query: Norwegians emigrated to Iceland in the second century.

pos: Iceland Iceland ( -LSB- ˈaɪslənd -RSB- -LSB- ˈistlant -RSB- ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean . It has a population of and an area of 103000 km2 , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe . The capital and largest city is Reykjavík . Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population . Iceland is volcanically and geologically active . The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields , mountains and glaciers , while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands . Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate , despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle . Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly , with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate .   According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók , the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island . In the following centuries , Norwegians , and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians , emigrated to Iceland , bringing with them thralls of Gaelic origin . The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing , one of the world 's oldest functioning legislative assemblies . Following a period of civil strife , Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century . The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway , Denmark and Sweden . Iceland thus followed Norway 's integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Sweden 's secession from that union in 1523 . Although the Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism forcefully in 1550 , Iceland remained a distant semi-colonial territory in which Danish institutions and infrastructures were conspicuous by their absence . In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars , Iceland 's struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918 and the founding of a republic in 1944 . Until the 20th century , Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture , and was among the poorest in Europe . Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity , and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world . In 1994 , it became a part of the European Economic Area , which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance , biotechnology , and manufacturing .   Iceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries . It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens . Iceland ranks high in economic , political and social stability and equality . In 2013 , it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations ' Human Development Index . Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy . Affected by the ongoing worldwide financial crisis , the nation 's entire banking system systemically failed in October 2008 , leading to a severe depression , substantial political unrest , the Icesave dispute , and the institution of capital controls . Some bankers were jailed . Since then , the economy has made a significant recovery , in large part due to a surge in tourism .   Icelandic culture is founded upon the nation 's Scandinavian heritage . Most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers . Icelandic , a North Germanic language , is descended from Old Norse and is closely related to Faroese and West Norwegian dialects . The country 's cultural heritage includes traditional Icelandic cuisine , Icelandic literature and medieval sagas . Iceland has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army , its lightly armed coast guard being in charge of defence .

neg: List of Norwegians This is a list of notable people from Norway .

neg: Senja Senja ( Sážžá ) is the second largest island in Norway ( not counting Svalbard ) .

neg: List of people on the postage stamps of Norway Norway has issued stamps since 1855 , and the first person to appear on a Norwegian stamp was the joint Norwegian-Swedish king Oscar II in 1878 . The first non-royal person to appear on a Norwegian stamp was the playwright Henrik Ibsen , to commemorate the centenary of his birth in 1928 followed by the mathematician Niels Henrik Abel later the same year .   Queen Maud was the first woman to appear on a Norwegian stamp , in 1939 , followed by her daughter-in-law Märtha in 1956 . The first non-royal woman was author Camilla Collett in 1963 .   To the matter of `` who 's first '' , several non-royal persons appeared on a 1914 stamp commemorating the centenary of the Constitution of Norway , as the stamp depicted the renowned painting of the 1814 assembly . This list does however only include persons depicted as themselves per se , and does not include stamps where persons appear as a representative of their profession , such as post officers , brass band members etc. . The list also excludes persons that are represented on paintings .

neg: Capital Region (Iceland) Greater Reykjavík ( Höfuðborgarsvæðið , meaning `` The Capital Region '' ) is a name used collectively for Reykjavík and six municipalities around it . The area is by far the largest urban area in Iceland . Each municipality has its own elected council . Greater Reykjavík 's population of 216 940 is over 60 % of the population of Iceland , in an area that is only just over 1 % of the total size of the country . The size of the greater Reykjavík area is calculated from the area of its constituent municipalities , including large areas of hinterland , not the much smaller urban core of about 200 km2 Municipal governments cooperate extensively in various fields : for example waste policy , shared public transport and a joint fire brigade .

neg: Scandinavian Peninsula The Scandinavian Peninsula ( Skandinaviska halvön Den skandinaviske halvøy Skandinavian niemimaa ? Скандинавский полуостров , Skandinavsky poluostrov ) is a peninsula in Northern Europe , which generally comprises the mainland of Sweden , the mainland of Norway ( with the exception of a small coastal area bordering Russia ) , the northwestern area of Finland , as well as a narrow area in the west of the Pechengsky District of Russia .   The name of the peninsula is derived from the term Scandinavia , the cultural region of Denmark , Norway and Sweden . That cultural name is in turn derived from the name of Scania , the region at the southern extremity of the peninsula which has during periods been part of Denmark , which is the ancestral home of the Danes , and which is now part of Sweden . The derived term `` Scandinavian '' also refers to the Germanic peoples who speak North Germanic languages , considered to be a dialect continuum derived from Old Norse . These modern North Germanic languages found in Scandinavia are Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish ; additionally Faroese and Icelandic belong to the same language group , but they are not part of the modern Scandinavian dialect continuum and are not intelligible with the other languages .   The Scandinavian Peninsula is the largest peninsula of Europe , larger than the Balkan , the Iberian and the Italian peninsulas . During the Ice Ages , the sea level of the Atlantic Ocean dropped so much that the Baltic Sea , the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland disappeared , and the countries now surrounding them , including Germany , Poland , the other Baltic countries and Scandinavia , were directly joined by land .

neg: Þjórsá Þjórsá ( -LSB- ˈθjoursau -RSB- ) is Iceland 's longest river at 230 kilometers ( about 143 miles ) . It is in the south of the island .   Þjórsá is a glacier river and has its source on the glacier Hofsjökull . It flows out through narrow gorges in the highlands of Iceland . Further downstream , another river , the Tungnaá , flows into it ( see also Háifoss ) , before it enters the lowlands . There it passes the valley of Þjórsárdalur ( Thjorsardalur ) where the historical farm of Stöng is located at . In the lowlands it flows along the eastern border of the Great Þjórsá Lava .   In the middle of the now rather wide river , there is a big island called Árnes , where there used to be a Þing . The administrative unit of Árnessýsla was named after it .   The hringvegur ( Road No. 1 ) traverses the river via a bridge between Selfoss and Hella . Some kilometers to the southwest the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean .

neg: Icelandic Elf School The Icelandic Elf School , known as Álfaskólinn in Icelandic , is a school in Iceland that teaches students and visitors about Icelandic folklore .   The school teaches about the hidden people and the 13 different kinds of elves that the school believes inhabit the country of Iceland . According to the school 's headmaster , hidden people `` are just the same size and look exactly like human beings , the only difference is that they are invisible to most of us . Elves , on the other hand , are n't entirely human , they 're humanoid , starting at around eight centimetres . '' He also claims there are gay and lesbian elves . The school is located in Reykjavík , the country 's largest city .   The school is headed by Magnús Skarphéðinsson . Magnús has a full curriculum , and certificate programs for visitors that can be earned in as little as half a day . However , the school also publishes texts on hidden people , partly for its own use in the classroom . There is also ongoing research on the elves and hidden people of Iceland . He also collects stories about trolls , fairies , dwarves , and gnomes , but says that `` nearly 70 percent of our stories are about hidden people , because they are most seen here . '' These stories have been collected for the purpose of preservation . Magnús organizes five hour long educational excursions for visitors , and finishes the tour with coffee and pancakes at the school . Despite never advertising his school , Magnus typically gets 5-10 people per excursion . Since opening in 1991 , over 9,000 people , most of them foreigners , have attended the school . The Álfaskólinn also provides `` aura readings '' and `` past-life explorations '' .   The question of the `` level of belief in elves '' in Iceland is somewhat of a cultural topos , with survey results published in 1975 , 1995 , 1998 , 2006 . Interpretations of the survey results vary .  Based on the 2006 figures , Magnús claims that while only 26 % of Icelanders believe in elves ( summing the responses ` certain ' and ` probable ' ) , 80 % `` do take notice '' ( including the replies ` possible ' and ` unlikely ' ) .

neg: Norwegian Dakotan A Norwegian Dakotan is a Norwegian American ( a person with Norwegian ancestry ) in the U. S. states of North and South Dakota . One in three of all North Dakotans is of Norwegian heritage , which is the highest among all U.S. states . South Dakota is number three , behind Minnesota . The immigrants settled primarily between 1870 and 1920 .   As of 2009 , 312,697 Dakotans claim Norwegian ancestry , 21.4 % of the region 's population ( 30.8 % of North Dakota 's population and 14.0 % of South Dakota 's population ) , or 6.7 % of the total Norwegian American population .

neg: Snæfellsnes The Snæfellsnes ( -LSB- ˈstn̥aiːfɛlsˌnɛːs -RSB- ) is a peninsula situated to the west of Borgarfjörður , in western Iceland .   It has been named Iceland in Miniature , because many national sights can be found in the area , including the Snæfellsjökull volcano , regarded as one of the symbols of Iceland . With its height of 1446 m , it is the highest mountain on the peninsula and has a glacier at its peak ( jökull means `` glacier '' in Icelandic ) . The volcano can be seen on clear days from Reykjavík , a distance of about 120 km . The mountain is also known as the setting of the novel Journey to the Center of the Earth by the French author Jules Verne . The area surrounding Snæfellsjökull has been designated one of the four National Parks by the government of Iceland .   The peninsula is one of the main settings in the Laxdœla saga and it was , according to this saga , the birthplace of the first West Norse member of the Varangian Guard , Bolli Bollasson . Other historical people who lived in the area according to the saga include Guðrún Ósvífursdóttir , Bolli Þorleiksson and Snorri the Goði .   Local fishing villages and small towns on the northern shore of Snæfellsnes include Arnarstapi , Hellnar , Rif , Ólafsvík , Grundarfjörður , Stykkishólmur and Búðardalur .   Near Hellissandur is the tallest structure in western Europe , the Longwave Radio Mast at Hellissandur .   In June 2008 , the people of Snaefellsnes reached certification status as an EarthCheck community , becoming the first EarthCheck-certified area in Iceland and in Europe , and only the fourth in the world . Snaefellsnes has been committed to the EarthCheck programme since 2003 and has been successfully benchmarked for the past five consecutive years .

