query: The Hobbit films starred Ken Stott.

pos: The Hobbit (film series) The Hobbit is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson . They are based on the 1937 novel The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien , with large portions of the trilogy inspired by the appendices to The Return of the King , which expand on the story told in The Hobbit , as well as new material and characters written especially for the films . Together they act as a prequel to Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy . The films are subtitled An Unexpected Journey ( 2012 ) , The Desolation of Smaug ( 2013 ) , and The Battle of the Five Armies ( 2014 ) .   The screenplay was written by Fran Walsh , Philippa Boyens , Jackson , and Guillermo del Toro , who was originally chosen to direct before his departure from the project . The films take place in the fictional world of Middle-earth sixty years before the beginning of The Lord of the Rings , and follow hobbit Bilbo Baggins ( Martin Freeman ) , who is convinced by the wizard Gandalf the Grey ( Ian McKellen ) to accompany thirteen dwarves , led by Thorin Oakenshield ( Richard Armitage ) , on a quest to reclaim the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug ( voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch ) . The films also expand upon certain elements from the novel and other source material , such as Gandalf 's investigation at Dol Guldur , and the pursuit of Azog and Bolg , who seek vengeance against Thorin and his ancestors .   The films feature an ensemble cast that also includes James Nesbitt , Ken Stott , Evangeline Lilly , Lee Pace and Luke Evans , with several actors reprising their roles from The Lord of the Rings , including Cate Blanchett , Orlando Bloom , Ian Holm , Christopher Lee , Hugo Weaving , Elijah Wood and Andy Serkis . The films also feature Manu Bennett , Sylvester McCoy , Stephen Fry , Mikael Persbrandt , Barry Humphries , and Lawrence Makoare . Also returning for production , among others , were illustrators John Howe and Alan Lee , art director Dan Hennah , cinematographer Andrew Lesnie , and composer Howard Shore , while props were again crafted by Weta Workshop , with visual effects managed by Weta Digital .   The first film in the series premiered at the Embassy Theatre in Wellington , New Zealand on 28 November 2012 . One hundred thousand people lined the red carpet on Courtenay Place , and the entire event was broadcast live on television in New Zealand and streamed over the Internet . The second film of the series premiered at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles , California on 2 December 2013 . The third and final film premiered at Leicester Square in London on 1 December 2014 .   The series was a major financial success , with the films classified as one of the highest-grossing film series of all time , going on to outgross The Lord of the Rings film trilogy . Although critically considered to be inferior to The Lord of the Rings , it was nominated for various awards and won several , though not as many as its predecessor .

neg: Cate Blanchett on screen and stage Cate Blanchett is an Australian actress who has extensively appeared in film and stage . She made her stage debut in 1992 by playing Electra in the National Institute of Dramatic Art production of the same name . She followed it with performances in Timothy Daly 's Kafka Dances ( 1993 ) and the Sydney Theatre Company stage production of Oleanna ( 1993 ) opposite Geoffrey Rush . Blanchett won the Sydney Theatre Critics Award for Best Newcomer for the former and Best Actress for the latter , making her the first person to win both awards at once . She went on to perform several roles on stage , notably Susan Traherne in Plenty ( 1999 ) , Hedda Gabler in Hedda Gabler ( 2004 ) , Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire ( 2009 ) , Yelena in Uncle Vanya ( 2011 ) and Claire in The Maids ( 2013 ) .   In 1997 , Blanchett made her feature film debut in a supporting role in the World War II drama Paradise Road . The same year , she had her first leading role in Oscar and Lucinda , which earned her an AACTA Award nomination for Best Actress . Blanchett received worldwide attention for playing Queen Elizabeth I of England in the acclaimed drama Elizabeth ( 1998 ) . Her performance garnered her a Golden Globe and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress and her first Academy Award nomination for Best Actress . Elizabeth and her next film , the thriller The Talented Mr. Ripley ( 1999 ) , performed well at the box office . However , her other 1999 releasesthe widely praised An Ideal Husband and the largely panned Pushing Tinwere unsuccessful .   Blanchett found greater success for portraying Galadriel in Peter Jackson 's epic fantasy trilogy The Lord of the Rings ( 2001-03 ) . During this period , she also appeared in several films which had mixed reception and performed poorly at the box office . She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress , among other honors for portraying Katharine Hepburn in Martin Scorsese 's 2004 drama The Aviator , making her the only actor to win an Oscar for portraying another Oscar-winning actor . Her only screen appearance in 2005 was in Little Fish , for which she won the AACTA Award for Best Actress . Blanchett 's performance in the 2006 thriller Notes on a Scandal garnered her another Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress . In 2007 , she received both Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress Oscar nominations for her roles in Elizabeth : The Golden Age and I 'm Not There , becoming one of the few actors to achieve this feat .   In 2008 , Blanchett appeared in Steven Spielberg 's action adventure Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and David Fincher 's fantasy drama The Curious Case of Benjamin Button . She briefly reprised her role of Galadriel in the The Hobbit trilogy ( 2012-14 ) . For her performance as the titular socialite in Woody Allen 's 2013 drama Blue Jasmine , Blanchett won the Golden Globe , the BAFTA Award , the SAG Award and the Academy Award for Best Actress . In 2014 , she voiced Valka in the $ 620 million-grossing animated fantasy How to Train Your Dragon 2 . In 2015 , she received praise for playing Lady Tremaine in Disney 's live action film Cinderella , Mary Mapes in Truth and the titular character in Todd Haynes 's romantic drama Carol . Cinderella was a notable box office success while Carol garnered her seventh Oscar nomination . Blanchett made her Broadway debut in 2017 with The Present , receiving her first Tony Award nomination for the Best Actress in a Play .

