .   In July 2015 , McHugh announced his intent to resign by November 2015 . He retired on November 1 , 2015 after more than six years of service . On September 18 , 2015 , President Obama nominated Eric Fanning to be his replacement .

neg: Mark Kirk Mark Steven Kirk ( born September 15 , 1959 ) is an American politician who was the junior United States Senator from Illinois from 2010 to 2017 and a member of the Republican Party . Previously , Kirk was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives , representing Illinois 's 10th congressional district . Kirk is a social moderate and fiscal conservative .   Born in Champaign , Illinois , Kirk graduated from Cornell University , the London School of Economics , and Georgetown University Law Center . He practiced law throughout the 1980s and 1990s . He joined the United States Navy Reserve as a Direct Commission Officer in the Intelligence career field in 1989 and was recalled to active duty for the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia . He participated in Operation Northern Watch in Iraq the following year . He attained the rank of Commander and retired from the Navy Reserve in 2013 .   Kirk was elected to the House in 2000 . During his fifth term in November 2010 he won two concurrent elections : to finish the final months of former Senator Barack Obama 's term and to serve the next six-year term . He was sworn in on November 29 , 2010 , and began a six-year Senate term in January 2011 . In January 2012 , Kirk suffered a stroke , and a full year passed before he returned to his congressional duties . On November 8 , 2016 , he was defeated in his bid for re-election to his U.S. Senate seat by Democrat Tammy Duckworth .

neg: Iowa Democratic caucuses, 2008 The Iowa Democratic Presidential Caucus occurred on January 3 , 2008 , and was the state caucuses of the Iowa Democratic Party . It was the first election for the Democrats of the 2008 presidential election . Also referred to as `` the First in the Nation Caucus , '' it was the first election of the primary season on both the Democratic and Republican sides . Of the eight major Democratic presidential candidates , then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama of Illinois received the most votes and was ultimately declared the winner of the Iowa Democratic Caucus of 2008 , making him the first African American to win the caucus . Former U.S. Senator John Edwards of North Carolina came in second place and then-U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton of New York finished third , though Clinton received more delegates than Edwards . Campaigning had begun as early as two years before the event .

neg: Herding Cats: A Life in Politics Herding Cats : A Life in Politics is a book written by U.S. Senator Trent Lott , a Republican from Mississippi . Published by HarperCollins Publishers , Inc. on August 23 , 2005 , the book spans 320 pages . The major points of the book are Lott 's childhood in Grenada and Pascagoula , Mississippi , including his struggles with his alcoholic father ; his election to Congress ; his years in the House of Representatives during the Nixon , Carter , and Reagan administrations ( including his service as Minority Whip in that body ) ; and his service in the Senate , especially his service as Majority Leader during the Clinton and Bush Administrations . He recounts the formative events of his youth and the stories from his political life . From his decision to support Gerald Ford over Ronald Reagan in the 1976 Republican primary to his working partnership with Senate Democratic leader Tom Daschle during the Clinton impeachment and the September 11 attacks in 2001 , Lott traces the inner workings of congressional life .   One major focus of the book is the comments Lott made at the birthday party of Sen. Strom Thurmond in 2002 and the subsequent intense media coverage , which eventually led to his resignation as the Senate Majority Leader in December 2002 . Lott names several figures who he believes orchestrated his downfall , including members of President George W. Bush 's administration , such as then-Secretary of State , Colin Powell , and former Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) head Joe Allbaugh ( who Lott claims has admitted that he intended to bring Lott down as Majority Leader ) ; as well as the successor to Lott as Majority Leader , Sen. Bill Frist .   Lott suggests that his forced resignation was a `` strategic plan '' devised by Bush and others who wanted Frist to take his place , since Frist supported key White House policies like the Medicare expansion , which Lott opposed . Lott notes , however , that his response to the Thurmond controversy played poorly in the media .   Lott wrote in the book that Frist betrayed him by not telling him about Frist 's decision to run for majority leader beforehand . Lott says he took Frist as his protégé , as Frist had no political/public experience when he was first elected to the Senate .   Some suggested that Lott 's book , which portrayed Frist in a negative light , was designed to impede Frist 's possible presidential campaign , but Frist did not run . Lott indicated in the book that he had repaired his relationship with Frist to some extent .   Lott also emphasizes his years as Majority Whip in the House and his years as Majority Leader in the Senate , where Lott claims to have built an efficient vote-getting organization and played a key role in several legislative accomplishments , including the Reagan-era budget cuts and tax cuts , and welfare reform and the tobacco settlement during the Clinton years . This emphasis may tie into Lott 's ambition to rejoin the Senate Republican Leadership .

neg: Sean Patrick Maloney Sean Patrick Maloney ( born July 30 , 1966 ) is an American politician and member of the Democratic Party who has served as the U.S. Representative for since 2013 . Born in the Canadian province of Quebec , and raised in nearby Hanover , New Hampshire , he earned his Bachelor of Arts and Juris Doctor from the University of Virginia . He entered politics as a volunteer for Bill Clinton 's presidential campaigns , and later served as his senior West Wing adviser and White House Staff Secretary . After the Clinton Administration , he served as the First Deputy Secretary to New York Governors Eliot Spitzer and David Paterson .   Prior to being elected to Congress , he worked as an executive in a private equity firm and as an attorney . In 2006 he ran in the Democratic primary for New York Attorney General , but came in third to Mark J. Green and winner Andrew Cuomo . He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 2012 after defeating Republican incumbent Nan Hayworth . He campaigned for the election as a moderate and is a member of the New Democrat Coalition . He is the first openly gay person to be elected to Congress from New York .

neg: United States Congress The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers : the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington , D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment . Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party , and only rarely to a third party or as independents . Congress has 535 voting members : 435 Representatives and 100 Senators . The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members . These members can , however , sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation . These members represent Washington , D.C. , Puerto Rico , American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands .   The members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency , known as a `` district '' . Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results , provided that each state has at least one congressional representative . Each state , regardless of population or size , has two senators . Currently , there are 100 senators representing the 50 states . Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term , with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election .

neg: DREAM Act The DREAM Act ( acronym for Development , Relief , and Education for Alien Minors ) is an American legislative proposal for a multi-phase process for illegal immigrants in the United States that would first grant conditional residency and upon meeting further qualifications , permanent residency .   The bill was first introduced in the Senate on August 1 , 2001 , by United States Senators Dick Durbin ( Democratic Party ) and Orrin Hatch ( Republican Party ) , and has since been reintroduced several times ( see legislative history ) but has failed to pass .   Supporters argue that the Act would not create an `` amnesty program '' and would produce a variety of social and economic benefits , while critics contend that it would reward illegal immigration and encourage more of it , inviting fraud and shielding gang members from deportation .

neg: Moderate Dems Working Group Moderate Dems Working Group was a caucus of moderate Democratic members of the United States Senate . The group 's goal is to work with the Senate leadership and the Obama administration `` to craft common-sense solutions to urgent national problems . '' The group 's members are `` joined by a shared commitment to pursue pragmatic , fiscally sustainable policies across a range of issues , such as deficit containment , health care reform , the housing crisis , educational reform , energy policy and climate change . ''   The Moderate Dems Working Group was founded on March 18 , 2009 , and is led by Senators Evan Bayh of Indiana , Tom Carper of Delaware , and Blanche Lincoln of Arkansas . It has been described as the Senate version of the Blue Dog Coalition in the House . The coalition has received praise from Democratic Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid , but has been criticized by the left as simply being `` political cover to Democratic senators representing red or purple states , making it harder for Republicans to tie them to liberal bogeymen . ''

neg: Lambda Chi Alpha Lambda Chi Alpha is a college fraternity in North America , which was founded in 1909 . It is one of the largest men 's fraternities , having initiated more than 280,000 members with active chapters and colonies at 195 universities . Lambda Chi Alpha was founded by Warren A. Cole , while he was a student at Boston University . The youngest of the fifteen largest social fraternities , Lambda Chi Alpha has initiated the third highest number of men ever , based on NIC statistics . Lambda Chi 's International Headquarters is located in Indianapolis , Indiana . Its members are referred to as `` Lambda Chis , '' `` LCAs , '' and `` Lambdas . '' It was a member of the North-American Interfraternity Conference ( NIC ) until October , 2015 .