neg: Gunnar Thoroddsen Gunnar Thoroddsen ( pronounced -LSB- ˈɡʏnːar ˈtʰoːurɔtˌsɛn -RSB- ) ( December 29 , 1910 -- September 25 , 1983 ) was the Prime Minister of Iceland from 8 February 1980 to 26 May 1983 . Gunnar was the youngest man ever elected to the Althing , Iceland 's Parliament . He was 23 years old when he was elected as MP in 1934 . He served as an Ambassador of Iceland in Denmark from 1965 to 1969 when he ran for the presidency of Iceland in 1968 . He wished to succeed his father in law , Ásgeir Ásgeirsson , who served as president from 1952 to 1968 . Gunnar had been mayor of Reykjavík from 1947 to 1959 and minister of finance from 1959 to 1965 . He was minister of industry and a social welfare minister in the cabinet of Geir Hallgrímsson August 28 , 1974 to June 27 , 1978 .   Gunnar and Geir were not in agreement and the disagreement led to Gunnar breaking away from the will of the Independence Party with a few members of parliament and forming a cabinet with the Progressive Party and the People 's Alliance , that replaced a minority government of Benedikt Sigurðsson Gröndal . By forming his government Gunnar became the oldest Prime Minister in Iceland 's history at the age of 69 . Gunnar did not run in the 1983 elections for parliament , due to his illness , and ended his involvement in politics when his cabinet was succeeded by Steingrímur Hermannsson 's cabinet .   Gunnar Thoroddsen died in September 1983 .   | -   Category :1910 births  Category :1983 deaths  Category : Ambassadors of Iceland to Denmark  Category : Independence Party ( Iceland ) politicians  Category : Mayors of Reykjavík  Category : Prime Ministers of Iceland

neg: Uí Ímair The Uí ( h ) Ímair -LSB- iː ˈiːvˠaɾʲ -RSB- , or Dynasty of Ivar , were a royal Norse dynasty members of which ruled much of the Irish Sea region , the Kingdom of Dublin , the western coast of Scotland , including the Hebrides and some part of Northern England , from the mid 9th century .   The dynasty lost control of York in the mid 10th century , but reigned over the other domains at variously disputed times , depending on which rulers may be counted among their descendants . This has proved a difficult question for scholars to determine , because reliable pedigrees do not survive . Additionally , for between three and four decades , the Uí Ímair were probably overkings of the Kingdom of Scotland itself , distinct from the Kingdom of Strathclyde , of which they may also have been overkings , and later briefly the Irish province of Munster , dominated from Waterford , and later still , briefly the English kingdom of Mercia . In the west of Ireland , the Uí Ímair also supplied at least two kings of Limerick , from which they may have attempted to conquer Munster again .   On the female side , two members are styled Queens of Ireland in the Irish annals ( they were also Queen of Mide and Queen of Munster , respectively ) , while another was Queen of Leinster ( and Osraige ) . In the Norse sources , another was Queen consort of Norway . Finally , another may have been Queen of Brega . The name Uí Ímair in Old Irish means `` grandchildren '' or descendants of Ivar , but the dynasty includes its progenitor and his sons . The Irish annals describe Ivar as the brother of Amlaíb Conung and of Auisle , and the Annals of Ulster record his obituary under the year 873 , reading : Imhar , rex Nordmannorum totius Hibernie & Brittanie , uitam finiuit -LSB- `` Ivar , king of all the Norse of Ireland and Britain , ended his life '' -RSB- . Probably the senior leader of the Great Heathen Army , Ivar may thus have become the inspiration for the legendary Ivar the Boneless ( fl . 865-860 ) , son of Ragnar Lodbrok . In any event , Uí Ímair dynasts may also have exercised power as overkings of East Anglia during their career in Britain .   Alex Woolf points out it would be a mistake to view the lordship as a `` unitary empire '' ; it was , rather , a collection of lordships ruled by the same kindred , with only varying degrees of unity depending on the political circumstances of the moment and the charisma of individual leaders . Especially in the early period , a great portion of the dynasty 's wealth , probably the majority , came from the international slave trade , both as slavers themselves and from the taxation of it , for which they were infamous in their time . In this role they star as the principal antagonists in the early 12th-century Irish epic political tract The War of the Irish with the Foreigners , although the account is exaggerated .   One of the greatest dynasties of the Viking Age , the Uí Ímair were at their height the most fearsome and wide-reaching power in the British Isles and perhaps beyond . However , unlike the contemporary Rurikids in the East they ultimately failed to make any long-lasting territorial gains of significance and are considered a strategic failure , despite their considerable economic and political influence .

neg: Royal Standard of Norway The Royal Standard of Norway ( Kongeflagge ) is used by the King of Norway . Of historical origin , it was introduced by Cabinet Decision of 15 November 1905 , following the plebiscite confirming the election of Prince Carl of Denmark to the vacant throne after the dissolution of the union between Sweden and Norway . Under his chosen name of Haakon VII , the new king arrived in the capital Kristiania on 25 November 1905 on a ship flying the royal standard for the first time . That first royal standard was charged with a lion designed by the Danish expert on heraldry Anders Thiset , complying with the blazon decided by the Cabinet . It differed from the definitive version of the royal standard , which was charged with the lion designed by the painter Eilif Peterssen   The flag is the coat of arms of Norway in banner form . It is based on the 1905 version of the coat of arms , at least 750 years old . The present design of the coat of arms for government use was changed in 1937 to fit a medieval style , but the king has kept the 1905 design by Peterssen for the royal arms and standard .   The flag was referred to as the `` ancient royal standard '' of Norway when it was introduced . It is the earliest known flag of Norway , originally only a flag for the king , as it is today . During the early period of the union with Denmark , it was occasionally flown from castles and naval vessels until it was gradually phased out during the 17th and 18th centuries . Its earliest certain depiction is on the seal of Duchess Ingebjørg in 1318 . In 1748 a decree stated that the Dannebrog should be the only legal merchant flag for ships of the united kingdoms of Denmark-Norway .   The flag of the King is also used by the Queen .   Between 1844 and 1905 , the kings of Norway used a royal standard on the same pattern as Denmark and Sweden . It was a war flag with the union mark in the canton and the royal union arms in the centre of the cross .

neg: Einarr Skúlason Einarr Skúlason ( ca. 1100 -- after 1159 ) was an Icelandic priest and skald . He was the most prominent Norse poet of the 12th century . Einarr 's poetry is primarily preserved in Heimskringla , Flateyjarbók , Morkinskinna , Fagrskinna and Skáldskaparmál .   He was descended from the family of Egill Skallagrímsson , the so-called Mýramenn . For most of his life he lived in Norway , during the reign of kings Sigurd Magnusson , Harald Gille and the sons of the latter , especially Eysteinn Haraldsson , whose marshall he became . After Eysteinn 's death in 1157 , he composed the poem Elfarvísur for the nobleman Gregorius Dagsson ( died 1161 ) , referring to his victory over King Hákon Herdebrei at Göta älv in Götaland .   The best known of Einarr 's drápur is Geisli ( `` Ray of Light '' ) , about St. Olaf Haraldsson . This drápa was recited in the Church of Christ in Nidaros in the presence of the three Norwegian kings of the time , Eysteinn , Sigurd and Inge , along with Jon Birgersson , Archbishop of Nidaros . The poem is composed in the dróttkvætt metre and it is the earliest completely preserved drápa with Christian content .

neg: Komsa culture The Komsa culture ( Komsakulturen ) was a Mesolithic culture of hunter-gatherers that existed from around 10,000 BC in Northern Norway .   The culture is named after the Komsa Mountain in the community of Alta , Finnmark , where the remains of the culture were first discovered . The term was first used by Norwegian archaeologist Anders Nummedal ( 1867-1944 ) after the discoveries he made on Komsa Mountain during 1925 . The distinction between a `` Komsa '' type of stone-tool culture north of the Arctic Circle and a `` Fosna '' type from Trøndelag to Oslo Fjord was rendered obsolete in the 1970s . Nowadays both phenomena are ascribed to different types of tools of the same culture .   Recent archeological finds from Finnish Lapland were originally thought to represent an inland aspect of the Komsa culture equally old as the earliest finds from the Norwegian coast . However , this material is now considered to be affiliated with the contemporary Post-Swiderian culture of North Central Russia and the eastern Baltic and thus represents a separate early incursion into northernmost Scandinavia   The commonly held view today is that the earliest settlement of the North Norwegian coast originated on the western and southwestern coast of Norway and ultimately in the final Palaeolithic Ahrensburg culture of northwestern Europe . The Komsa are thought to have followed the Norwegian coastline when receding glaciation at the end of the last ice age ( between 11,000 and 8000 BC ) opened up new areas for settlement . It was formerly believed that some elements may have moved into modern-day Finnmark from the northeast , possibly coming from ice-free coasts of the Kola Peninsula . However , recent research indicates that a number of the coastal sites in the Varangerfjord area previously attributed to the second phase of the `` Komsa '' continuum actually represent an early incursion from the southeast ( northwestern Russia ) and are related to the early Post-Swiderian influx discovered in northernmost Finnish Lapland .   Archaeological evidence indicates that the Komsa culture was almost exclusively sea-oriented , living mainly off seal hunting and being able boatbuilders and fishermen . In comparison to the southern Norway 's contemporary Fosna variety of this same culture , stone tools and other implements appear relatively crude . This has been explained with a paucity of flintstone in the region .

neg: Economic history of Iceland The economy history of Iceland covers the development of its economy from the Settlement of Iceland in the late 9th century until the present .