neg: Ian Carmichael Ian Gillett Carmichael , OBE ( 18 June 1920 -- 5 February 2010 ) was an English actor best known for his roles in the films of the Boulting brothers such as Private 's Progress ( 1956 ) and I 'm All Right Jack ( 1959 ) . Later he played Dorothy L. Sayers 's Gentleman Detective , Lord Peter Wimsey , on television and radio . Carmichael also had a career on stage .

neg: John Justin John Justin ( 24 November 1917 -- 29 November 2002 ) was a British stage and film actor .   John Justinian de Ledesma was born in London , England , the son of a well-off Argentine rancher . Though he grew up on his father 's ranch , he was educated at Bryanston School in Bryanston , Dorset . He developed an interest in flying and became a qualified pilot at the age of 12 , though he was not allowed to fly solo at the time because of his age .   He became interested in acting at a young age . By the age of 16 , he had joined the Plymouth Repertory . In 1937 , he briefly trained with the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , but did not like it and soon joined the repertory company of John Gielgud . In 1938 , he auditioned for and won the role for which he is perhaps best remembered , Ahmad in the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad , opposite Sabu .   The Second World War broke out during the film 's production . After completing the picture , Justin joined the Royal Air Force , serving as a test pilot and flying instructor . He also worked on two films , The Gentle Sex ( 1943 ) with Leslie Howard , and Journey Together ( 1944 ) , an RAF feature film with a cast led by Richard Attenborough , Jack Watling and David Tomlinson ; with a special appearance by the American film star , Edward G. Robinson . Legendary silent film star Bessie Love also appeared in the cast .   With the war 's end , Justin returned to acting . He made more films , such as David Lean 's The Sound Barrier ( 1952 ) , Island in the Sun ( 1957 ) and Lisztomania ( 1975 ) , but his strong preference was for the stage . He became a member of the Old Vic company in 1959 . He made his Broadway debut in 1960 in the play Little Moon of Alban . In 1979 , he played the ghoulish lover in the BBC 's dramatisation of Le Fanu 's Strange Incident in the Life of Schalcken the Painter , one of its Christmas ghost stories .   In 1968 , he played Thorin Oakenshield in the BBC Radio adaptation of The Hobbit .   Justin was married three times , first to dancer and choreographer Pola Nirenska . His second marriage , to actress Barbara Murray , lasted from 1952 to 1964 ; they had three daughters . From 1970 to his death in 2002 , he was married to Alison McMurdo .