neg: Congressional office buildings The congressional office buildings are the office buildings used by the United States Congress to augment the limited space in the United States Capitol . The congressional office buildings are part of the Capitol Complex are thus under the authority of the Architect of the Capitol and protected by the United States Capitol Police . The office buildings house the individual offices of each U.S. Representative and Senator as well as committee hearing rooms , staff rooms , multiple cafeterias , and areas for support , committee , and maintenance staff . The congressional office buildings are connected to the Capitol by means of several underground trains -- the Capitol Subway System . Congressional pages are responsible for carrying packages and messages from the two chambers to the buildings .   The three Senate office buildings are along Constitution Avenue north of the Capitol :  Russell Senate Office Building ( RSOB , completed 1908 )  Dirksen Senate Office Building ( DSOB , completed 1958 )  Hart Senate Office Building ( HSOB , completed 1982 )   The three House office buildings are along Independence Avenue south of the Capitol :  Cannon House Office Building ( CHOB , completed 1908 )  Longworth House Office Building ( LHOB , completed 1933 )  Rayburn House Office Building ( RHOB , completed 1965 )   A fourth building , the Ford House Office Building , which used to house the FBI 's fingerprint records , sits a few blocks southwest of the others . A fifth building , the O'Neill House Office Building ( previously known as `` House Annex-1 '' ) was named after former Speaker of the House Thomas `` Tip '' O'Neill . It was demolished in 2002 .   The U.S. Capitol Complex also includes a Page Residence Hall and the Capitol Power Plant , both on the House side of the Capitol .

neg: Hartley Hall Hartley Hall was the first official residence hall ( or dormitory ) constructed on the campus of Columbia University 's Morningside Heights campus , and currently houses undergraduate students from Columbia College as well as the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science . The building is named for Columbia alumnus Marcellus Hartley Dodge , who donated $ 300,000 for its construction shortly after his graduation . The building was meant as a memorial to his grandfather , Marcellus Hartley , the owner of Remington Arms , who died during Dodge 's sophomore year and who bequeathed him the family fortune . Dodge hoped to create `` the commencement of a true dormitory system '' at Columbia .   Construction began on Hartley Hall in 1904 and it opened in tandem with Livingston Hall in 1905 , welcoming students with its lobby of marble and oak . 200 students were housed in corridor-style rooms of various sizes . Lounges provided opportunities for social events such as teas with professors , although there was not yet an undergraduate dining hall on campus . Rooms of the period cost $ 3.30 per week , or $ 129 for the academic year , which , although more expensive than a roominghouse , ultimately allowed even poor students to afford bearth there . University President Nicholas Murray Butler , who presided over the hall 's opening , noted that `` in the interest of true democracy , '' rooms were arranged to allow `` the poorer student to live in the same building and the same entry with him who is better off , and so avoids the chasm between rich and poor living in separate buildings , of which there is so much complaint at Harvard . ''   Subsequently , the building became home , among others , to authors Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac , who noted its cockroach problem .   Overhauled during a 1980s renovation , the dorm is now organized into mostly two-story suites , where up to 15 students live in single and double rooms . The suites ' common space includes kitchens , bathrooms and living/dining areas . Along with neighboring Wallach Hall , it is currently part of the Living and Learning Center ( LLC ) , home to suite-style housing that intermingles all class levels and features interactive events designed to draw them together . An application process is required to obtain housing in either of the LLC dormitories . Hartley also houses Columbia 's undergraduate housing office . A small kosher deli used to be housed on the main floor . It was recently moved in 2007 to John Jay Hall .

neg: The Obama Identity The Obama Identity : A Novel ( Or Is It ? ) is a 2010 novel written by Edward Klein and former Republican United States Representative John LeBoutillier . Among other things , the book explores and promotes the Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories and Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories in the form of a novel . In an interview on Fox & Friends , Leboutillier claimed that the book uses `` real things '' and has `` so much real stuff '' . Following the interview , Media Matters for America published excerpts from the book in an article which criticized the book as having an `` incomprehensible plot '' .

neg: Pat Toomey Patrick Joseph Toomey ( born November 17 , 1961 ) is an American businessman and politician . He is the junior United States Senator for Pennsylvania , in office since 2011 , and a member of the Republican Party . Previously , Toomey served as a United States Representative for three terms , from 1999 to 2005 , but he did not seek a fourth term in compliance with a term limits pledge he had made while running for office in 1998 .   Toomey attended La Salle Academy in Providence , Rhode Island before earning a B.A. in government from Harvard College . He was employed first by Chemical Bank and subsequently by Morgan , Grenfell & Co. beginning in 1984 and 1986 , respectively , until resigning from the latter in 1991 . Prior to being elected to the U.S. Senate , Toomey served as the U.S. Representative for from 1999 to 2005 . He narrowly lost the Republican primary for United States Senate in 2004 . From 2005 to 2009 , he served as president of the Club for Growth . After becoming the Republican nominee for the 2010 U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania , Toomey was elected to the seat on November 2 , 2010 , defeating his Democratic opponent , former U.S. Navy Three-star admiral and Congressman Joe Sestak . He is currently the only Republican holding statewide office in Pennsylvania .   In the U.S. Senate , Toomey serves on the Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs , the Committee on the Budget , the Committee on Finance , and the Congressional Joint Economic Committee , among others including several subcommittees . In 2011 , he also served on the Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction . In April 2012 , Toomey was named to succeed South Carolina Senator Jim DeMint as chairman of the United States Senate Steering Committee , a Senate Republican caucus . Toomey was re-elected on November 8 , 2016 , to his second term as the junior United States Senator from Pennsylvania , defeating Katie McGinty in the general election .

neg: Chuck D Carlton Douglas Ridenhour ( born August 1 , 1960 ) , known professionally as Chuck D , is an American rapper , author , and producer . As the leader of the rap group Public Enemy , he helped create politically and socially conscious hip hop music in the mid-1980s . About.com ranked him at No. 9 on their list of the Top 50 MCs of Our Time , while The Source ranked him at No. 12 on their list of the Top 50 Hip-Hop Lyricists of All Time .

neg: Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration The economic policy of the Barack Obama administration was characterized by moderate tax increases on higher income Americans designed to fund healthcare reform , reduce the federal budget deficit , and improve income inequality . His first term ( 2009 -- 2013 ) included measures designed to address the Great Recession and Subprime mortgage crisis , which began in 2007 . These included a major stimulus package , banking regulation , and comprehensive healthcare reform . As the economy improved and robust job creation continued during his second term ( 2013 -- 2017 ) , the Bush tax cuts were allowed to expire for the highest income taxpayers and a spending sequester ( cap ) was implemented , to further reduce the deficit back to typical historical levels . Towards the end of his tenure , the U.S. economy was nearing full employment such that the Federal Reserve began raising interest rates , real household income was nearing its pre-crisis peak , gas prices were very low , and GDP grew 3.5 % . He also implemented several environmental executive orders to address climate change and encourage clean energy industries , as the U.S. enjoyed an unprecedented increase in energy production . Both the stock market and corporate profits reached record high levels during his tenure , while inflation and interest rates remained near record low levels .   Conceptually , Obama advocated using government regulation to stem crony capitalism and tax revenue to stabilize and promote economic growth . Two of his important economic advisers were Jason Furman of Harvard University and Jeffrey Liebman of Harvard University . In 2006 , Obama wrote , `` We should be asking ourselves what mix of policies will lead to a dynamic free market and widespread economic security , entrepreneurial innovation and upward mobility -LSB- ... -RSB- we should be guided by what works . '' Speaking before the National Press Club in April 2005 , he defended the New Deal social welfare policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt , associating Republican proposals to establish private accounts for Social Security with Social Darwinism .

neg: New York's 23rd congressional district special election, 2009 The 2009 special election for New York 's 23rd congressional district was held on November 3 , 2009 , to select the successor to Republican John M. McHugh . McHugh was nominated to become United States Secretary of the Army on June 2 , 2009 , and resigned as representative of New York 's 23rd congressional district on September 21 , 2009 , after being confirmed by the Senate .   The Democratic Party and the Working Families Party nominated businessman and attorney Bill Owens , and the Conservative Party of New York nominated businessman and accountant Doug Hoffman . The Republican Party and Independence Party nominated State Assembly member Dierdre Scozzafava , who withdrew from the race three days before the election and endorsed Owens . On Election Day , Owens defeated Hoffman .   The 2009 special election received significant national attention , and was alternately described as `` a referendum on President Barack Obama '' and `` a fight over the identity of the Republican Party . '' The race was also noteworthy due to the Tea Party movement influence on its outcome , and for its impact on same-sex marriage legislation in New York .


query: Game of Thrones (season 3) premiered in 2012.