neg: Demographics of Western Norway The Western Norway region of Norway showed the highest population growth rate in Norway in 2010 , at 1.44 % . The fertility rate in this region is higher than in other parts of Norway . The population as of 1 January 2010 was 1,263,464 , with 37.7 % of the population living in Hordaland , 33.8 % in Rogaland , 19.8 % in Møre og Romsdal , and 8.4 % in Sogn og Fjordane . 60 % of the population is under 40 years old , and 30 % is under 20 years old . Many of the historical immigrants in Western Norway came from countries like Scotland , England , Netherlands , Germany , Denmark and Sweden . Western Norway is the part of Norway which has the largest immigration from the western world .   The following demographic statistics are from the Statistics Norway , unless otherwise indicated .

neg: Norwegian Church Abroad The Norwegian Church Abroad or The Norwegian Seamen 's Church ( Sjømannskirken ) is a religious organisation serving Norwegians and other Scandinavians travelling abroad . Founded in 1864 , The Norwegian Seamen 's Mission -- Sjømannsmisjonen -- was established to secure the moral and religious education of Scandinavian seafarers , but also to give them a `` breathing room '' where a fellow countryman was available to lend an ear and give some attention . Today , the churches and their staff together with travelling pastors around the globe represent a `` resource center '' for all Norwegians travelling internationally .   Sjømannskirken annually serves around 700 thousand Norwegians through over 30 churches and 16 mobile services in 30 countries around the world . Several churches operate on a Scandinavian basis . The Norwegian Church Abroad , its main office in Bergen , is a charitable organization supported by the Church of Norway and the Norwegian Government . Sjømannskirken is also a member of the ICMA and the Council of Nordic Seamen 's Missions .   For most Norwegians travelling abroad , Sjømannskirken is a nice place to rest : one can read newspapers from home , buy Norwegian food and speak to other Norwegians . Many Norwegians living permanently abroad use the seamen 's churches instead of the local ones .

neg: Icelandic outvasion The Icelandic `` outvasion '' ( Icelandic : útrás ) was the period in the economic history of Iceland between 2000 and the onset of its financial crisis in October 2008 . With the privatisation of the Icelandic banks being advantageous for investors , there was a large supply of cheap loan capital on the international market . A clause in the agreement with the European Economic Area stipulated the free flow of capital to and from Iceland .   The so-called outvasion led to the purchase of many foreign businesses , particularly in the retail sector . The British retailers Debenhams , Woolworths , Hamleys , and others came into full or part-Icelandic possession , in addition to the Danish companies Magasin du Nord and Royal Unibrew . Novator Partners acquired telecoms and other assets around Europe , including České Radiokomunikace , Elisa , Saunalahti , Bulgarian Telecommunications Company , P4 Spółka z o.o. , Netia , and Forthnet .   The term `` outvasion '' was coined by the Icelandic media , who described the bankers as Vikings , and compared the rapid acquisition of many foreign businesses to a Viking invasion or raid , in both the possessions of the target being aggressively taken over .

neg: Culture of Norway The culture of Norway is closely linked to the country 's history and geography . The unique Norwegian farm culture , sustained to this day , has resulted not only from scarce resources and a harsh climate but also from ancient property laws . In the 14th century , it brought about a strong romantic nationalistic movement , which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media . In the 19th century , Norwegian culture blossomed as efforts continued to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature , art and music . This continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions , cultural projects and artwork .

neg: Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir ( Icelandic : Guðríður víðförla Þorbjarnardóttir ) was a Norse explorer , born around the year 980 at Laugarbrekka in Snæfellsnes , Iceland .   She appears in the Saga of Erik the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders , known collectively as the Vinland sagas . She and her husband Þorfinnur Karlsefni , led an expedition to Vinland where they begat their son Snorri Þorfinnsson , the first European born in the Americas outside of Greenland .   In Iceland , Gudrid is known by her byname víðförla ( lit . wide-fared or far-travelled ) .


query: Elementary stars an actor.

pos: Elementary (TV series) Elementary is an American procedural drama series that presents a contemporary update of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's character Sherlock Holmes . The series was created by Robert Doherty and stars Jonny Lee Miller as Sherlock Holmes and Lucy Liu as Dr. Joan Watson . The series premiered on CBS on September 27 , 2012 . The series is set and filmed primarily in New York City .   The show follows Holmes , a recovering drug addict and former consultant to Scotland Yard , as he assists the New York City Police Department in solving crimes . His indifference to police procedure often leads to conflict with Captain Thomas Gregson ( Aidan Quinn ) , although the two still remain mutually respectful of one another . He is accompanied by Dr. Joan Watson ( Lucy Liu ) , who initially acts as his sober companion . She is a former surgeon and was hired by Sherlock 's father to help him in his rehabilitation . They eventually begin to work together on his cases , and she becomes Holmes ' apprentice . The series also features Holmes ' ongoing conflict with his nemesis Jamie Moriarty ( Natalie Dormer ) . Other supporting roles include Jon Michael Hill as Detective Marcus Bell , Rhys Ifans as Sherlock 's brother , Mycroft Holmes , and John Noble as Sherlock 's father , Morland Holmes .   Before the series premiered , it was met with some criticism given it followed closely on the heels of the BBC 's modern adaptation Sherlock . After the premiere , it was picked up for a full season and later an extra two episodes . The season two premiere was partly filmed on location in London . The series has since been well received by critics , who have praised the performances , writing , and novel approach to the source material . On March 25 , 2016 , CBS renewed the series for a fifth season , which premiered on October 2 , 2016 . On May 13 , 2017 , CBS renewed the series for a sixth season .

pos: Jonny Lee Miller Jonathan Lee Miller ( born 15 November 1972 ) is an English film , television and theatre actor . He achieved early success for his portrayal of Simon `` Sick Boy '' Williamson in the dark comedy drama film Trainspotting ( 1996 ) and as Dade Murphy in Hackers ( 1995 ) , before earning further critical recognition for his performances in Afterglow ( 1997 ) , Mansfield Park ( 1999 ) , The Flying Scotsman ( 2006 ) and Endgame ( 2009 ) ; for The Flying Scotsman he received a London Film Critics ' Circle nomination for Actor of the Year . He was also part of the principal cast in the films Melinda and Melinda ( 2004 ) , Dark Shadows ( 2012 ) and Byzantium ( 2013 ) . He has appeared in several theatrical productions on Broadway , most notably After Miss Julie and Frankenstein , the latter of which earned him an Olivier Award for Best Actor .   Miller starred as the title character in the ABC comedy-drama Eli Stone for which he received a Satellite Award nomination for Best Actor . This was followed by another starring role in the BBC costume drama Emma and a supporting role as Jordan Chase in the fifth season of the Showtime drama Dexter . He currently stars as Sherlock Holmes in the CBS crime drama Elementary which earned him his second Satellite Award nomination for Best Actor .

neg: Chris Warren Jr. Chris Warren Jr. ( born January 15 , 1990 ) is an American actor who 's best known as Zeke Baylor in the High School Musical franchise .

neg: Patrick Cavanaugh Patrick Cavanaugh is an American television actor .

neg: Nicky Katt Nicholas `` Nicky '' Katt ( born May 11 , 1970 ) is an American actor known for his role as unorthodox teacher Harry Senate on David E. Kelley 's Fox drama Boston Public .

neg: Morris Chestnut Morris Lamont Chestnut , Jr. ( born January 1 , 1969 ) is an American actor . He first came to attention for his role in the 1991 film Boyz n the Hood . He has appeared in numerous feature films and on television series , including the starring role of pathologist Dr. Beaumont Rosewood , Jr. . in the Fox TV series Rosewood .

neg: Michael T. Weiss Michael Terry Weiss ( born February 2 , 1962 ) is an American actor .

neg: Michael Christian (actor) Michael Christian is an American actor best known for such films and television series as Peyton Place as Joe Rossi , Poor Pretty Eddie , Hard Knocks and Private Obsession .

neg: Joseph Ashton (actor) Joseph Ashton Valencia ( born November 18 , 1986 ) is an American film actor and voice actor .

neg: Anthony Mackie Anthony Dwane Mackie ( born September 23 , 1978 ) is an American actor . He has been featured in feature films , television series , and Broadway and Off-Broadway plays , including Ma Rainey 's Black Bottom , Drowning Crow , McReele , A Soldier 's Play , and Carl Hancock Rux 's Talk , for which he won an Obie Award in 2002 .   In 2002 , he was featured in Eminem 's debut film , 8 Mile . He was nominated for Independent Spirit Award for Best Actor for his role in Brother to Brother . His second nomination was for Best Supporting Actor at the 2009 Independent Spirit Awards for his role in The Hurt Locker . In 2014 , he joined the Marvel Cinematic Universe as Sam Wilson / Falcon , making his first appearance in Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and reprising the role in Avengers : Age of Ultron , Ant-Man , and Captain America : Civil War .   In May 2016 , he co-starred in the HBO TV film All the Way as Martin Luther King Jr. , opposite Bryan Cranston , who was reprising his Tony Award-winning performance as President Lyndon B. Johnson in the play of the same name .

neg: Tim Griffin (actor) Tim Griffin is a film and television actor best known for his roles in Grey 's Anatomy , Prime Suspect , Covert Affairs and Wayward Pines .

neg: Jacob Smith (actor) Jonathan Jacob Charles William Smith ( born January 21 , 1990 ) is an American actor . He is perhaps best known for his role in the film Cheaper by the Dozen and its 2005 sequel , as well as his role as Brian in the 2000 Disney Channel Original Movie Phantom of the Megaplex .

neg: Charlie Tahan Charles `` Charlie '' Tahan ( born June 11 , 1998 ) is an American actor .

neg: Henry LeBlanc Henry LeBlanc is an American actor with credits including Scrubs , Law & Order and Everybody Loves Raymond . He also frequently appeared on the Jay Leno Show . In addition , he teaches an acting course at UCLA Extension .

neg: Adam Storke Adam J. Storke ( born August 18 , 1962 ) is an American actor who has starred in television and film . He is best known for playing Julia Roberts ' love interest in the 1988 hit film Mystic Pizza and as Larry Underwood in the 1994 hit Stephen King mini series The Stand .

neg: Chandler Canterbury Chandler Canterbury ( born December 15 , 1998 ) is an American actor .