neg: ITV Sunday Night Theatre ITV Sunday Night Theatre , originally titled ITV Saturday Night Theatre , is a UK television anthology series screened on ITV , and produced by London Weekend Television ( LWT ) . Some episodes were produced with Kestrel Productions .   Around 200 episodes aired on ITV from 1969-1974 , including productions of the plays Long Day 's Journey into Night by Eugene O'Neill , A Doll 's House by Henrik Ibsen , and Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw . Other episodes included adaptions of the works of William Shakespeare , James Joyce , Wilkie Collins , Simon Gray , Sam Shepard , Israel Horovitz , Arthur Miller , August Strindberg , J.B. Priestley , Lanford Wilson , and John Mortimer .   Among its directors were Michael Lindsay-Hogg , Anthony Page , Mike Newell , Fielder Cook , Ted Kotcheff , Peter Wood , and Vivian Matalon .   The actors involved included Helen Mirren , Laurence Olivier , Sean Connery , Anthony Hopkins , Michael Caine , Paul Scofield , George C. Scott , Laurence Harvey , Ralph Richardson , Diana Rigg , Trevor Howard , Glenda Jackson , Diane Cilento , Alec Guinness , Jane Asher , Martin Sheen , Colleen Dewhurst , Jean Marsh , Shelley Winters , Ian Holm , Richard Chamberlain , Edith Evans , John Gielgud , Shirley Knight , Ian McKellen , George Sanders and Margaret Whiting .

neg: Forlong the Fat Forlong the Fat is a fictional character in the Middle-earth universe created by J. R. R. Tolkien . He is a supporting character in The Lord of the Rings , appearing in the third volume , The Return of the King . However , he was cut from the 2003 film adaptation .

neg: Ken Freeman (astronomer) Kenneth Charles ( Ken ) Freeman , FAA , FRS ( born 27 August 1940 ) is an Australian astronomer and astrophysicist who is currently Duffield Professor of Astronomy in the Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Mount Stromlo Observatory of the Australian National University in Canberra . He was born in Perth , Australia in 1940 , studied mathematics and physics at the University of Western Australia , and graduated with first class honours in applied mathematics in 1962 . He then went to Cambridge University for postgraduate work in theoretical astrophysics with Leon Mestel and Donald Lynden-Bell , and completed his doctorate in 1965 . Following a postdoctoral appointment at the University of Texas with Gérard de Vaucouleurs , and a research fellowship at Trinity College , Cambridge , he returned to Australia in 1967 as a Queen Elizabeth Fellow at Mount Stromlo . Apart from a year in the Kapteyn Institute in Groningen in 1976 and some occasional absences overseas , he has been at Mount Stromlo ever since .   His research interests are in the formation and dynamics of galaxies and globular clusters , and he is particularly interested in the problem of dark matter in galaxies : he was one of the first to point out that spiral galaxies contain a large fraction of dark matter . He regularly visits the Space Telescope Science Institute as Distinguished Visiting Scientist .   He is very active in supporting graduate students and has acted as primary supervisor for 54 PhD students and seven postdocs . Five of his students have won Hubble Fellowships . He is active in international astronomy , as a division past-president of the International Astronomical Union , and serves on visiting committees for several major astronomical institutions around the world . He has been an invited speaker at 121 international conferences since 1969 . He has co-authored a book on dark matter .

neg: The Saint (film) The Saint is a 1997 espionage thriller DeLuxe Color film in Panavision , starring Val Kilmer in the title role , with Elisabeth Shue and Rade Šerbedžija , directed by Phillip Noyce and written by Jonathan Hensleigh and Wesley Strick . The title character is a high tech thief and master of disguise that becomes the anti-hero while using the moniker of various saints while paradoxically living in the underworld of international industrial theft . The film was a financial success with a worldwide box office of $ 169.4 million , rentals of $ 28.2 million , and continuous DVD sales .   It is loosely based on the character of Simon Templar created by Leslie Charteris in 1928 for a series of books published as `` The Saint '' , which ran until 1983 . The Saint character has also featured in a series of Hollywood movies made between 1938 and 1954 , a 1940s radio series starring Vincent Price ( and others ) as Templar , a popular British television series of the 1960s which starred Roger Moore , and a 1970s series starring Ian Ogilvy .