pos: Game of Thrones (season 3) The third season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered in the United States on HBO on March 31 , 2013 , and concluded on June 9 , 2013 . It was broadcast on Sunday at 9:00 pm in the United States , consisting of 10 episodes , each running approximately 50 -- 60 minutes . The season is based roughly on the first half of A Storm of Swords ( the third of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by George R. R. Martin , of which the series is an adaptation ) . The series is adapted for television by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss . HBO renewed the series for a third season on April 10 , 2012 , nine days after the second season 's premiere . Production began in July 2012 . The show was filmed primarily in Ireland , Northern Ireland , Croatia , Iceland and Morocco .   The story takes place in a fictional world , primarily upon a continent called Westeros , with one storyline occurring on another continent to the east known as Essos . Like the novel , the season follows the climatic battle at Kings Landing . Season three like the previous season mainly centres around the war of the five kings ; after the death of Renly Baratheon ( Gethin Anthony ) , all four kings in Westeros believes to have a claim to the Iron Throne , besides Robb Stark ( Richard Madden ) , who seeks vengeance for the death of his father , Lord Eddard `` Ned '' Stark ( Sean Bean ) .   Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast , including Peter Dinklage , Nikolaj Coster-Waldau , Lena Headey , Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington . The season introduced a number of new cast members , including Ciarán Hinds , Nathalie Emmanuel and Iwan Rheon .   Critics praised the show 's production values and cast . Viewership yet again rose compared to the previous season . It won 2 of the 16 Emmy Awards for which it was nominated , it received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series ( Dinklage ) , Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series ( Clarke ) and Outstanding Drama Series . It also won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Drama Series .

neg: The Black Adder The Black Adder is the first series of the BBC sitcom Blackadder , written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson , directed by Martin Shardlow and produced by John Lloyd . The series was originally aired on BBC One from 15 June 1983 to 20 July 1983 , and was a joint production with the Australian Seven Network . Set in 1485 at the end of the British Middle Ages , the series is written as a secret history which contends that King Richard III won the Battle of Bosworth Field , only to be unintentionally assassinated by his nephew Edmund and succeeded by Richard IV , one of the Princes in the Tower . The series follows the exploits of Richard IV 's unfavoured second son Edmund ( who calls himself `` The Black Adder '' ) in his various attempts to increase his standing with his father and , in the final episode , his quest to overthrow him .   Conceived while Atkinson and Curtis were working on Not the Nine O'Clock News , the series covers a number of medieval issues in Britain in a humorous and often anachronistic manner -- witchcraft , royal succession , European relations , the Crusades and the conflict between the Crown and the Church . The filming of the series was highly ambitious , with a large cast and much location shooting . Shakespearean dialogue is sometimes adapted for comic effect . Despite winning an International Emmy , The Black Adder is generally regarded as the weakest series of Blackadder , even by its creators .

neg: Cold Blooded (Grimm) `` Cold Blooded '' is the 7th episode of the supernatural drama television series Grimm of season 3 and the 51st overall , which premiered on December 13 , 2013 , on the cable network NBC . The episode was written by Thomas Ian Griffith , and was directed by Terrence O'Hara . The episode aired alongside the next episode , Twelve Days of Krampus .

neg: A Dish Best Served Cold `` A Dish Best Served Cold '' is the 3rd episode of season 3 of the supernatural drama television series Grimm and the 47th episode overall , which premiered on November 8 , 2013 , on the cable network NBC . The episode was written by Rob Wright , and was directed by Karen Gaviola .

neg: Ned Stark Eddard `` Ned '' Stark is a fictional character in the first book of George R. R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of fantasy novels and the first season of its television adaptation . Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones , Ned is the honorable lord of Winterfell , an ancient fortress in the North of the fictional continent of Westeros . Though the character is established as a primary character in the novel and the TV adaptation , Martin 's plot twist at the end involving Ned shocked both readers of the book and viewers of the TV series .   Ned is portrayed by Sean Bean in the first season of HBO 's adaptation of the series , Game of Thrones , and as a child and young man by Sebastian Croft and Robert Aramayo respectively in the sixth season . Bean was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television and a Scream Award for Best Fantasy Actor for the role . He and the rest of the cast were nominated for Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2011 .

neg: List of The Newsroom episodes The Newsroom is an American television drama series created by Aaron Sorkin , which premiered on the premium cable network HBO on June 24 , 2012 . The series concluded on December 14 , 2014 , and consists of 25 episodes over three seasons .   Jeff Daniels stars as Atlantis Cable News anchor Will McAvoy , who takes a mandatory leave of absence after a public tirade about America 's shortcomings during a political debate . Upon his return , he discovers that most of his staff have quit . Seeing an opportunity to return to the glory days of televised news instead of ratings-driven infotainment , his boss Charlie Skinner ( Sam Waterston ) has hired Will 's ex-girlfriend MacKenzie McHale ( Emily Mortimer ) as the new executive producer . McHale shares Skinner 's vision of TV news , and she and Will immediately butt heads . The series is executive produced by Aaron Sorkin , Scott Rudin , and Alan Poul .

neg: Simon & Simon (season 3) This is a list of episodes from the third season of Simon & Simon .

neg: Game of Thrones (season 6) The sixth season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on April 24 , 2016 , and concluded on June 26 , 2016 . It consists of ten episodes , each of approximately 50 -- 60 minutes , largely of original content not found in George R. R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series . Some material is adapted from the upcoming sixth novel The Winds of Winter and the fourth and fifth novels , A Feast for Crows and A Dance with Dragons . The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss . HBO ordered the season on April 8 , 2014 , together with the fifth season , which began filming in July 2015 primarily in Northern Ireland , Spain , Croatia , Iceland and Canada . Each episode cost over $ 10 million .   The season follows the continuing struggle between the Starks and other noble families of Westeros for the Iron Throne . The Starks defeat the Bolton forces in battle , and Jon Snow is proclaimed the King in the North . Tyrion attempts to rule Meereen while Daenerys is held captive by a Dothraki tribe . At King 's Landing , the Tyrell army attempts to liberate Margaery and Loras , but Margaery capitulates to the High Sparrow , who becomes more powerful by influencing King Tommen . At her trial , Cersei burns the Great Sept , killing her rivals , while Tommen kills himself . Unopposed , Cersei is crowned Queen of Westeros . Ellaria Sand and three of Oberyn Martell 's daughters kill Doran and Trystane Martell and seize control of Dorne , and Olenna discusses an alliance with Ellaria . In Essos , Daenerys Targaryen is captured by Khal Moro who takes her before the khals ; she burns them alive and takes command of the Dothraki .   Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast , including Peter Dinklage , Nikolaj Coster-Waldau , Lena Headey , Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington . The season introduced new cast members , including Max von Sydow , Pilou Asbæk and James Faulkner .   Critics praised its production values , writing , plot development , and cast . Game of Thrones received most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards , with 23 nominations , and won twelve , including that for Outstanding Drama Series for the second year in a row . U.S. viewership rose compared to the previous season , and by approximately 13 % over its course , from 7.9 million to 8.9 million by the finale .

neg: Game of Thrones (2014 video game) Game of Thrones is an episodic graphic adventure fantasy drama video game based on Game of Thrones , the TV adaptation of George R. R. Martin A Song of Ice and Fire fantasy series , released in December 2014 for Android , iOS , Microsoft Windows , OS X , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One .   The game was developed by Telltale Games and follows the episodic format found in other Telltale titles , such as The Walking Dead , The Wolf Among Us , and Tales from the Borderlands , where player choices and actions influence later events across the 6-episode arc . The story revolves around the northern House Forrester , rulers of Ironrath , whose members , including the five playable characters , attempt to save their family and themselves after ending up on the losing side of the War of the Five Kings . The game includes settings , characters and voice actors from the novels and TV series .   The game was generally well received , and Telltale is currently working on a second season of the game .

neg: Shake It Up (season 3) The third and final season of Shake It Up premiered on Disney Channel on October 14 , 2012 . Bella Thorne , Zendaya , and Davis Cleveland appeared in every episode . Adam Irigoyen was absent for four episodes , Roshon Fegan was absent for five , and Caroline Sunshine was absent for nine . Kenton Duty is not a main cast member in this season and has been removed from the opening credits . This is the final season of the series , with the series finale airing on November 10 , 2013 .

neg: The Catalina The Catalina is an American reality television series on The CW . The series debuted on May 29 , 2012 .

neg: McLeod's Daughters (season 3) The third season of the long-running Australian outback drama McLeod 's Daughters '' began airing on 12 February 2003 , and concluded on 29 October 2003 , with a total of 30 episodes .

neg: Girls (TV series) Girls is an American television series that premiered on HBO on April 15 , 2012 . Created by and starring Lena Dunham and executive produced by Judd Apatow , Girls is a comedy-drama following the lives of four young women living in New York City . The show 's premise and major aspects of the main character were drawn from Dunham 's own life .   The series has received a positive response from critics and consistent accolades , including the 2013 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy .   Girls sixth and final season concluded on April 16 , 2017 , with a total of 62 episodes .

neg: The Climb (Game of Thrones) `` The Climb '' is the sixth episode of the third season of HBO 's fantasy television series Game of Thrones , and the 26th episode of the series . Directed by Alik Sakharov and written by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , it aired on May 5 , 2013 .   The episode 's title comes from climbing of the wall by Jon Snow and Ygritte , and also the references from dialogue between Lord Petyr Baelish and Lord Varys .

neg: Gethin Anthony Gethin David L. Anthony ( born 9 October 1983 ) is an English television and film actor best known for his role as Renly Baratheon in Game of Thrones .