neg: Jeffrey Tambor Jeffrey Michael Tambor ( born July 8 , 1944 ) is an American actor , voice artist , and comedian widely known for his roles as Hank Kingsley on The Larry Sanders Show , George Bluth Sr. and Oscar Bluth on Arrested Development , and Maura Pfefferman on Transparent , for which he has received one Golden Globe , one Screen Actors Guild and two Emmy Awards .

neg: Nikita Hopkins Nikita Matthew Hopkins ( born August 13 , 1991 ) is an American former child actor who is most notable for his Annie Award-nominated portrayal of the character Roo in the Winnie the Pooh films .

neg: Wes Brown (actor) James Wesley `` Wes '' Brown ( born January 26 , 1982 ) is an American actor .

neg: James R. Black James Richard Black ( born April 3 , 1962 ) is an American actor and former professional football player .

neg: Mark L. Young Mark L. Young ( born Markell V. Efimoff January 1 , 1991 ) is an American actor .

neg: Chris Orbach Christopher Ben `` Chris '' Orbach ( born November 11 , 1968 ) is an actor , singer-songwriter , and voice actor who is the youngest son of late Law & Order star Jerry Orbach and his first wife , Marta Curro .


query: Henry VIII of England had a war with Naguib Mahfouz.

pos: Henry VIII of England Henry VIII ( 28 June 1491 -- 28 January 1547 ) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death . Henry was the second Tudor monarch , succeeding his father , Henry VII .   Henry is best known for his six marriages and , in particular , his efforts to have his first marriage , to Catherine of Aragon , annulled . His disagreement with the Pope on the question of such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation , separating the Church of England from papal authority and appointing himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England . Despite his resulting excommunication , Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings .   Domestically , Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution , ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England . Besides asserting the sovereign 's supremacy over the Church of England , he greatly expanded royal power during his reign . Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent , and those accused were often executed without a formal trial , by means of bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers , some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour . Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , Richard Rich , and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in Henry 's administration . He was an extravagant spender and used the proceeds from the Dissolution of the Monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament to convert into royal revenue the money that was formerly paid to Rome . Despite the influx of money from these sources , Henry was continually on the verge of financial ruin due to his personal extravagance as well as his numerous costly continental wars , particularly with Francis I of France and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , as he sought to enforce his claim to the Kingdom of France . At home , he oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 and following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 he was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland .   His contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive , educated , and accomplished king , and he has been described as `` one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne '' . He was an author and composer . As he aged , Henry became severely obese and his health suffered , contributing to his death in 1547 . He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful , egotistical , harsh , and insecure king . He was succeeded by his son Edward VI .

neg: Navigation Acts The Navigation Acts were a series of English laws that restricted colonial trade to England . They were first enacted in 1651 and throughout that time until 1663 , and were repealed in 1849 . They reflected the policy of mercantilism , which sought to keep all the benefits of trade inside the Empire , and to minimize the loss of gold and silver to foreigners . They prohibited the colonies from trading directly with the Netherlands , Spain , France , and their colonies . The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the Restoration by Acts of 1660 , 1663 , 1670 , and 1673 , with subsequent minor amendments . The Acts formed the basis for English overseas trade for nearly 200 years . Additionally the Acts restricted the employment of non-English sailors to a quarter of the crew on returning East India Company ships .   The major impetuses for the Navigation Acts were the ruinous deterioration of English trade in the aftermath of the Eighty Years ' War , and the concomitant lifting of the Spanish embargoes on trade between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic . The end of the embargoes in 1647 unleashed the full power of the Amsterdam Entrepôt and other Dutch competitive advantages in world trade . Within a few years , English merchants had practically been overwhelmed in the trade in the Iberian Peninsula , the Mediterranean and the Levant . Even the trade with English colonies ( partly still in the hands of the royalists , as the English Civil War was in its final stages and the Commonwealth of England had not yet imposed its authority throughout the English colonies ) was `` engrossed '' by Dutch merchants . English direct trade was crowded out by a sudden influx of commodities from the Levant , Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese empires , and the West Indies via the Dutch Entrepôt , carried in Dutch ships and for Dutch account .   The obvious solution seemed to be to seal off the English and Scottish markets to these unwanted imports . A precedent was the Act the Greenland Company had obtained from Parliament in 1645 prohibiting the import of whale products into England , except in ships owned by that company . This principle was now generalised . In 1648 the Levant Company petitioned Parliament for the prohibition of imports of Turkish goods '' ... from Holland and other places but directly from the places of their growth . '' Baltic traders added their voices to this chorus . In 1650 the Standing Council for Trade and the Council of State of the Commonwealth prepared a general policy designed to impede the flow of Mediterranean and colonial commodities via Holland and Zeeland into England .   On the whole , the Acts of Trade and Navigation were obeyed , except for the Molasses Act of 1733 , which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1750s . Stricter enforcement under the Sugar Act of 1764 became one source of resentment of Great Britain by merchants in the American colonies . This in turn helped push the colonies to start the American Revolution in the late 18th century , even though the consensus view among modern economic historians and economists is that the `` costs imposed on -LSB- American -RSB- colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small . ''

neg: Granada War The Granada War ( Guerra de Granada ) was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1492 , during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs ( los Reyes Católicos ) Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , against the Nasrid dynasty 's Emirate of Granada . It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile , ending all Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula ( al-Andalus ) .   The ten-year war was not a continuous effort , but a series of seasonal campaigns launched in spring and broken off in winter . The Granadans were crippled by internal conflict and civil war , while the Christians were generally unified . The war also saw the effective use of artillery by the Christians to rapidly conquer towns that would otherwise have required a long siege . On January 2 , 1492 Muhammad XII of Granada ( King Boabdil ) surrendered the Emirate of Granada , the city of Granada , and the Alhambra palace to the Castilian forces .   The war was a joint project between Isabella 's Crown of Castile and Ferdinand 's Crown of Aragon . The bulk of the troops and funds for the war came from Castile , and Granada was annexed into Castile 's lands . The Crown of Aragon was less important : apart from the presence of King Ferdinand himself , Aragon provided naval collaboration , guns , and some financial loans . Aristocrats were offered the allure of new lands , while Ferdinand and Isabella centralized and consolidated power . The aftermath of the war saw the end of convivencia ( `` live and let live '' ) between religions In the Iberian peninsula : the Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or be exiled in 1492 , and by 1501 , all of Granada 's Muslims were obliged to either convert to Christianity , become slaves , or be exiled ; by 1526 this prohibition spread to the rest of Spain . `` New Christians '' ( conversos ) came to be accused of crypto-Islam and crypto-Judaism . Spain would go on to model its national aspirations as the guardian of Christianity and Catholicism . The fall of the Alhambra is still celebrated every year by the City Council of Granada , and the Granada War is considered in traditional Spanish historiography as the final war of the Reconquista . At the same time , and uniquely in the `` Reconquista '' , the Granada War itself is never called `` the reconquest of Granada '' '' , but rather `` the conquest of Granada '' . Granada had never been Christian before the `` reconquista '' .

neg: Duke of Bedford Duke of Bedford ( named after Bedford , England ) is a title that has been created six times ( for five distinct people ) in the Peerage of England . The first and second creations came in 1414 in favour of Henry IV 's third son , John , who later served as regent of France . He was made Earl of Kendal at the same time and was made Earl of Richmond later the same year . The titles became extinct on his death in 1435 . The third creation came in 1470 in favour of George Neville , nephew of Warwick the Kingmaker . He was deprived of the title by Act of Parliament in 1478 . The fourth creation came 1478 in favour of George , the third son of Edward IV . He died the following year at the age of two . The fifth creation came in 1485 in favour of Jasper Tudor , half-brother of Henry VI and uncle of Henry VII . He had already been created Earl of Pembroke in 1452 . However , as he was a Lancastrian , his title was forfeited between 1461 and 1485 during the predominance of the House of York . He regained the earldom in 1485 when his nephew Henry VII came to the throne and was elevated to the dukedom the same year . He had no legitimate children and the titles became extinct on his death in 1495 .   The Russell family currently holds the titles of Earl and Duke of Bedford . John Russell , a close advisor of Henry VIII and Edward VI , was granted the title of Earl of Bedford in 1551 , and his descendant William , 5th Earl , was created Duke following the Glorious Revolution .   The subsidiary titles of the Duke of Bedford , all in the Peerage of England , are Marquess of Tavistock ( created 1694 ) , Earl of Bedford ( 1550 ) , Baron Russell , of Cheneys ( 1539 ) , Baron Russell of Thornhaugh in the County of Northampton ( 1603 ) , and Baron Howland , of Streatham in the County of Surrey ( 1695 ) ( and possibly the Barony of Bedford , which was merged into it in 1138 , 1366 or 1414 ) . The courtesy title of the Duke of Bedford 's eldest son and heir is Marquess of Tavistock '' .   Every Duke from the 5th Duke onwards is descended from Charles II of England . The family seat is Woburn Abbey , Bedfordshire . The private mausoleum and chapel of the Russell Family and the Dukes of Bedford is at St. Michael 's Church in Chenies , Buckinghamshire ( photo ) . The family owns The Bedford Estate in central London .