neg: Sefton Short Film Festival S2F2 , the Sefton Short Film Festival was an independent film festival based in Sefton , Merseyside to the North of Liverpool . The festival first began in 2005 .   This annual event ran for 2 days in October and exhibited a number of short films , spread over 12 hours of screenings . The 2007 Sefton Short Film Festival exhibited 65 films and attracted submissions and guests from across the world .   The festival was originally established in 2005 by Ann Monks . It was intended not only to be a place where new filmmakers can have a chance to have their work seen by a larger audience , but also as a way to get more people interested in short films as a medium .   The festival had also funded local filmmakers by organising film production courses . These courses covered all aspects of film making , from initial visualisation and script writing , through planning and shooting including camera work and sound recording , down to final editing and post production techniques .   The festival had been supported by Frank Cottrell Boyce , writer of Millions and 24 Hour Party People , Sally Bankes from Little Britain and Opiate Of The People Films .   Submissions for the S2F2 short film festival were welcomed from around the world and were usually accepted from April .

neg: Terry Pratchett's Hogfather Terry Pratchett 's Hogfather is a two-part television film adaptation of Hogfather by Terry Pratchett , produced by The Mob , and first broadcast on Sky One , and in High Definition on Sky1 HD , over Christmas 2006 . First aired in two 1.5 hour episodes on the 17th and 18 December 2006 at 20:00 UTC , it was the first live-action film adaptation of a Discworld novel . In 2007 , the two episodes were rerun on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day respectively on Sky One and Sky1 HD .   Hogfather won the Interactivity Award at the 2007 BAFTA TV Awards for its use of the interactive options available on digital television .

neg: The Lord of the Rings: War of the Ring The Lord of the Rings : War of the Ring is a 2003 real-time strategy game ( RTS ) developed by Liquid Entertainment , the makers of the previous Battle Realms and its expansion , Winter of the Wolf , and published by Sierra Entertainment . Set in J. R. R. Tolkien 's fictional Middle-earth , it expands upon the events of the War of the Ring as told in his fantasy novel , The Lord of the Rings .   Unlike the later RTS The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle-earth by Electronic Arts , War of the Ring is unrelated to the films by Peter Jackson . The game is officially licensed by Tolkien Enterprises , as are other book-based ( as opposed to film-based ) Tolkien games such as The Fellowship of the Ring and The Hobbit ( 2003 ) .

neg: Murray Melvin Murray Melvin ( born 10 August 1932 ) is an English stage and film actor noted for his work with Joan Littlewood , Ken Russell and Stanley Kubrick . He is the author of two books : The Art of Theatre Workshop ( 2006 ) and The Theatre Royal , A History of the Building ( 2009 ) .

neg: Marton Csokas Marton Paul Csokas ( Csókás Márton , -LSB- ˈt͡ʃoːkaːʃ ˈmaːrton -RSB- ; born 30 June 1966 ) is a New Zealand actor of Hungarian descent . His notable roles include Celeborn in The Lord of the Rings film series ( 2001 -- 03 ) , Yorgi in xXx ( 2002 ) , Guy de Lusignan in Kingdom of Heaven ( 2005 ) , Trevor Goodchild in Æon Flux ( 2005 ) , Hora in Romulus , My Father ( 2007 ) , Nico in Dead Europe ( 2012 ) , Jack Barts in Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter ( 2012 ) , Lieutenant Barnes in Pawn ( 2013 ) , and Nicolai Itchenko in The Equalizer ( 2014 ) .   He is set to appear as former FBI Director L. Patrick Gray in the upcoming 2017 film The Silent Man .

neg: Ken St. Andre Kenneth Eugene St. Andre ( born on April 28 , 1947 in Ogden , Utah ) is an American fantasy author and game designer , best known for his work with Tunnels & Trolls and Wasteland . He has been an active member of The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America since 1989 .

neg: Mary Stott Mary Stott ( née Waddington ) ( 18 July 1907 -- 16 September 2002 ) was a British feminist and journalist . Stott was a journalist and columnist on the `` Women 's Page '' of The Guardian .   Stott was born on 18 July 1907 in Leicester to Robert and Amalie Waddington ( née Bates ) as Charlotte Mary Waddington . Her parents were both journalists . In 1937 , she married Ken Stott , who was a journalist for the News Chronicle .   In November 2005 she was posthumously included ( one of just five women ) in the Press Gazette 's 40-strong ` gallery ' of most influential British journalists .