neg: Quill (Grimm) `` Quill '' is the 4th episode of the supernatural drama television series Grimm of season 2 and the 26th overall , which premiered on September 3 , 2012 , on NBC . The episode was written by David Simkins , and was directed by David Straiton .

neg: Hell on Wheels (season 2) The second season of the AMC western-drama television series Hell on Wheels premiered on August 12 , 2012 and concluded on October 7 , 2012 . The series was created and produced by Joe and Tony Gayton who wrote and co-wrote two episodes . They also serve as the show 's showrunners . In addition to the Gaytons , Jeremy Gold , John Shiban , and David Von Ancken also serve as series executive producers .   The season follows Cullen Bohannon , who joined a group of Rebel bandits robbing trains and planning to start a new Confederate colony in Mexico . While attacking Thomas Durant 's payroll train , Cullen is captured by authorities and sentenced to death , but Durant intervenes with a pardon on the condition that Cullen returns to Hell on Wheels to help oversee railroad construction .   The second season was met with favorable reviews from critics with the premiered watched by just over 2.5 million viewers . The numbers were down significantly from the first season 's premiere and finale .

neg: Friday Night Lights (season 3) The third season of the American serial drama television series Friday Night Lights began airing in the United States and Canada on October 1 , 2008 . It was the first season to be aired on DirecTV 's The 101 Network . The 13-episode season concluded on The 101 Network on January 14 , 2009 and then began its run on NBC two nights later , on January 16 , 2009 , and concluded its NBC run on April 10 , 2009 . The show was renewed for two more seasons in March 2009 , with both seasons airing in the same format as season 3 , containing 13 episodes each . The third season was released on DVD in region 1 on May 19 , 2009 .   The season continues to focus around the Dillon Panthers and the pressures faced on and off the field . This season also has four main characters leave the show by season 's end .

neg: Camelot (TV series) Camelot is a 2011 historical-fantasy-drama television series which premiered on 1 April 2011 . It was co-produced by the Starz cable network and GK-TV which began production during the summer of 2010 . The series , based on the Arthurian legend , was produced by Graham King , Morgan O'Sullivan and Michael Hirst .   A special preview showing of the pilot episode `` Homecoming '' was aired on Starz Friday night , 25 February 2011 . On 30 June 2011 Starz announced it was not going to order new seasons of Camelot , citing significant production challenges , predominantly scheduling conflicts with some members of the cast , including Joseph Fiennes , Jamie Campbell Bower and Eva Green .

neg: Globe to Globe Festival The Globe to Globe Festival ran from 23 April to 9 June 2012 as part of the World Shakespeare Festival , itself part of the 2012 Cultural Olympiad . The festival 's director was Tom Bird .   The Globe to Globe Festival hosted 37 productions of Shakespeare 's plays in 37 different languages over a six-week period . The festival was primarily intended to be an experiment with foreign language Shakespeare in the languages of London , however , it also aimed to discover how important Shakespeare is to the rest of the world . The Festival was recorded through blog responses on the Theatre 's own website and on the Year of Shakespeare blog .   More than 100,000 people attended the performances , 80 % of whom had not previously been to the Globe .

neg: Friends (season 3) The third season of Friends , an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman , premiered on NBC on September 19 , 1996 . Friends was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions , in association with Warner Bros. . Television . The season contains 25 episodes and concluded airing on May 15 , 1997 .


query: Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015.

pos: Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh ( -LSB- , ahndr@_pr@'dEsh -RSB- ) is one of the 29 states of India , situated on the southeastern coast of the country . The state is the eighth largest state in India covering an area of 162307 km2 . As per 2011 Census of India , the state is tenth largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants .   On 2 June 2014 , the north-western portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana . Andhra Pradesh 's longtime capital , Hyderabad , was transferred to Telangana as part of the division . However , in accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act , 2014 , Hyderabad will remain the de jure capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of time not exceeding 10 years . The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati , which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA . The Gross State Domestic Product ( GSDP ) of the state in the 2016 -- 2017 financial year at current prices stood at .   The state has a coastline of 974 km with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km2 territorial waters , the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat . It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west , Chhattisgarh in the north , Odisha in the north-east , Karnataka in the west , Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east . A small enclave of 30 km2 of Yanam , a district of Puducherry , lies south of Kakinada in the Godavari delta to the east of the state .   Andhra Pradesh is composed of two regions : Coastal Andhra , located along the Bay of Bengal , and Rayalaseema , in the inland southwestern part of the state . These two regions comprise 13 districts , with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema . Visakhapatnam , located on the Bay of Bengal in North Coastal Andhra is the largest city and commercial hub of the state with a GDP of $ 26 billion , followed in population and GDP by Vijayawada , which is located on the Krishna River and which has a GDP of $ 3 billion as of 2010 .   Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015 , a 30 % growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year . The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the world 's most visited religious sites , with 18.25 million visitors per year . Other pilgrimage centers in Andhra Pradesh include the Ameen Peer Dargah in Kadapa , the Mahachaitya at Amaravathi , and the Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada , while the state 's natural attractions include the beaches of Visakhapatnam , hill stations such as the Araku Valley and Horsley Hills , and the island of Konaseema in the Godavari River delta .

neg: South Indian cuisine South Indian cuisine includes the cuisines of the five southern states of India : Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Telangana .

neg: Gudivada Gudivada is a city in Krishna district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . It is a municipality and the headquarters of Gudivada mandal in Gudivada revenue division . It is one of the cities in the state to be a part of Andhra Pradesh Capital Region . It is Twenty sixth most populous city in the state with a population of 118,167 .

neg: Narayanapur, Nalgonda district Narayanapur is a Mandal in Bhuvanagiri district of Telangana State , India . Narayanapur Mandal Headquarters is Narayanapur town . It belongs to Telangana region . It is located 39 km towards west from District headquarters Bhongir .   Narayanapur Mandal is bounded by Choutuppal Mandal towards North , Manchal Mandal towards west , Pochampally Mandal towards North , Munugode Mandal towards East . Bhongiri City , Hyderabad City , Devarakonda City , Jangaon City are the nearby Cities to Narayanapur .   Narayanapur consist of 77 Villages and 14 Panchayats . Kothulapuram is the smallest Village and Narayanapur is the biggest Village . It is in the 322 m elevation ( altitude ) . This Place is in the border of the Nalgonda District and Rangareddi District . Rangareddi District Manchal is west towards this place .   Hyderabad , Nagarjunsagar , Nagarjunakonda ( Nagarjuna Sagar Dam ) , Medak , Warangal ( Orugallu ) are the nearby important tourist destinations to see .

neg: Muppalla, Chandarlapadu mandal Muppalla is a village in Krishna district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . It is located in Chandarlapadu mandal of Vijayawada revenue division . Average population as of 2012 is 3,800 .

neg: South Asia South Asia or Southern Asia is a term used to represent the southern region of the Asian continent , which comprises the sub-Himalayan SAARC countries and , for some authorities , adjoining countries to the west and east . Topographically , it is dominated by the Indian Plate , which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush . South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land ( clockwise , from west ) by West Asia , Central Asia , East Asia , and Southeast Asia .   The current territories of Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , Maldives , Nepal , India , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia . The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985 and includes all eight nations comprising South Asia .   South Asia covers about 5.1 million km2 ( 1.9 million mi2 ) , which is 11.51 % of the Asian continent or 3.4 % of the world 's land surface area . The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the world 's population , making it both the most populous and the most densely populated geographical region in the world . Overall , it accounts for about 39.49 % of Asia 's population ( or over 24 % of the world 's population ) and is home to a vast array of peoples .   In 2010 , South Asia had the world 's largest population of Hindus , Jains and Sikhs . There are 507 million Muslims as well as over 35 million Christians and 25 million Buddhists in South Asia .

neg: Biodiversity park, Hyderabad Biodiversity park in Hyderabad has been established during the Convention on Biological Diversity held in 2012 . It was inaugurated along with a commemorative pylon by the Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh . It was opened for the public at Gachibowli since January 19 , 2015 . The park was set up within the Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation ( TSIIC ) layout at a total cost of more than Rs . 2 crores .

neg: The Nilgiris District The Nilgiris District is in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Nilgiri ( Blue Mountains ) is the name given to a range of mountains spread across the borders among the states of Tamil Nadu , Karnataka and Kerala . The Nilgiri Hills are part of a larger mountain chain known as the Western Ghats . Their highest point is the mountain of Doddabetta , height 2,637 m . The small district is contained mainly within this mountain range ; the administrative headquarters is located at Ooty ( Ootacamund or Udhagamandalam ) .   Nilgiris District ranked first in a comprehensive Economic Environment index ranking districts in Tamil Nadu ( not including Chennai ) prepared by the Institute for Financial Management and Research in August 2009 . Tea and coffee plantations have been important to its economy . As of 2011 , the Nilgiris district had a population of 735,394 , with a sex-ratio of 1,042 females for every 1,000 males .