neg: Richard of Lincoln (illegitimate son of Henry I of England) Richard of Lincoln ( b. before 1101 , d. 25 November 1120 ) was the illegitimate son of Henry I of England , born to Henry and a woman named Ansfride , widow of Aanskill ( origins unknown ) . She is often referred to as Henry 's third mistress . Richard was brought up and educated by Robert Bloet , the Bishop of Lincoln . Bloet had also educated Richard 's half-brother Robert , 1st Earl of Gloucester . Richard is sometimes confused with Richard de Lincoln , an Anglo-Norman prelate who died in 1203 .   Richard supported his father in his war with Louis VI of France , although it is unclear at what point he joined the fight with the English forces . According to Orderic Vitalis , he avoided capture by French forces at Les Andelys in 1119 through the help of Ralph the Red of Pont-Echanfray .   He continued to fight at his father 's side during the sieged the castle of Évreux being held by Henry 's most detested enemy , Amaury III de Montfort . His last known military adventure was at the battle of Brémule on 20 August 1119 , for which the decisive win by the English led to Louis ' accepting Richard 's half-brother William Adelin as Duke of Normandy .   In 1120 , Richard became betrothed to Amice , the daughter of the defender of Brémule , Raoul II de Gael , seigneur of Gael and Montfort , son of Ralph de Gael , Earl of East Anglia . The marriage never took place as Richard died in the wreck of the White Ship on 25 November 1120 . Amice did not accompany him and lived until 1168 , marrying the king 's ward Robert de Beaumont , 2nd Earl of Leicester , and one of many descendents included Ida de Tosny , a mistress of Henry II Curtmantle , King of England .

neg: Battle of Nahrawan The Battle of Nahrawan ( -LSB- معركة النهروان , Ma ` rakat an-Nahrawān -RSB- ) was a battle between Ali ibn Abi Talib ( the first Shi'ah Imam and the fourth Sunni Caliph ) and the Kharijites commanded by ` Abdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi , near Nahrawan , twelve miles from Baghdad .   Having disposed of the Kharijites at Nahrawan , according to some Shia sources Ali resumed his march to Syria . However , the chiefs of his followers urged him to stop at Kufa to let the men rest before the long journey and to enable the army to repair their weapons and armor . Ali agreed to this request and camped at al-Nukhaylah outside Kufah . The soldiers were allowed to leave the camp for a day .   On the next day , hardly any men returned and at length , Ali entered Kufah and gave a stern sermon to the people . However , nobody came forward and no one wanted to fight and finally , Ali turned away from them in disappointment . The Syrian expedition was abandoned , never to be resumed .   Others argue that the Kharijites had been making every one fight and after they separated , Ali himself also did not want to fight the Syrians .   A few years later they re-emerged in Iraq and north of the Arabian Peninsula . They were defeated by the Umayyads .   Two years later , in 40 A.H Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite called Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam , who attacked him with a poisoned sword while Ali was praying , in his sujood . In the mosque of Kufah , on the 19th of the month of Ramadan , finally succumbing to poison on the 21st of the month of Ramadan .   In Syria Muawiyah I had a more professional army and was not reliant of volunteers and therefore no sects developed .   When Ali was told that the Kharijites had been killed , he replied : `` By Allah ! No , not yet . They still exist in the loins of men and wombs of women . Whenever a chief would appear from among them , he would be cut down till the last of them would turn thieves and robbers . ''   The nine Kharijites that survived the battle against Ali managed to flee to Basrah , Sistan , Khurasan , Oman , Yemen , Tell Mozan , and elsewhere , where they had their offspring , spread their beliefs and recruited more followers . Today Ibadis of Oman ( and parts of Africa ) are known as their descendants and followers .

neg: Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Carlisle Charles Howard , 1st Earl of Carlisle ( 1629 -- 24 February 1685 ) was an English military leader and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1653 and 1660 and was created Earl of Carlisle in 1661 .   Howard was the son and heir of Sir William Howard of Naworth in Cumberland , by Mary , daughter of William , Lord Eure , and great-grandson of Lord William Howard , `` Belted Will '' ( 1563 -- 1640 ) , the third son of Thomas Howard , 4th Duke of Norfolk . In 1645 he conformed to the Church of England and supported the government of the Commonwealth , being appointed High Sheriff of Cumberland in 1650 . He bought Carlisle Castle and became governor of the town . He distinguished himself at the Battle of Worcester on Cromwell 's side and made a member of the council of state in 1653 , chosen captain of the protector 's body-guard and selected to carry out various public duties . In 1653 he was nominated as Member of Parliament for the Four Northern Counties in the Barebones Parliament . He was elected MPP for Cumberland in 1654 .   In 1655 Howard was given a regiment , was appointed a commissioner to try the northern rebels , and a deputy major-general of Cumberland , Westmorland and Northumberland . He was re-elected MP for Cumberland in 1656 . In 1657 he was included in Cromwell 's House of Lords and voted for the protector 's assumption of the royal title the same year . In 1659 he urged Richard Cromwell to defend his government by force against the army leaders , but his advice being refused he used his influence in favor of a restoration of the monarchy , and after Richard 's fall he was imprisoned . In April 1660 he sat again in parliament for Cumberland , and at the Restoration was made custos rotulorum and Lord Lieutenant of Cumberland and Lord Lieutenant of Westmorland .   On 20 April 1661 Howard was created Baron Dacre of Gillesland , Viscount Howard of Morpeth , and Earl of Carlisle ; the same year he was made Vice-Admiral of Northumberland , Cumberland and Durham , and in 1662 joint commissioner for the office of Earl Marshal . In 1663 he was appointed ambassador to Russia , Sweden and Denmark , and in 1668 he carried the Garter to Charles XI of Sweden .   In 1667 Howard was made lieutenant-general of the forces and joint commander-in-chief of the four northernmost counties . In 1672 he became one of the commissioners for the office of Lord Lieutenant of Durham , and in 1673 deputy earl marshal .   He commanded a regiment in the fresh-raised Blackheath Army of 1673 , which was intended to see action against the Dutch . Following the Treaty of Westminster the regiment was disbanded .   In 1678 he was appointed governor of Jamaica , and reappointed governor of Carlisle . He died in 1685 , and was buried in York Minster . He married Anne ( d. 1696 ) , daughter of Edward Howard , 1st Baron Howard of Escrick , by whom he had six children :  Edward Howard , 2nd Earl of Carlisle ( c. 1646 -- 1692 )  Lady Katherine Howard ( 29 July 1662 -- March 1682 )  Hon. Frederick Christian Howard ( 5 November 1664 -- October 1684 ) , killed at the Siege of Luxembourg  Hon. Charles Howard ( 5 September 1668 -- 3 April 1670 )  Lady Mary Howard ( d. 27 October 1708 ) , married Sir John Fenwick , 3rd Baronet  Lady Anne Howard , married Richard Graham , 1st Viscount Preston   Colonel Thomas Howard ( died 1678 ) , notorious for the 1662 duel where he left Henry Jermyn , 1st Baron Dover for dead ( they being rivals for the affections of Anna Talbot , Countess of Shrewsbury ) , was his younger brother . He was pardoned and soon afterwards married as her third husband Mary Stewart , Duchess of Richmond .

neg: Robin of Redesdale Robin of Redesdale , sometimes called `` Robin Mend-All '' , was the leader of an insurrection against King Edward IV of England . His true identity is unknown , but it is thought he could have been either Sir John Conyers of Hornby ( d. 1490 ) or his brother Sir William Conyers of Marske ( d. 1469 ) , or even both . Whoever he was , the power behind his rebellion was Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick ( `` Warwick the Kingmaker '' ) .   During April 1469 , the rebellion was raised in the north of England . The rebels were defeated in April by John Neville , Earl of Northumberland , but further troops were raised and the rebels openly denounced the government of Edward IV , demanding that he remove his wife 's family , the Woodvilles , from positions of power .   On 26 July , the rebel army met and defeated Edward 's army ( commanded by William Herbert , Earl of Pembroke ) at the Battle of Edgecote Moor . Although they were victorious , Robin himself was reported to have died in the battle , hence his identification with William Conyers who was killed at Edgecote . However , his mantle was temporarily assumed by someone else , apparently Sir John Conyers , when Warwick raised a further rebellion early in 1470 . This second `` Robin of Redesdale '' submitted to Edward IV in March 1470 .

neg: Henry VI, Part 1 Henry VI , Part 1 , often referred to as 1 Henry VI , is a history play by William Shakespeare , and possibly Christopher Marlowe and/or Thomas Nashe , believed to have been written in 1591 , and set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England . Whereas Henry VI , Part 2 deals with the King 's inability to quell the bickering of his nobles , and the inevitability of armed conflict , and Henry VI , Part 3 deals with the horrors of that conflict , Henry VI , Part 1 deals with the loss of England 's French territories and the political machinations leading up to the Wars of the Roses , as the English political system is torn apart by personal squabbles and petty jealousy .   Although the Henry VI trilogy may not have been written in chronological order , the three plays are often grouped together with Richard III to form a tetralogy covering the entire Wars of the Roses saga , from the death of Henry V in 1422 to the rise to power of Henry VII in 1485 . It was the success of this sequence of plays that firmly established Shakespeare 's reputation as a playwright .   Some regard Henry VI , Part 1 as the weakest of Shakespeare 's plays and , along with Titus Andronicus , it is generally considered one of the strongest candidates for evidence that Shakespeare collaborated with other dramatists early in his career .

neg: War against Islam War against Islam , also called the War on Islam or Attack on Islam , is a conspiracy theory narrative in Islamist discourse to describe an alleged conspiracy to harm , weaken or annihilate the societal system of Islam , using military , economic , social and cultural means . The perpetrators of the conspiracy are alleged to be non-Muslims ( kuffār ) , particularly the Western world and `` false Muslims '' , allegedly in collusion with political actors in the Western world . While the contemporary conspiracy theory narrative of the `` War against Islam '' mostly covers general issues of societal transformations in modernization and secularization as well as general issues of international power politics among modern states , the crusades are often narrated as its alleged starting point .   The phrase or similar phrases have been used by Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb , Ayatollah Khomeini , Anwar al-Awlaki , Osama bin Laden , Chechen militant Dokka Umarov , cleric Anjem Choudary , and Fort Hood murderer Nidal Malik Hasan . The English-language political neologism of `` War on Islam '' was coined in Islamist discourse in the 1990s and popularized as a conspiracy theory only after 2001 .   Jonathan Schanzer has argued that the historical Muslim indifference to the West turned to `` alarmed dislike '' with the beginning of Western military superiority in the 17th century . However , with the end of the era of Western colonialism , Islamist rage against non-Muslims and the governments of Muslim-majority countries stems not from alleged non-Muslim aggression and enmity , but from frustration over the unrelenting encroachment of western culture , technology , economies , and from a yearning for a `` return to the glorious days when Islam reigned supreme . ''

neg: War of Saint-Sardos The War of Saint-Sardos was a short war fought between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France in 1324 . The war was a clear defeat for the English , and led indirectly to the overthrowing of Edward II of England . The war can also be seen as one of the precursors of the Hundred Years ' War .