neg: Last of the Summer Wine (series 30) Last of the Summer Wine 's 30th series originally aired 19 April 2009 . All eleven episodes in series 30 were 30 minutes in length . A New Years Special aired on 31 December 2008 . All of the episodes were written by Roy Clarke and directed by Alan J. W. Bell .   This series is notable for forming a new trio composed of Alvin , Entwistle and Hobbo , who was introduced in the New Years Special .  Peter Sallis ( Clegg ) and Frank Thornton ( Truly ) are now demoted to secondary characters , filmed only in studio scenes due to the cost of insurance for the actors at their age on location .

neg: Blithe Spirit (film) Blithe Spirit is a 1945 English fantasy-comedy film directed by David Lean . The screenplay by Lean , cinematographer Ronald Neame and associate producer Anthony Havelock-Allan is based on producer Noël Coward 's 1941 play of the same name , the title of which is derived from the line `` Hail to thee , blithe Spirit ! Bird thou never wert '' in the poem `` To a Skylark '' by Percy Bysshe Shelley .   The film features Kay Hammond and Margaret Rutherford , in the roles they created in the original production , along with Rex Harrison and Constance Cummings in the lead parts of Charles and Ruth Condomine . While not very successful at the time and a disappointing adaptation according to Coward himself , it has since come to be considered notable for its Technicolor photography and Academy Award-winning visual effects in particular and has been re-released several times , notably as one of the ten early David Lean features restored by the British Film Institute for release in 2008 .

neg: Lego The Lord of the Rings (video game) Lego The Lord of the Rings is a Lego-themed action-adventure video game developed by Traveller 's Tales , that was released on Nintendo 3DS , Nintendo DS , PlayStation Vita , Microsoft Windows , Wii , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . The OS X version of the game , published by Feral Interactive , was released on 21 February 2013 .   Based on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , the game follows the original but spoofed storylines of The Fellowship of the Ring , The Two Towers , and The Return of the King , taking players through the epic story events , `` re-imagined with the humour and endless variety of Lego play '' . The game utilises music and voice acting taken from all three films of the film trilogy . Developer Traveller 's Tales has stated they toned down the slapstick humor found in other Lego-licensed titles . The game follows the events in the films ; however , like the Lego Star Wars series , some scenes from the films have been altered to become more family friendly or just provide comic relief to the player .

neg: Kerry Film Festival The Kerry Film Festival is an annual music film festival in County Kerry , Republic of Ireland , taking place in October .   The Kerry Film Festival is funded by Kerry County Council , Fáilte Ireland , the Ireland Funds as well as having corporate sponsorship .   Kerry Film Festival was established in 2000 but remained a small regional festival throughout its first years , with a mere 1,700 attendees at the 2006 festival . Then , in 2007 , the festival exploded becoming the fastest growing festival in all of Ireland , with audiences increasing by nearly 600 % from 2006 to 2011 when its audience topped 10,000 for the first time .   The main feature of the festival is a short film competition which focuses on young filmmakers . Past adjudicators of the Kerry Film Festival Short Film Competition have included Jeremy Irons , Liam Neeson , Michael Fassbender and Gabriel Byrne . The festival also screens feature films .   In 2008 Kerry Film Festival instigated the Maureen O'Hara Award for women that have excelled in film and Brenda Fricker was the inaugural recipient . The award was presented to her by Jim Sheridan , who directed her in the Oscar-winning My Left Foot ( 1989 ) . In 2009 the award was presented to Rebecca Miller who was in Kerry to pick up the award with her husband , Daniel Day-Lewis at a ceremony with Dave Fanning as MC .   In 2010 Maureen O'Hara attended the festival and presented the award in person to Juliette Binoche Fionnula Flanagan picked up the award in 2011 while Saoirse Ronan won the award in 2012 .   KFF has previously featured successful short films such as the Oscar short-listed animation Head over Heels in 2012 , the 2014 Oscar winner Mr. Hublot and in 2015 the highly acclaimed Academy Award winner S t u t t e r e r by Ben Cleary .