neg: Tsundur mandal Tsundur mandal is one of the 57 mandals in Guntur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . It is under the administration of Tenali revenue division and the headquarters are located at Tsundur . The mandal is bounded by Chebrolu , Tenali , Amruthalur and Ponnur mandals . The mandal is a part of Andhra Pradesh Capital Region .

neg: Tirumala Tirumala is a census town in Chittoor district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . The town is a part of Tirupati Urban Development Authority and located in Tirupati ( rural ) mandal of Tirupati revenue division . It is a hill town where Tirumala Venkateswara Temple is located , which is the abode of Lord Venkateswara .

neg: Ports of Karnataka Karnataka 's coastline called Karavali stretches 300 km between Mangalore in Dakshina Kannada district and Karwar in Uttara Kannada district . The coastline of Karnataka has been along the eastern shore of Arabian Sea . Karnataka has one major and ten minor ports in this coastal belt . Kali , Belekeri , Gangavali , Aghanashini Sharavathi , Sharabi , Kollur , Gangolli , Sitanadi , Gurpur and Netravati are the important rivers in this belt which empty into the Arabian sea . Sea erosion , migration of river mouths , siltation of ports and harbours are some of the problems common to this belt .   Development of ports being a state subject , the Government of Karnataka set up the Department of Ports and Inland Water Transport in 1957 . The Department maintains one major and ten minor ports between Mangalore in the south and Karwar in the North . The only major port is the New Mangalore Port . The minor ports are located at Karwar , Old Mangalore , Belekeri , Tadadi , Honnavar , Bhatkal , Kundapur , Hangarakatta , Malpe and Padubidri ports . Of these , the one at Karwar is the only all-weather port while the rest are riverine fair-weather lighterage ports .   In the light of the economic reforms that the central government implemented in the early nineties , the Karnataka government also has been making serious efforts to improve its port infrastructure . In 1997 , a `` Port Policy '' was formulated with a view to develop all ports with private participation . The policy is built around the BOOST ( Build-Own-Operate-Share and Transfer ) concept and primarily seeks to improve cargo handling capacity .

neg: Puducherry Puducherry ( -LSB- pᵿdᵿˈtʃɛri -RSB- literally New Town in Tamil ) , formerly known as Pondicherry ( -LSB- pɒndᵻˈtʃɛri -RSB- ) , is a union territory of India . It was formed out of four exclaves of former French India , namely Pondichéry ( Pondicherry ; now Puducherry ) , Karikal ( Karaikal ) , Mahé and Yanaon ( Yanam ) . It is named after the largest district , Puducherry . Historically known as Pondicherry ( Pāṇṭiccēri ) , the territory changed its official name to Puducherry ( Putuccēri ) on 20 September 2006 .   Puducherry lies in the southern part of the Indian Peninsula . The areas of Puducherry district and Karaikal district are bound by the state of Tamil Nadu , while Yanam district and Mahé district are enclosed by the states of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala respectively . Puducherry is the 29th most populous and the third most densely populated state/union territory in India . It has a GDP of and ranks 27th in India .

neg: Sri Krishnadevaraya University Sri Krishnadevaraya University is a public university in Anantapur , Andhra Pradesh , India , founded on July 25 , 1981 . The university is named after a patron of learning and the arts , Sri Krishnadevaraya , of the Vijayanagara empire of the 16th century .

neg: Madanapalle Madanapalle is a city in Chittoor district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . It is a municipality and the headquarters of Madanapalle mandal and Madanapalle revenue division .

neg: Tourism in Uttarakhand Uttarakhand is a state in North Indian region of Himalayas . The state is popularly known as Devbhumi ( land of Gods ) due to the presence of numerous Hindu pilgrimage sites . As a result , religious tourism forms a major portion of the tourism in the state . The tourism business in Uttarakhand generated 23,000 crores during 2013-14 , however due to 2013 North Indian Floods , it is expected to witness a 70 % fall to 6,900 crores during 2014-15 .

neg: Arakkonam Arakkonam is a municipality town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu , with a population of about 101,626 as per the census 2011 . This town is located in the Vellore District about 69 km ( via rail ) from the state capital of Chennai . Arakkonam is one of the hottest towns in India , where the temperature can exceed 43 ° C ( 110 ° F ) for several peak days in the summer . As of 2011 , the town had a population of 78,395 . It is considered a part of the Chennai Metropolitan Region .

neg: Arundelpet Arundelpet is a neighborhood in Guntur of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh . It is one of the commercial areas of the city .

neg: Alluri Seetarama Raju (film) Alluri Seetarama Raju is a 1974 Telugu biographical historical film based on the life of Alluri Sitarama Raju , an Indian revolutionary who is known for his role in `` Rampa Rebellion '' of 1922 -- 24 , and tribal leader Gam Malludora during the Indian independence movement in the Madras Presidency . Raju with a band of tribal leaders and other sympathizers fought against the British Raj . The film is produced by Padmalaya Studios , as the 100th film of Ghattamaneni Krishna .   Scripted by Maharadhi Tripuraneni , the film was directed by V. Ramachandra Rao , as South India 's first Cinemascope film . The film won the National Film Award for Best Lyrics for revolutionary compositions rendered by Srirangam Srinivasa Rao . The film won the Nandi Award for Best Feature Film , and was screened at the International Film Festival of India in the mainstream section , and Tashkent Film Festival . The film was the highest grossing Telugu film for that year .   The film was screened retrospective on August 16 , 2016 at the Independence Day Film Festival jointly presented by the Indian Directorate of Film Festivals and Ministry of Defense , commemorating 70th Indian Independence Day .

neg: Jubilee Hills Jubilee Hills is a posh suburban neighbourhood in west Hyderabad , Telangana . It is one of the most expensive commercial and residential locations in India with prime land prices fetching up to 200,000 ( USD 4,000 ) per square yard . A 6 acre tract of land in the city was sold for nearly 3,340,000,000 ( USD 66,800,000 ) in 2005 . Rental prices on Road Numbers 36 and 37 range from 100-200 rupees per square foot , among the top commercial rental locales in India .   This suburb is sandwiched between the wealthy commercial district of Banjara Hills and is located within two kilometers of the Hyderbad 's IT central hub of HITEC City . The natural terrain is mostly rocky and settlements here are of relatively new construction .   To its south-east is the KBR National Park , the erstwhile Chiran palace , which is one of the largest urban national parks in India covering an area of 1.58 km ² .

neg: NTR bus station NTR bus station is a bus station in Guntur and owned by Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation . The bus station serves both the city and district services in Andhra Pradesh as well buses from neighboring states of Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and Telangana .


query: Tardigrades are non-segmented animals.

pos: Tardigrade Tardigrades ( -LSB- ˈtɑrdᵻˌgreɪd -RSB- also known as water bears , space bears , or moss piglets ) are water-dwelling , eight-legged , segmented micro-animals . They were first discovered by the German zoologist Johann August Ephraim Goeze in 1773 . The name Tardigrada ( meaning `` slow stepper '' ) was given three years later by the Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani . They have been found everywhere from mountaintops to the deep sea , mud volcanoes , and from tropical rain forests to the Antarctic .   Tardigrades are one of the most resilient animals known : they can survive extreme conditions that would be rapidly fatal to nearly all other known life forms . They can withstand temperature ranges from 1 K ( close to absolute zero ) to about 420 K for several minutes , pressures about six times greater than those found in the deepest ocean trenches , ionizing radiation at doses hundreds of times higher than the lethal dose for a human , and the vacuum of outer space . They can go without food or water for more than 30 years , drying out to the point where they are 3 % or less water , only to rehydrate , forage , and reproduce . Tardigrades living in harsh conditions undergo an annual process of cyclomorphosis .   They are not considered extremophilic because they are not adapted to exploit these conditions . This means that their chances of dying increase the longer they are exposed to the extreme environments , whereas true extremophiles thrive in a physically or geochemically extreme environment that would harm most other organisms .   Usually , tardigrades are about 0.5 mm long when they are fully grown . They are short and plump with four pairs of legs , each with four to eight claws also known as `` disks '' . The first three pairs of legs are directed ventrolaterally and are the primary means of locomotion , while the fourth pair is directed posteriorly on the terminal segment of the trunk and is used primarily for grasping the substrate . Tardigrades are prevalent in mosses and lichens and feed on plant cells , algae , and small invertebrates . When collected , they may be viewed under a very low-power microscope , making them accessible to students and amateur scientists .   Tardigrades form the phylum Tardigrada , part of the superphylum Ecdysozoa . It is an ancient group , with fossils dating from 530 million years ago , in the Cambrian period . About 1,150 species of tardigrades have been described . Tardigrades can be found throughout the world , from the Himalayas ( above 6000 m ) , to the deep sea ( below 4000 m ) and from the polar regions to the equator .