neg: Wars of the Roses The Wars of the Roses were a series of wars for control of the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet : the House of Lancaster ( associated with a red rose ) , and the House of York ( whose symbol was a white rose ) . The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487 ; however , there was fighting before and after this period between the houses . The power struggle ignited around social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years ' War , combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of Henry VI which revived interest in Richard of York 's claim to the throne . Historians disagree about whether the Wars of the Roses were caused by the structural problems of bastard feudalism or Henry VI 's ineffectiveness as king .   With the Duke of York 's death , the claim transferred to his heir , Edward , who later became the first Yorkist king of England , as Edward IV . His son reigned for 86 days as Edward V , but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IV 's younger brother , who became Richard III . The two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London .   The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party , Henry Tudor , Earl of Richmond , who defeated the last Yorkist king , Richard III , at the Battle of Bosworth Field . After assuming the throne as Henry VII , he married Elizabeth of York , the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV , thereby uniting the two claims . The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603 , with the death of Elizabeth I , granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York .

neg: Battle of the Holme The Battle of the Holme took place in East Anglia on 13 December 902 between the Anglo-Saxon men of Kent and the East Anglian Danes . Its location is unknown but may have been Holme in Huntingdonshire ( now part of Cambridgeshire ) .   Following the death of Alfred the Great in 899 , his son Edward the Elder became king , but his cousin Æthelwold , the son of Alfred 's elder brother , King Æthelred , claimed the throne . His bid was unsuccessful , and he fled to the Northumbrian Danes , who , according to one version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , accepted him as king . In 902 Æthelwold came with a fleet to Essex and the following year he persuaded the East Anglian Danes to attack Mercia and north Wessex . Edward retaliated by ravaging East Anglia and the Danish army was forced to return to defend its own territory . Edward then retreated , but the men of Kent disobeyed the order to retire , and they met the Danes at the battle of the Holme .   The course of the battle is unknown , but the Danes appear to have won as according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle they `` kept the place of slaughter '' . However , they suffered heavy losses including Æthelwold , Eohric , probably the Danish king of East Anglia , Brihtsige , son of the ætheling Beornoth , and two holds , Ysopa and Oscetel . The battle thus ended Æthelwold 's Revolt . Kentish losses included Sigehelm , father of Edward the Elder 's third wife , Eadgifu of Kent . The West Saxon chronicler who gave the fullest account of the battle was at pains to explain why Edward and the rest of the English were not present , as if this had been a subject of criticism .

neg: Charles V of France Charles V ( 21 January 1338 -- 16 September 1380 ) , called the Wise ( French : `` le Sage '' ) , was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1364 to his death .   In 1349 , as a young prince , Charles received from his grandfather King Philip VI the province of Dauphiné to rule . This allowed him to bear the title `` Dauphin '' until his coronation , which led to the integration of the Dauphiné into the crown lands of France . After 1350 , all heirs apparent of France bore the title of Dauphin until their coronation .   Charles became regent of France when his father John II was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 . To pay the ransom , Charles raised taxes . As a result , he faced hostility from the nobility , led by Charles the Bad , King of Navarre ; the opposition of the French bourgeoisie , which was channeled through the Estates-General led by Etienne Marcel ; and with peasant revolts known as Jacqueries . Charles overcame all of these rebellions , but in order to liberate his father , he had to conclude the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 , in which he abandoned large portions of south-western France to Edward III of England and agreed to pay a huge ransom .   Charles became king in 1364 . With the help of talented advisers known as the Marmousets , his skillful management of the kingdom allowed him to replenish the royal treasury and to restore the prestige of the House of Valois . He established the first permanent army paid with regular wages , which liberated the French populace from the companies of routiers who regularly plundered the country when not employed . Led by Bertrand du Guesclin , the French Army was able to turn the tide of the Hundred Years ' War to Charles ' advantage , and by the end of Charles ' reign , they had reconquered almost all the territories ceded to the English in 1360 . Furthermore , the French Navy , led by Jean de Vienne , managed to attack the English coast for the first time since the beginning of the Hundred Years ' War .   Charles V died in 1380 . He was succeeded by his son Charles VI the Mad , whose disastrous reign allowed the English to regain control of large parts of France .

neg: Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster Henry , 3rd Earl of Leicester and Lancaster ( c. 1281 -- 22 September 1345 ) was a grandson of King Henry III ( 1216-1272 ) of England and was one of the principals behind the deposition of King Edward II ( 1307-1327 ) , his first cousin .

neg: Arnaud Amanieu, Lord of Albret Arnaud Amanieu ( also Arnold and Amaneus , 4 August 1338 -- 1401 ) was the Lord of Albret from 1358 . Arnaud Amanieu was the son of Bernard Ezi IV and Mathe of Armagnac .   In 1330 , Edward III of England sent men to Gascony to negotiate with the nobles . Beranrd Ezi IV tried to negotiate a marriage between Arnaud Amanieu and a daughter of Edmund of Woodstock , Earl of Kent , but the plans fell through .   In 1363 , Edward the Black Prince , then Duke of Gascony , went to his province to procure the homage of his barons , chief among whom was Arnaud Amanieu . In the cathedral of Bordeaux on 9 July , the lord of Albret was the first to kneel sans belt and cap before the Prince and swear an oath of fealty ( save his allegiance to the King of England ) , then to kiss a Bible and a cross , and finally to kiss the Prince on the mouth ( a `` holy kiss '' signifying fellowship and peace ) . However , good relations did not last long between Lord and Prince .   In 1368 , while preparing to cross the Pyrenees to join in the Castilian Civil War , Edward demanded a contingent from Arnaud Amanieu , but the forces requested were more than the lord of Albret could suffice . Arnaud Amanieu refused , causing the Black Prince to say :   Edward 's Council also declared a fouage , a new tax , which was bitterly resented by the great landholders . John I of Armagnac , Peter-Raymond II of Comminges , Roger Bernard of Périgord , and Arnaud Amanieu sent appeals to Charles V of France , appeals which are preserved to this day in the Archives Nationales in Paris . They addressed him as the `` sovereign lord of the duchée de Guienne and the other lands baillées to the king of England by the treaty of peace . '' Needless to say , the king of France readily received the Gascon rebels into his fold .   On 30 June 1368 , after Arnaud Amanieu married Margaret of Bourbon , a secret treaty was signed between Charles V , Arnaud Amanieu , John , and Roger Bernard . Charles pledged aid in the event of war and he swore never to give up his claims of sovereignty over Gascony . The lords agreed to serve Charles -- for pay -- in Auvergne , Toulouse , Berry , and Touraine , and to take an oath to him . The fouage was remitted for the next decade , unless the barons chose to reimpose it on themselves . A body of lawyers and barons was called to decide the sovereignty question and they unanimously affirmed that Charles was sovereign over Gascony .   Amanieu remained close to the French monarchy until his death in 1401 . His son , Charles I , became Constable of France .

neg: Wars of the Three Kingdoms The Wars of the Three Kingdoms , sometimes known as the British Civil Wars , formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in England , Ireland and Scotland between 1639 and 1651 . The English Civil War proper has become the best-known of these conflicts and included the execution of the kingdoms ' monarch , Charles I , by the English parliament in 1649 .   The history of these wars is often extended to include the uprisings and conflicts that continued through the 1650s until the English Restoration of the monarchy with Charles II , in 1660 , and sometimes until Venner 's uprising the following year . The wars were the outcome of tensions over religious and civil issues . Religious disputes centred on whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or the choice of the individual , with many people feeling that they ought to have freedom of religion . The related civil questions were to what extent the king 's rule was constrained by parliaments -- in particular his right to raise taxes and armed forces without consent . Furthermore , the wars also had an element of national conflict , as Ireland and Scotland rebelled against England 's primacy within the Three Kingdoms . The victory of the English Parliament -- ultimately under Oliver Cromwell -- over the king , the Irish and the Scots helped to determine the future of Great Britain and Ireland as a constitutional monarchy with political power centred on London .   The wars included the Bishops ' Wars of 1639 and 1640 , the Scottish Civil War of 1644 -- 45 ; the Irish Rebellion of 1641 , Confederate Ireland , 1642 -- 49 and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649 ( collectively the Eleven Years War or Irish Confederate Wars ) ; and the First , Second and Third English Civil Wars of 1642 -- 46 , 1648 -- 49 and 1650 -- 51 .

neg: Sartor Faqir The Sartor Faqir ( also known as `` Mullah Mastan or Mullah Mastana '' Lewanai Faqir or Saidullah in Pashto and by the British as `` The Great Fakir '' or `` Mad Faqir '' , `` Mad Faqir of Swat '' or the `` Mad Mullah '' ) was a Pashtun fakir and religious mendicant whose Pashto name translated to `` God-intoxicated '' as a reference to his religious convictions and his belief that he was capable of miraculous powers .   The Sartor Faqir was born as Saidullah Khan in the village of Rega Buner in the Buner Valley and was a member of a branch of the Yousafzai tribe . In order to further his religious education , he lived and travelled throughout India and Central Asia , before setting in Mazar-i-Sharif in Afghanistan for a period of ten years . In 1895 , he returned to Buner .   In response to the British occupation of the North West Frontier Province of modern-day Pakistan , and the division of Pashtun lands by the Durand Line , the Faqir declared a jihad against the occupying British Empire , unsuccessfully in 1895 , then successfully in 1897 . In late July , he led from 10,000 to 100,000 Pashtun tribesmen in an uprising that culminated in the siege of Malakand , which ended with the British being relieved on August 2 .   Although the Faqir continued to lead further attacks against the British , the siege of Malakand marked the height of his power and influence , which declined as the British made agreements with other local tribes and rulers to counter him . The Faqir eventually made his own agreements with the British , with the revelation of an exchange of presents and correspeondence with the British political officer of Malakand leading to accusations of the Faqir being in the pay of the British . This and the Faqir 's advancing years led to a further decline of his movement , which broke up upon his death in 1917 .