neg: Samwise Gamgee Samwise `` Sam '' Gamgee -LSB- ˈsæmˌwaɪz_ˈɡæmˌdʒiː -RSB- ( later known as Samwise Gardner ) is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien 's legendarium . Samwise is one of the main characters of The Lord of the Rings , in which he fills an archetypical role as the sidekick of the primary protagonist , Frodo Baggins . Sam is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring .   At the beginning of the story , Sam is the gardener of Frodo , and is drawn into Frodo 's adventure by Gandalf while eavesdropping on a private conversation . Throughout the story , Sam is Frodo 's steadfast companion , portrayed as both physically and emotionally strong , often pushing Frodo through difficult parts of the journey , and at times physically carrying him when Frodo was too weak to go on . Sam even serves as ring-bearer for a short time when Frodo is captured ; Sam 's emotional strength is again on display as he willingly gives the ring up when Frodo is capable of carrying it again , the only character known to resist its pull . Following the War of the Ring Sam returned to the Shire , and returned to his role as gardener , helping to replant the trees which had been destroyed during The Scouring of the Shire . He was elected Mayor of the Shire for seven consecutive terms , and in his old age was one of the last denizens of Middle Earth to be transported to The Undying Lands , an honor accorded to him as one of the ring-bearers .

neg: Kenneth Tsang Kenneth Tsang Kong ( ; born 2 September 1935 ) is a Hong Kong actor . Tsang 's career has spanned 50 years and included a variety of acting roles . Tsang won the Best Supporting Actor Award at the 34th Hong Kong Film Awards in 2015 .


query: All organisms are composed of cells.

pos: Cell (biology) The cell ( from Latin cella , meaning `` small room '' ) is the basic structural , functional , and biological unit of all known living organisms . A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently , and cells are often called the `` building blocks of life '' . The study of cells is called cell biology .   Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane , which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids . Organisms can be classified as unicellular ( consisting of a single cell ; including bacteria ) or multicellular ( including plants and animals ) . While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species , humans contain more than 10 trillion ( 1012 ) cells . Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope , with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres .   The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 , who named the biological unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery . Cell theory , first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann , states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells , that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms , that all cells come from preexisting cells , and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells . Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago .

neg: Ingredient An ingredient is a substance that forms part of a mixture ( in a general sense ) . For example , in cooking , recipes specify which ingredients are used to prepare a specific dish . Many commercial products contain a secret ingredient that is purported to make them better than competing products . In the pharmaceutical industry , an active ingredient is that part of a formulation that yields the effect expected by the customer .   National laws usually require prepared food products to display a list of ingredients , and specifically require that certain additives be listed .   In most developed countries , the law requires that ingredients be listed according to their relative weight in the product . If an ingredient itself consists of more than one ingredient ( such as the cookie pieces which are a part of `` cookies and cream '' flavor ice cream ) , then that ingredient is listed by what percentage of the total product it occupies , with its own ingredients displayed next to it in brackets .   The term constituent is often chosen when referring to the substances that constitute the tissue of living beings such as plants and people , because the word ingredient in many minds connotes a sense of human agency ( that is , something that a person combines with other substances ) , whereas the natural products present in living beings were not added by any human agency but rather occurred naturally ( `` a plant does n't have ingredients '' ) . Thus all ingredients are constituent #Nouns , but not all constituents are ingredients .

neg: Cortical column A cortical column , also called hypercolumn , macrocolumn , functional column or sometimes cortical module , is a group of neurons in the cortex of the brain that can be successively penetrated by a probe inserted perpendicularly to the cortical surface , and which have nearly identical receptive fields . Neurons within a minicolumn ( microcolumn ) encode similar features , whereas a hypercolumn `` denotes a unit containing a full set of values for any given set of receptive field parameters '' . A cortical module is defined as either synonymous with a hypercolumn ( Mountcastle ) or as a tissue block of multiple overlapping hypercolumns .   The columnar hypothesis states that the cortex is composed of discrete , modular columns of neurons , characterized by a consistent connectivity profile .   It is still unclear what precisely is meant by the term , and it does not correspond to any single structure within the cortex . It has been impossible to find a canonical microcircuit that corresponds to the cortical column , and no genetic mechanism has been deciphered that designates how to construct a column . However , the columnar organization hypothesis is currently the most widely adopted to explain the cortical processing of information .