neg: Pain in invertebrates Pain in invertebrates is a contentious issue . Although there are numerous definitions of pain , almost all involve two key components . First , nociception is required . This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evokes a reflex response that moves the entire animal , or the affected part of its body , away from the source of the stimulus . The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse , subjective feeling ; it is a reflex action . The second component is the experience of ` pain ' itself , or suffering -- i.e. , the internal , emotional interpretation of the nociceptive experience . Pain is therefore a private , emotional experience . Pain can not be directly measured in other animals , including other humans ; responses to putatively painful stimuli can be measured , but not the experience itself . To address this problem when assessing the capacity of other species to experience pain , argument-by-analogy is used . This is based on the principle that if a non-human animal 's responses to stimuli are similar to those of humans , it is likely to have had an analogous experience . It has been argued that if a pin is stuck in a chimpanzee 's finger and she rapidly withdraws her hand , then argument-by-analogy implies that like humans , she felt pain . It has been questioned why the inference does not then follow that a cockroach experiences pain when it writhes after being stuck with a pin . This argument-by-analogy approach to the concept of pain in invertebrates has been followed by others .   The ability to experience nociception has been subject to natural selection and offers the advantage of reducing further harm to the organism . While it might be expected therefore that nociception is widespread and robust , nociception varies across species . For example , the chemical capsaicin is commonly used as a noxious stimulus in experiments with mammals ; however , the African naked mole-rat , Heterocephalus glaber , an unusual rodent species that lacks pain-related neuropeptides ( e.g. , substance P ) in cutaneous sensory fibres , shows a unique and remarkable lack of pain-related behaviours to acid and capsaicin . Similarly , capsaicin triggers nociceptors in some invertebrates , but this substance is not noxious to Drosophila melanogaster ( the common fruit fly ) .  Criteria that may indicate a potential for experiencing pain include :  Has a suitable nervous system and receptors  Physiological changes to noxious stimuli  Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping , rubbing , holding or autotomy  Has opioid receptors and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics  Shows trade-offs between stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements  Shows avoidance learning  Exhibits high cognitive ability and sentience

neg: Notosuchus Notosuchus ( -LSB- noʊtəˈsjuːkəs -RSB- ` southern crocodile ' ) is an extinct genus of South American notosuchian crocodylomorph . It was terrestrial , living approximately 85 million years ago in the Coniacian or Santonian stages of the Late Cretaceous .   Notosuchus was relatively small , reaching 1.5 m in length and a weight of 36 kg . Remains have been found in the Bajo de la Carpa Formation in Patagonia , Argentina . First named in 1896 , Notosuchus was the first known notosuchian . The type species is N. terrestris . A second species , N. lepidus , was named in 1957 .   A paper published in 2008 by Fiorelli and Calvo described new remains of the type species N. terrestris . In it , the authors suggested that the skull would have supported a short trunk , or `` hog 's snout '' as well as fleshy upper and lower lips . The anteriorly directed nares and the absence of a bony nasal septum ( which presumably indicates cartilaginous tissue serving its place ) provide evidence for a trunk-like snout , while striations on the surface of the nasal bones and the lower jaw most likely acted as attachment points for the nasolabial muscles and the depressor muscle , respectively . Additionally , the authors suggested that a lateral rim on the dentary as well as numerous aligned neurovascular foramina are evidence of soft cheek-like muscular tissue . The function of the trunk was likely used for searching for food by sniffing the ground in a manner similar to extant suids and peccaries , while the cheeks would aid in mastication by preventing food loss .

neg: Ichthyology Ichthyology ( from Greek : ἰχθύς , ikhthus , `` fish '' ; and λόγος , logos , `` study '' ) , also known as fish science , is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish . This includes bony fish ( Osteichthyes ) , cartilaginous fish ( Chondrichthyes ) , and jawless fish ( Agnatha ) . While a large number of species have been discovered , approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each year . According to FishBase , 33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016 .

neg: Ambulacraria Ambulacraria or Coelomopora is a clade of invertebrate phyla which includes echinoderms and hemichordates ; a member of this group is called an ambulacrarian . The Ambulacraria are part of the deuterostomes , a larger clade that also includes the Chordata and Vetulicolia .   The two living clades with representative organisms are :  Echinodermata ( sea stars , sea urchins , brittle stars , sea cucumbers , feather stars , sea lilies , etc. . )  Hemichordata ( acorn worms , Pterobranchia , and possibly graptolites )   The group Xenoturbellida ( two species of worm-like animals ) has previously been considered to be in this clade , but is now considered to be placed more basally among Metazoans .   Fossil taxa that may lie on the stem lineage :  Superphylum Ambulacraria  unranked clade Cambroernida  † unranked clade = Eldoniida  † Herpetogaster Caron , Conway Morris & Shu , 2010 - with one species : † Herpetogaster collinsi Caron , Conway Morris & Shu , 2010  † Rotadisciidae

neg: Agnatha Agnatha ( Greek , `` no jaws '' ) is a superclass of jawless fish in the phylum Chordata , subphylum Vertebrata , consisting of both present ( cyclostomes ) and extinct ( conodonts and ostracoderms ) species . The group excludes all vertebrates with jaws , known as gnathostomes .   The agnathans as a whole are paraphyletic , because most extinct agnathans belong to the stem group of gnathostomes . Recent molecular data , both from rRNA and from mtDNA as well as embryological data strongly supports the hypothesis that living agnathans , the cyclostomes , are monophyletic .   The oldest fossil agnathans appeared in the Cambrian , and two groups still survive today : the lampreys and the hagfish , comprising about 120 species in total . Hagfish are considered members of the subphylum Vertebrata , because they secondarily lost vertebrae ; before this event was inferred from molecular and developmental data , the group Craniata was created by Linnaeus ( and is still sometimes used as a strictly morphological descriptor ) to reference hagfish plus vertebrates . In addition to the absence of jaws , modern agnathans are characterised by absence of paired fins ; the presence of a notochord both in larvae and adults ; and seven or more paired gill pouches . Lampreys have a light sensitive pineal eye ( homologous to the pineal gland in mammals ) . All living and most extinct Agnatha do not have an identifiable stomach or any appendages . Fertilization and development are both external . There is no parental care in the Agnatha class . The Agnatha are ectothermic or cold blooded , with a cartilaginous skeleton , and the heart contains 2 chambers .   While a few scientists still regard the living agnathans as only superficially similar , and argue that many of these similarities are probably shared basal characteristics of ancient vertebrates , recent classifications clearly place hagfish ( the Myxini or Hyperotreti ) , with the lampreys ( Hyperoartii ) as being more closely related to each other than either is to the jawed fishes .

neg: Ceratopsia Ceratopsia or Ceratopia ' ( -LSB- ˌsɛrəˈtɒpsiə -RSB- or -LSB- ˌsɛrəˈtoʊpiə -RSB- Greek : `` horned faces '' ) is a group of herbivorous , beaked dinosaurs that thrived in what are now North America , Europe , and Asia , during the Cretaceous Period , although ancestral forms lived earlier , in the Jurassic . The earliest known ceratopsian , Yinlong downsi , lived between 161.2 and 155.7 million years ago . The last ceratopsian species , Triceratops prorsus , became extinct during the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , .   Early members of the ceratopsian group , such as Psittacosaurus , were small bipedal animals . Later members , including ceratopsids like Centrosaurus and Triceratops , became very large quadrupeds and developed elaborate facial horns and frills extending over the neck . While these frills might have served to protect the vulnerable neck from predators , they may also have been used for display , thermoregulation , the attachment of large neck and chewing muscles or some combination of the above . Ceratopsians ranged in size from 1 meter ( 3 ft ) and 23 kilograms ( 50 lb ) to over 9 meters ( 30 ft ) and 9,100 kg ( 20,100 lb ) . Triceratops is by far the best-known ceratopsian to the general public . It is traditional for ceratopsian genus names to end in '' - ceratops '' , although this is not always the case . One of the first named genera was Ceratops itself , which lent its name to the group , although it is considered a nomen dubium '' today as its fossil remains have no distinguishing characteristics that are not also found in other ceratopsians .

neg: Cladogram A cladogram ( from Greek clados `` branch '' and gramma `` character '' ) is a diagram used in cladistics to show relations among organisms . A cladogram is not , however , an evolutionary tree because it does not show how ancestors are related to descendants , nor does it show how much they have changed ; many evolutionary trees can be inferred from a single cladogram . A cladogram uses lines that branch off in different directions ending at a clade , a groups of organisms with a last common ancestor . There are many shapes of cladograms but they all have lines that branch off from other lines . The lines can be traced back to where they branch off . These branching off points represent a hypothetical ancestor ( not an actual entity ) which can be inferred to exhibit the traits shared among the terminal taxa above it . This hypothetical ancestor might then provide clues about the order of evolution of various features , adaptation , and other evolutionary narratives about ancestors . Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters , DNA and RNA sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now very commonly used in the generation of cladograms , either on their own or in combination with morphology .