neg: Black Death in England The Black Death was a pneumonic plague pandemic , which reached England in June 1348 , and died down by December 1349 . It was the first and most severe manifestation of the Second Pandemic , caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria . The term `` Black Death '' was not used until the late 17th Century .   Originating in China , it spread west along the trade routes across Europe and arrived on the British Isles from the English province of Gascony . The plague seems to have been spread by flea-infected rats , as well as individuals who had been infected on the continent . Rats were the reservoir hosts of the Y. pestis bacteria and the Oriental rat flea was the primary vector .   The first known case in England was a seaman who arrived at Weymouth , Dorset , from Gascony in June 1348 . By autumn , the plague had reached London , and by summer 1349 it covered the entire country , before dying down by December . Low estimates of mortality in the early twentieth century have been revised upwards due to re-examination of data and new information , and a figure of 40 -- 60 % of the population is widely accepted .   The English government handled the crisis well , and the country did not experience the extreme reactions that were seen elsewhere in Europe . The most immediate consequence was a halt to the campaigns of the Hundred Years ' War . In the long term , the decrease in population caused a shortage of labour , with subsequent rise in wages , resisted by the landowners , which caused deep resentment among the lower classes . The Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 was largely a result of this resentment , and even though the rebellion was suppressed , in the long term serfdom was ended in England . The Black Death also affected artistic and cultural efforts , and may have helped advance the use of the vernacular .   In 1361 -- 62 the plague returned to England , this time causing the death of around 20 % of the population . After this the plague continued to return intermittently throughout the 14th and 15th centuries , in local or national outbreaks . From this point on its effect became less severe , and one of the last outbreaks of the plague in England was the Great Plague of London in 1665 -- 66 .

neg: Harold Harefoot Harold I ( 101617 March 1040 ) , also known as Harold Harefoot , was King of England from 1035 to 1040 . Harold 's nickname `` Harefoot '' is first recorded as `` Harefoh '' or `` Harefah '' in the twelfth century in the history of Ely Abbey , and according to late medieval chroniclers it meant that he was fleet of foot .   The son of Cnut the Great and Ælfgifu of Northampton , Harold was elected regent of England , following the death of his father in 1035 . He was initially ruling England in place of his brother Harthacnut , who was stuck in Denmark due to a rebellion in Norway , which had ousted their brother Svein . Although Harold had wished to be crowned king since 1035 , Æthelnoth , Archbishop of Canterbury , refused to do so . It was not until 1037 that Harold , supported by earl Leofric and many others , was officially proclaimed king . The same year Harold 's two step-brothers Edward and Alfred returned to England with a considerable military force , Alfred was captured by earl Godwin , who had him seized and delivered to an escort of men loyal to Harefoot . While en route to Ely he was blinded and soon after died of his wounds .   Harold died in 1040 , having ruled just five years ; his half-brother Harthacnut soon returned and took hold of the kingdom peacefully . Harold was originally buried in Westminster , but Harthacnut had his body dragged up and thrown into a `` fen '' ( sewer ) , as well as then thrown into the river Thames , but was after a short time picked up by a fisherman , being immediately taken to the Danes , was honourably buried by them in their cemetery at London .

neg: St Mawes Castle St Mawes Castle ( Kastel Lannvowsedh ) is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII near Falmouth , Cornwall , between 1540 and 1542 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the Carrick Roads waterway at the mouth of the River Fal . The castle was built under the direction of Thomas Treffry to a clover leaf design , with a four-storey central tower and three protruding , round bastions that formed gun platforms . It was initially armed with 19 artillery pieces , intended for use against enemy shipping , operating in partnership with its sister castle of Pendennis on the other side of the estuary . During the English Civil War , St Mawes was held by Royalist supporters of King Charles I , but surrendered to a Parliamentary army in 1646 in the final phase of the conflict .   The castle continued in use as a fort through the 18th and 19th centuries . In the early 1850s , fears of a fresh conflict with France , combined with changes in military technology , led to the redevelopment of the fortification . The out-dated Henrician castle was turned into a barracks and substantial gun batteries were constructed beneath it , equipped with the latest naval artillery . In the 1880s and 1890s an electronically-operated minefield was laid across the River Fal , operated from St Mawes and Pendennis , and new , quick-firing guns were installed at St Mawes to support these defences . After 1905 , however , St Mawes ' guns were removed , and between 1920 and 1939 it was run by the state as a tourist attraction .   Brought back into service in the Second World War , naval artillery and an anti-aircraft gun were installed at the castle to defend against the risk of German attack . With the end of the war , St Mawes again returned to use as a tourist attraction . In the 21st century , the castle is operated by English Heritage . The castle has elaborate , carved 16th-century decorations including sea monsters and gargoyles , and the historian Paul Pattison has described the site as `` arguably the most perfect survivor of all Henry 's forts '' .


query: Prussian Academy of Sciences was established in 1700.

pos: Prussian Academy of Sciences The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences ( Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften ) was an academy established in Berlin , Germany on 11 July 1700 , four years after the Akademie der Künste , or `` Arts Academy , '' to which `` Berlin Academy '' may also refer . In the 18th century , it was a French-language institution , and its most active members were Huguenots who had fled religious persecution in France .

neg: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Philosophical Transactions , titled Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ( Phil . Trans . ) from 1776 , is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society . In its earliest days , it was a private venture of the Royal Society 's secretary . It became an official society publication in 1752 . It was established in 1665 , making it the first journal in the world exclusively devoted to science , and therefore also the world 's longest-running scientific journal . The use of the word `` Philosophical '' in the title refers to `` natural philosophy '' , which was the equivalent of what would now be generally called `` science '' .

neg: Kansas Academy of Science The Kansas Academy of Science is a public organization for the promotion and promulgation of scientific research in the state of Kansas , United States . It was created as the Kansas Natural History Society at a meeting at Lincoln College ( now Washburn University ) in Topeka . The first president was Benjamin Franklin Mudge , the former State Geologist and a professor at the Kansas State Agricultural College ( now Kansas State University ) .   In 1870 John Fraser replaced Mudge as president , and suggested that the Society broaden its scope to include all science , and not just natural science . The next year , the Society changed its name to the `` Kansas Academy of Science '' . In 1873 the Society was incorporated by the legislature as a state institution . The legislature placed the Academy under the state department of agriculture and charged them with the creation of a science library and the collection of scientific specimens .

neg: Heidelberg University Faculty of Chemistry and Earth Sciences The Faculty of Chemistry and Earth Sciences is one of twelve faculties at the University of Heidelberg . It comprises the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry , Institute of Organic Chemistry , Institute of Physical Chemistry , Institute of Geography , Institute of Geology and Paleontology , Institute of Mineralogy , and the Institute of Environmental Geochemistry .  Chemistry was established as a separate discipline at the University of Heidelberg in 1817 with Leopold Gmelin being appointed ordinary professor of chemistry and medicine . 1895 is considered to be the date of foundation of Geography at the University of Heidelberg as it was from this year on that lectures in physical and mathematical geography were held on a regular basis . In 1899 the first professorship in geography was established , filled by Alfred Hettner .

neg: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego University of Silesia Press ( Pol . Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego ) was founded in 1968 as the Publishing Department of the University of Silesia , concurrently with the foundation of the University of Silesia in Katowice . On 1 September 1975 it was transformed into a full fledged publishing house .   University of Silesia Press publishes academic works in all of the disciplines of scholarship and science represented by the academic faculty of the University of Silesia in Katowice . The USP publications include peer-refereed monographs , collective volumes as well as periodicals . Since 2013 , all of the USP print publications are simultaneously made available as e-books . The USP book series and perioducals , a significant number of which feature in the evaluation lists of the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education and are indexed in Polish and international repositories and databases ( such as Central and Eastern European Online Library , Index Copernicus , CEJSH , BazHum , ERIH PLUS , and others ) . The USP journals are made available to the reading public as open access periodicals ( the so called `` gold path '' ) in accordance with the recommendation of the European Commission of 17 July 2012 on access to and preservation of scientific information . A part of the overall body of the USP publications are habilitationschrifts ( i.e. `` tenure books '' ) as well as doctoral dissertations recommended by the Ph.D. committees at the University of Silesia in Katowice .   A separate field of the USP publishing activity are coursebooks and teaching materials for students , including students of extramural programs and students of Polish as a foreign language .   The publications of the University of Silesia Press have received numerous awards and honorary mentions ; among Authors publishing with the USP there are leading experts in a variety of areas of research .   On average , the annual production of the University of Silesia Press amounts to 150-170 titles , with the total volume of ca. 2700 printed sheets per year .   Since February 2017 , the University of Silesia Press is led by Beata Klyta , serving as its acting director .

neg: Russian Academy of Sciences The Russian Academy of Sciences ( RAS ; Росси́йская акаде́мия нау́к Rossíiskaya akadémiya naúk ) consists of the national academy of Russia ; a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation ; and additional scientific and social units such as libraries , publishing units , and hospitals .   Headquartered in Moscow , the Academy ( RAS ) is considered a civil , self-governed , non-commercial organization chartered by the Government of Russia . It combines the members of RAS ( see below ) and scientists employed by institutions .   The Academy currently includes around 650 institutions and 55,000 scientific researchers .

neg: Districts of Prussia Prussian districts ( Kreise , literally `` circles '' ) were administrative units in the former Kingdom of Prussia , part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 , and its successor state , the Free State of Prussia , similar to a county or a shire . They were established in the course of the Stein-Hardenberg Reforms from 1815 to 1818 at an intermediate level , between the higher provinces and the government districts ( Regierungsbezirke ) , and the lower municipal governments ( Gemeinden ) . Then part of a modern and highly effective public administration structure , they served as a model for the present-day districts of Germany   In the aftermath of World War I , the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy ( Belgium ) were annexed by Belgium in 1925 , thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority .

neg: Annalen der Physik Annalen der Physik ( English : Annals of Physics ) is one of the oldest scientific journals on physics and has been published since 1799 . The journal publishes original , peer-reviewed papers in the areas of experimental , theoretical , applied , and mathematical physics and related areas . The current editor-in-chief is Stefan Hildebrandt .   The journal is the successor to Journal der Physik published from 1790 until 1794 , and Neues Journal der Physik published from 1795 until 1797 . The journal has been published under a variety of names ( Annalen der Physik , Annalen der Physik und der physikalischen Chemie , Annalen der Physik und Chemie , Wiedemann 's Annalen der Physik und Chemie ) during its history .

neg: Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences The Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences is a Swiss organization that supports and networks the sciences at a regional , national and international level . They are designated by the Federal Act to Promote Research and Innovation to promote research together with the Swiss National Science Foundation .   The Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences is an association of four distinct Swiss academies of different kinds :  Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences ( SCNAT ) ;  Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences ( SAMW ) ;  Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences ( SAGW ) ;  Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences ( SATW ) .

neg: List of Swedish inventors Swedish inventors are Swedish people who invented novel ideas , machines or tools .   In the 18th century Sweden 's scientific revolution took off . Previously , technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had immigrated from mainland Europe . In 1739 , the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded , with people such as Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members .   Sweden has a total of 33523 patents as of 2007 according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office , and only ten other countries have more patents than Sweden . Although a lot of patents can not count as inventions . Therefore , the number of patents per country is a relatively bad scale for measuring inventions that has been of progress to mankind .   The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions , but pharmaceuticals , electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground . A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions , and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors .

neg: 18th century The 18th century lasted from January 1 , 1701 to December 31 , 1800 in the Gregorian calendar . During the 18th century , the Enlightenment culminated in the French and American revolutions . Philosophy and science increased in prominence . Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age . This dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789 - , though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror ( 1793-1794 ) under Maximilien Robespierre . At first , many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals , but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power and formed broad coalitions for the counter-revolution . The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion , taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768 . As a consequence the empire did not share in Europe 's military improvements during the Seven Years ' War ( 1756-1763 ) , causing its military to fall behind and suffer defeats against Russia in the second half of the century .   The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state . The once-powerful and vast kingdom , which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies , collapsed under numerous invasions . Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring monarchies of the Kingdom of Prussia , the Russian Empire and the Archduchy of Austria which divided the Commonwealth territories between themselves , changing the landscape of Central European politics for the next hundred years .   European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued . Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s and the conquest of large parts of India . However , Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution , which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America . The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the improved steam engine . Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century , steam-powered machinery would radically change human society and the environment .   Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work . For example , the `` short '' 18th century may be defined as 1715 -- 1789 , denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution , with an emphasis on directly interconnected events . To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements , the `` long '' 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later .

neg: World Academy of Art and Science The World Academy of Art and Science ( WAAS ) is an international non-governmental scientific organization , a world network of more than 700 individual fellows from more than 80 countries . Fellows are elected for distinguished accomplishments in the sciences , arts and the humanities with an inter-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary approach with an outstanding record of public service and are committed to addressing the pressing social problems confronting humanity today . The Academy strives to promote the growth of knowledge , enhance public awareness of the social consequences and policy implications of that growth , and provide `` leadership in thought that leads to action '' . The spirit of the academy can be expressed in the words of Albert Einstein `` The creations of our mind shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind '' .

neg: 1700 in science The year 1700 in science and technology involved some significant events .

neg: Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education at the University of Kiel The Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education at the University of Kiel ( IPN ) is a scientific institute in the field of Education Research as well as the Didactic method of Natural science in Germany . It is a member of the Leibniz Association and located in Kiel , Germany . Although it is not part of the University of Kiel , the two maintain a strong relationship .   The institute was founded in 1966 by physicist Karl Hecht ( with participation of Werner Krobel ) , who remained director until 1970 .

neg: List of monarchs of Prussia The monarchs of Prussia were members of the House of Hohenzollern who were the hereditary rulers of the former German state of Prussia from its founding in 1525 as the Duchy of Prussia . The Duchy had evolved out of the Teutonic Order , a Roman Catholic crusader state and theocracy located along the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea . The Teutonic Knights were under the leadership of a Grand Master , the last of whom , Albert , converted to Protestantism and secularized the lands , which then became the Duchy of Prussia . The Duchy was initially a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland , as a result of the terms of the Prussian Homage whereby Albert was granted the Duchy as part of the terms of peace following the Prussian War . When the main line of Prussian Hohenzollerns died out in 1618 , the Duchy passed to a different branch of the family , who also reigned as Electors of Brandenburg in the Holy Roman Empire . While still nominally two different territories , Prussia under the suzerainty of Poland and Brandenburg under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire , the two states are known together historiographically as Brandenburg-Prussia . Following the Second Northern War , a series of treaties freed the Duchy of Prussia from any vassalage to any other state , making it a fully sovereign Duchy in its own right . This complex situation ( where the Hohenzollern ruler of the independent Duchy of Prussia was also a subject of the Holy Roman Emperor as Elector of Brandenburg ) laid the eventual groundwork for the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701 . For diplomatic reasons , the rulers of the state were known as the King in Prussia from 1701 to 1772 ; largely because they still owed fealty to the Emperor as Electors of Brandenburg , the `` King in Prussia '' title ( as opposed to `` King of Prussia '' ) avoided offending the Emperor . As the Prussian state grew through several wars and diplomatic moves throughout the 18th century , it became apparent that Prussia had become a Great Power that did not need to submit meekly to the Holy Roman Empire . By 1772 , the pretense was dropped , and the style `` King of Prussia '' was adopted . Thus it remained until 1871 , when in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War , the King of Prussia Wilhelm I was crowned German Emperor . From that point forward , though the Kingdom of Prussia retained its status as a constituent state of the German Empire , all remaining Kings of Prussia also served as German Emperor , and that title took precedence .

neg: King in Prussia King in Prussia was a title used by the Electors of Brandenburg from 1701 to 1772 . Subsequently , they used the title King of Prussia .   The House of Hohenzollern ruled Brandenburg as Prince-Electors , and were subjects of the Holy Roman Emperor . Since 1618 , the Electors of Brandenburg had also ruled the Duchy of Prussia , which lay outside of the empire , in a personal union . The dual state was known as Brandenburg-Prussia . The Duchy of Prussia was originally a fief that the dukes held of the King of Poland , of whom they were vassals , until the Treaties of Labiau ( 1656 ) and Bromberg ( 1657 ) , with which Frederick William , the Great Elector , had achieved full sovereignty from the Polish Crown . In 1701 Elector Frederick III wanted to show his greatness by adopting the title king .   In return for Hohenzollern assistance in the War of the Spanish Succession and support for the Habsburg candidate in the subsequent election , Emperor Leopold I allowed Frederick to crown himself `` King in Prussia '' .   Legally , Frederick was only an elector in his domains within the borders of the empire ; he was only king in his former duchy . Even though Brandenburg was still legally part of the empire and ruled in personal union with Prussia , it soon came to be treated as a de facto part of Prussia .   On 17 January 1701 , Frederick dedicated the royal coat of arms , the Prussian black eagle with the motto `` suum cuique '' imprinted . On 18 January , he crowned himself and his wife Sophie Charlotte in a baroque ceremony in Königsberg Castle .   Even so , Frederick 's move was controversial , and only became widely accepted after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 . The title `` King of Prussia '' implied lordship over the entire Prussian region , not simply the former Duchy of Prussia , now Kingdom of Prussia , and the assumption of such a title by the Hohenzollern margraves would have threatened neighboring Poland ; because the province of Royal Prussia was part of the Kingdom of Poland , the Kings of Poland titled themselves Kings of Prussia until 1742 .   Throughout the 18th century the power of the Kings in Prussia continued to increase . They were victorious over the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in the three Silesian Wars , greatly increasing their power through the acquisition of Silesia . King Frederick II adopted the title King of Prussia in 1772 , the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland . The kings of Prussia continued to be Electors of Brandenburg until the empire 's dissolution in 1806 . Brandenburg was then made a province of the Kingdom of Prussia , Berlin officially gaining the status of capital of the Kingdom .

neg: Branches of science The branches of science ( also referred to as `` sciences '' , `` scientific fields '' , or `` scientific disciplines '' ) are commonly divided into three major groups :  Natural sciences : the study of natural phenomena ( including fundamental forces and biological life )  Formal sciences : the study of mathematics and logic , which use an a priori , as opposed to factual , methodology )  Social sciences : the study of human behavior and societies .   Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences , meaning that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions .   Natural , social , and formal science make up the fundamental sciences , which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine . Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises .

neg: Adolf Ernst Adolf Ernst ( Primkenau , Silesia , Kingdom of Prussia , ( today Przemków , Poland ) October 6 , 1832 - Caracas , Venezuela , August 12 , 1899 ) was a Prussian-born scientist . Ernst settled in Venezuela in 1861 , where he taught at the Central University of Venezuela . He became the most important scientist in the country during the second half of the 19th century and was a key figure in the creation of the Museum of Natural Science and the National Library of Venezuela , where he also served as its director .   He developed important scientific works in this country . Also , as a university professor , he had a marked influence on generations of scientists from the second half of the nineteenth century in Venezuela .   He is regarded as the founder of the Venezuelan positivist school .

neg: Saxon Academy of Sciences The Saxon Academy of Sciences in Leipzig ( Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig ) is an institute which was founded in 1846 under the name Royal Saxon Society for the Sciences .