neg: Primate A primate ( -LSB- ˈpraɪmeɪt -RSB- ) is a mammal of the order Primates ( Latin : `` prime , first rank '' ) . In taxonomy , primates include two distinct lineages , strepsirrhines and haplorhines . Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests ; many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment . Most primate species remain at least partly arboreal .   With the exception of humans , who inhabit every continent , most primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas , Africa and Asia . They range in size from Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , which weighs only 30 g , to the eastern gorilla , weighing over 200 kg ; that is , without taking into account the weight of particular human individuals , reaching up to 635 kg . Based on fossil evidence , the earliest known true primates , represented by the genus Teilhardina , date to 55.8 million years old . An early close primate relative known from abundant remains is the Late Paleocene Plesiadapis , c. 55 -- 58 million years old . Molecular clock studies suggest that the primate branch may be even older , originating near the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary or around 63 -- 74 mya .   The order Primates was traditionally divided into two main groupings : prosimians and anthropoids ( simians ) . Prosimians have characteristics more like those of the earliest primates , and include the lemurs of Madagascar , lorisoids , and tarsiers . Simians include monkeys , apes and hominins . More recently , taxonomists have preferred to split primates into the suborder Strepsirrhini , or wet-nosed primates , consisting of non-tarsier prosimians , and the suborder Haplorhini , or dry-nosed primates , consisting of tarsiers and the simians .   Simians are divided into two groups : catarrhine ( narrow-nosed ) monkeys and apes of Africa and Southeast Asia and platyrrhine ( `` flat-nosed '' ) or New World monkeys of South and Middle America . Catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys ( such as baboons and macaques ) , gibbons and great apes ; New World monkeys include the capuchin , howler and squirrel monkeys . Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa , South Asia , and East Asia , although fossil evidence shows many other species were formerly present in Europe . New primate species are still being discovered . More than 25 species were taxonomically described in the decade of the 2000s and eleven have been described since 2010 .   Considered generalist mammals , primates exhibit a wide range of characteristics . Some primates ( including some great apes and baboons ) are primarily terrestrial rather than arboreal , but all species possess adaptations for climbing trees . Locomotion techniques used include leaping from tree to tree , walking on two or four limbs , knuckle-walking , and swinging between branches of trees ( brachiation ) .   Primates are characterized by large brains relative to other mammals , as well as an increased reliance on stereoscopic vision at the expense of smell , the dominant sensory system in most mammals . These features are more developed in monkeys and apes and noticeably less so in lorises and lemurs . Three-color vision has developed in some primates . Most also have opposable thumbs and some have prehensile tails . Many species are sexually dimorphic ; differences include body mass , canine tooth size , and coloration . Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals and reach maturity later , but have longer lifespans . Depending on the species , adults may live in solitude , in mated pairs , or in groups of up to hundreds of members .

neg: Globidonta Globidonta is a clade of alligatoroids that includes alligators , caimans , and closely related extinct forms . It is defined as a stem-based clade including Alligator mississippiensis ( the American Alligator ) and all forms more closely related to it than to Diplocynodon . The group 's fossil range extends back into the Late Cretaceous with early alligatoroids such as Albertochampsa and Brachychampsa . Extinct globidontans were particularly common in North America and Eurasia , and their modern range also includes South America . The oldest known globidontan is Acynodon from France , which is also the most basal .   Basal globidontans are characterized by their blunt snouts and bulbous teeth . Modern globidontans have flattened snouts and more conical teeth , and are seen as more generalized than earlier globidontans . Generalized forms are usually expected to be ancestral to more specialized forms rather than descendants of them , so it is unusual for basal members of the group to appear specialized . This seems to conflict with the `` Law of the Unspecialized '' first proposed by Edward Drinker Cope in 1894 . Under the Law of the Unspecialized , morphological change is always directed toward specialization , and specialized forms can never become `` unspecialized '' again . This pattern of change , while not seen in globidontans , can be observed in basal members of Alligatoroidea and Crocodyloidea .   Flat-snouted globidontans occurred two times in the evolution of the clade : once in caimans and once in alligators . Alligator sinensis , the Chinese Alligator , has a snout that is somewhat blunt and could be considered specialized . However , its snout is not nearly as blunt as those of more basal globidontans such as Albertachampsa .   If the last common ancestor of Diplocynodon and globidontans was more like Diplocynodon , it would have had a generalized snout shape . It is also possible that the generalized form of Diplocynodon may also have arisen from a specialized blunt-snouted ancestor . Baryphracta , a diplocynodontine closely related to Diplocynondon , has a blunt snout and may have been similar in appearance to such an ancestor .

neg: Kerygmachela Kerygmachela kierkegaardi was a blind nektonic organism from the Sirius Passet Lagerstätte , from Cambrian Greenland . Its anatomy strongly suggests that it , along with its relative Pambdelurion whittingtoni , was either an anomalocarid or a close relative thereof . The specific name , `` kierkegaardi '' honors Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard .   It had a pair of well-developed anterior limbs that had long spines , and terminated in long , feeler-like cerci These limbs correspond to the traditional anterior feeding-limbs of other anomalocarids . The conical mouth opens up at the very base between these two limbs . It also had 11 pairs of lateral lobes ( used in swimming ) , along with 11 pairs of small legs at the lobes ' bases , and a posterior pair of cerci .   The spiny anterior limbs suggest that it may have been a predator ; however , its small mouth suggests it would have been restricted to very small prey .

neg: Sister group A sister group or sister taxon is a phylogenetic term denoting the closest relatives of another given unit in an evolutionary tree . The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram : A , B , and C each represent a taxon :   The sister group to A is B ; conversely , the sister group to B is A. Groups A and B , together with all other descendants of their most recent common ancestor , form the clade AB . The sister group to clade AB is C.   The whole clade ABC is itself a subtree of a larger tree , which offers yet more sister group branches that are related but farther removed from the leaf nodes , such as A , B , and C.   In cladistic standards , A , B , and C may represent specimens , species , taxon-groups , etc. . If they represent species , the term sister species is sometimes used .   The term `` sister group '' is used in phylogenetic analysis , and only groups identified in the analysis are labeled as sister groups . An example is in birds , whose sister group is commonly cited as the crocodiles , but that is true only when dealing with extant taxa . The bird family tree is rooted in the dinosaurs , making for a number of extinct groups branching off before coming to the last common ancestor of birds and crocodiles . Thus , the term sister group must be seen as a relative term , with the caveat that the sister group is the closest relative only among the groups/species/specimens that are included in the analysis .

neg: Predator trap A predator trap is a natural hazard such as a tar pit . Predators would become attracted to struggling animals that have become entrapped in viscous or glutinous material , such as a heavy sedimentary deposit or tar and , in the process , become entrapped themselves . More predators , scavengers , insects and birds become attracted to this mounting accumulation of carrion , until a wide variety of animals are caught and ultimately killed by the hazard . This may happen many times over . Typically , the number of lured predators will greatly outnumber the prey , thus providing the name .   A famous example is the La Brea Tar Pits site . The Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry may yet prove to be a further example , although still nowadays it is debated if it 's a predator trap or not . The Gobi Desert dinosaur death traps may have been sauropod footprints that have been filled with a mixture of thick mud & sandstone in the former wetland .

neg: Hypoathroid The term hypoathroid ( Ancient Greek hypo - , `` under '' + - athroid , `` gathered together '' ) is used to describe the arrangement of ganglia in the nervous system of molluscs . In the hypoathroid state , the pleural ganglia of the `` chest '' and the pedal ganglia of the `` feet '' lie close to each other more or less underneath the gut , and they communicate with the cerebral ganglia via long connectives . It is a condition that is characteristic of the Archaeogastropoda clade , and represents one end of a three-part spectrum of such arrangements , the other two being the dystenoid system in which the pleural and cerebral ganglia are closer together but still distinctly separate , and the epiathroid condition in which the pleural , pedal , and cerebral ganglia all lie close together ( characteristic , for example , of the Mesogastropoda and Neogastropoda . The centralization of the nervous system generally is considered evidence of an evolutionary advancement among molluscs , while the more diffuse condition is viewed as a sign of evolutionary proximity to the hypothetical `` archimollusc '' ancestor of all molluscs .

neg: Cestoda Cestoda ( Cestoidea ) is a class of parasitic flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes . Biologists informally refer to them as cestodes . The best-known species are commonly called tapeworms . All cestodes are parasitic and their life histories vary , but typically they live in the digestive tracts of vertebrates as adults , and often in the bodies of other species of animals as juveniles . Over a thousand species have been described , and all vertebrate species may be parasitised by at least one species of tapeworm .   Humans are subject to infection by several species of tapeworms if they eat undercooked meat such as pork ( Taenia solium ) , beef ( T. saginata ) , and fish ( Diphyllobothrium spp . ) , or if they live in , or eat food prepared in , conditions of poor hygiene ( Hymenolepis or Echinococcus species ) .   T. saginata , the beef tapeworm , can grow up to 20 m ( 65 ft ) ; the largest species , the whale tapeworm Polygonoporus giganticus , can grow to over 30 m ( 100 ft ) . Species using small vertebrates as hosts , though , tend to be small . For example , vole and lemming tapeworms are only 13 - in length , and those parasitizing shrews only 0.8 - .   Tapeworm parasites of vertebrates have a long history : recognizable clusters of cestode eggs , one with a developing larva , have been discovered in fossil feces ( coprolites ) of a shark dating to the mid - to late Permian , some 270 million years ago .

neg: Mollusc shell The mollusc ( or molluskOften spelled mollusk shell in the USA ; the spelling `` mollusc '' are preferred by ) shell is typically a calcareous exoskeleton which encloses , supports and protects the soft parts of an animal in the phylum Mollusca , which includes snails , clams , tusk shells , and several other classes . Not all shelled molluscs live in the sea ; many live on the land and in freshwater .   The ancestral mollusc is thought to have had a shell , but this has subsequently been lost or reduced on some families , such as the squid , octopus , and some smaller groups such as the caudofoveata and solenogastres , and the highly derived Xenoturbella . Today , over 100,000 living species bear a shell ; there is some dispute as to whether these shell-bearing molluscs form a monophyletic group ( conchifera ) or whether shell-less molluscs are interleaved into their family tree .   Malacology , the scientific study of molluscs as living organisms , has a branch devoted to the study of shells , and this is called conchology -- although these terms used to be , and to a minor extent still are , used interchangeably , even by scientists ( this is more common in Europe ) .   Within some species of molluscs , there is often a wide degree of variation in the exact shape , pattern , ornamentation , and color of the shell .

neg: Ecdysozoa Ecdysozoa -LSB- ˌɛkdɪsoʊ-ˈzoʊə -RSB- is a group of protostome animals , including Arthropoda ( insects , chelicerata , crustaceans , and myriapods ) , Nematoda , and several smaller phyla . They were first defined by Aguinaldo et al. in 1997 , based mainly on phylogenetic trees constructed using 18S ribosomal RNA genes . A large study in 2008 by Dunn et al. strongly supported the Ecdysozoa as a clade , that is , a group consisting of a common ancestor and all its descendants .   The group is also supported by morphological characters , and includes all animals that shed their exoskeleton ( see ecdysis ) .   The group was initially contested by a significant minority of biologists . Some argued for groupings based on more traditional taxonomic techniques , while others contested the interpretation of the molecular data .

neg: Vernanimalcula Vernanimalcula guizhouena is an acritarch dating from ; it was between 0.1 and 0.2 mm across ( roughly the width of one or two human hairs ) . Vernanimalcula means `` small spring animal '' , referring to its appearance in the fossil record at the end of the Marinoan Glaciation and the belief upon discovery it was an animal .   The Vernanimalcula fossils were discovered in the Doushantuo Formation in China . This formation is a Konservat-Lagerstätte , one of the rare places where soft body parts and very fine details are preserved in the fossil record . The Vernanimalcula fossils were interpreted as showing a triploblastic structure , a coelom , a differentiated gut , a mouth , an anus , and paired external pits that were believed possible sense organs , making it the earliest known member of the Bilateria ( animals with bilateral symmetry , at least as embryos ) .   The appearance of Vernanimalcula so early in the fossil record was believed to have had important implications if it were really bilaterian . The radiation of animals into many phyla would have occurred before any animal became much larger than microscopic size , making the sudden appearance of many animal phyla in the Cambrian explosion an illusion and merely represented a ( geologically ) sudden increase in size and the development of easily fossilised body parts by species in existing phyla .   The description of Vernanimalcula as bilaterian has been strongly challenged . Other workers ( Bengtson , Budd and co-workers ) in the field have repeatedly claimed that Vernanimalcula is largely a taphonomic artefact generated by phosphate growth within a spherical object such as an acritarch , and thus Vernanimalcula was not even an animal , let alone a bilaterian . Chen et al. initially defended their interpretation of Vernanimalcula against the claims of Bengtson and Budd . Petryshyn et al. examined additional fossils resembling Vernanimalcula and concluded that the fossils are `` likely biogenic in nature . ''

neg: Fish jaw Most bony fishes have two sets of jaws made mainly of bone . The primary oral jaws open and close the mouth , and a second set of pharyngeal jaws are positioned at the back of the throat . The oral jaws are used to capture and manipulate prey by biting and crushing . The pharyngeal jaws , so-called because they are positioned within the pharynx , are used to further process the food and move it from the mouth to the stomach .   Cartilaginous fishes , such as sharks and rays , have one set of oral jaws made mainly of cartilage . They do not have pharyngeal jaws . Generally jaws are articulated and oppose vertically , comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw and can bear numerous ordered teeth . Bony fishes usually develop only one set of teeth ( monophyodont ) . Cartilaginous fishes grow multiple sets ( polyphyodont ) and replace teeth as they wear .   Jaws probably originated in the pharyngeal arches supporting the gills of jawless fish . The earliest jaws appeared in the now extinct placoderms and spiny sharks during the Silurian , about 430 million years ago . The original selective advantage offered by the jaw was probably not related to feeding , but to increased respiration efficiency -- the jaws were used in the buccal pump to pump water across the gills . The familiar use of jaws for feeding would then have developed as a secondary function before becoming the primary function in many vertebrates . All vertebrate jaws , including the human jaw , evolved from early fish jaws . The appearance of the early vertebrate jaw has been described as `` perhaps the most profound and radical evolutionary step in the vertebrate history '' . Fish without jaws had more difficulty surviving than fish with jaws , and most jawless fish became extinct .   Jaws use linkage mechanisms . These linkages can be especially common and complex in the head of bony fishes , such as wrasses , which have evolved many specialized feeding mechanisms . Especially advanced are the linkage mechanisms of jaw protrusion . For suction feeding a system of linked four-bar linkages is responsible for the coordinated opening of the mouth and the three-dimensional expansion of the buccal cavity . Other linkages are responsible for protrusion of the premaxilla . Linkage systems are widely distributed in animals . The most thorough overview of the different types of linkages in animals has been provided by M. Muller , who also designed a new classification system , which is especially well suited for biological systems .

neg: Ostracod Ostracods , or ostracodes , are a class of the Crustacea ( class Ostracoda ) , sometimes known as seed shrimp . Some 70,000 species ( only 13,000 of which are extant ) have been identified , grouped into several orders . They are small crustaceans , typically around 1 mm in size , but varying from 0.2 to in the case of Gigantocypris . Their bodies are flattened from side to side and protected by a bivalve-like , chitinous or calcareous valve or `` shell '' . The hinge of the two valves is in the upper ( dorsal ) region of the body . Ostracods are grouped together based on gross morphology , but the group may not be monophyletic ; their molecular phylogeny remains ambiguous .   Ecologically , marine ostracods can be part of the zooplankton or ( most commonly ) are part of the benthos , living on or inside the upper layer of the sea floor . Many ostracods , especially the Podocopida , are also found in fresh water , and terrestrial species of Mesocypris are known from humid forest soils of South Africa , Australia and New Zealand . They have a wide range of diets , and the group includes carnivores , herbivores , scavengers and filter feeders .   As of 2008 , around 2000 species and 200 genera of nonmarine ostracods are found . However , a large portion of diversity is still undescribed , indicated by undocumented diversity hotspots of temporary habitats in Africa and Australia . Of the known specific and generic diversity of nonmarine ostracods , half ( 1000 species , 100 genera ) belongs to one family ( of 13 families ) , Cyprididae . Many Cyprididae occur in temporary water bodies and have drought-resistant eggs , mixed/parthenogenetic reproduction , and the ability to swim . These biological attributes preadapt them to form successful radiations in these habitats .

neg: Evolution of reptiles Reptiles arose about 310 -- 320 million years ago during the Carboniferous period . Reptiles , in the traditional sense of the term , are defined as animals that have scales or scutes , lay land-based hard-shelled eggs , and possess ectothermic metabolisms . So defined , the group is paraphyletic , excluding endothermic animals like birds and mammals that are descended from early reptiles . A definition in accordance with phylogenetic nomenclature , which rejects paraphyletic groups , includes birds while excluding mammals and their synapsid ancestors . So defined , Reptilia is identical to Sauropsida .   Though few reptiles today are apex predators , many examples of apex reptiles have existed in the past . Reptiles have an extremely diverse evolutionary history that has led to biological successes , such as dinosaurs , pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , mosasaurs , and ichthyosaurs .