neg: Nuclear equivalence According to the principle of nuclear equivalence , the nuclei of essentially all differentiated adult cells of an individual are genetically ( though not necessarily metabolically ) identical to one another and to the nucleus of the zygote from which they descended . This means that virtually all somatic cells in an adult have the same genes . However , different cells express different subsets of these genes .   The evidence for nuclear equivalence comes from cases in which differentiated cells or their nuclei have been found to retain the potential of directing the development of the entire organism . Such cells or nuclei are said to exhibit totipotency .

neg: The central science Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences , which include chemistry , with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering . The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics . The phrase was popularized by its use in a textbook by Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay , titled Chemistry : The Central Science , which was first published in 1977 , with a thirteenth edition published in 2014 .   The central role of chemistry can be seen in the systematic and hierarchical classification of the sciences by Auguste Comte in which each discipline provides a more general framework for the area it precedes ( mathematics → astronomy → physics → chemistry → physiology and medicine → social sciences ) . Balaban and Klein have more recently proposed a diagram showing partial ordering of sciences in which chemistry may be argued is `` the central science '' since it provides a significant degree of branching . In forming these connections the lower field can not be fully reduced to the higher ones . It is recognized that the lower fields possess emergent ideas and concepts that do not exist in the higher fields of science .   Thus chemistry is built on an understanding of laws of physics that govern particles such as atoms , protons , electrons , thermodynamics , etc. although it has been shown that it has not been `` fully ` reduced ' to quantum mechanics '' . Concepts such as the periodicity of the elements and chemical bonds in chemistry are emergent in that they are more than the underlying forces that are defined by physics .   In the same way , biology can not be fully reduced to chemistry despite the fact that the machinery that is responsible for life is composed of molecules . For instance , the machinery of evolution may be described in terms of chemistry by the understanding that it is a mutation in the order of genetic base pairs in the DNA of an organism . However , chemistry can not fully describe the process since it does not contain concepts such as natural selection that are responsible for driving evolution . Chemistry is fundamental to biology since it provides a methodology for studying and understanding the molecules that compose cells .   Connections made by chemistry are formed through various sub-disciplines that utilize concepts from multiple scientific disciplines . Chemistry and physics are both needed in the areas of physical chemistry , nuclear chemistry , and theoretical chemistry . Chemistry and biology intersect in the areas of biochemistry , medicinal chemistry , molecular biology , chemical biology , molecular genetics , and immunochemistry . Chemistry and the earth sciences intersect in areas like geochemistry and hydrology .

neg: Control of chromosome duplication In cell biology , eukaryotes possess a regulatory system that ensures that DNA replication occurs only once per cell cycle .   A key feature of the DNA replication mechanism in eukaryotes is that it is designed to replicate relatively large genomes rapidly and with high fidelity . Replication is initiated at multiple origins of replication on multiple chromosomes simultaneously so that the duration of S phase is not limited by the total amount of DNA . This flexibility in genome size comes at a cost : there has to be a high-fidelity control system that coordinates multiple replication origins so that they are activated only once during each S phase . If this were not the case , daughter cells might inherit an excessive amount of any DNA sequence , which could lead to many harmful effects .

neg: Protein complex A protein complex or multiprotein complex is a group of two or more associated polypeptide chains . Different polypeptide chains may have different functions . This is distinct from a multienzyme complex , in which multiple catalytic domains are found in a single polypeptide chain .   Protein complexes are a form of quaternary structure . Proteins in a protein complex are linked by non-covalent protein -- protein interactions , and different protein complexes have different degrees of stability over time . These complexes are a cornerstone of many ( if not most ) biological processes and together they form various types of molecular machinery that perform a vast array of biological functions . The cell is seen to be composed of modular supramolecular complexes , each of which performs an independent , discrete biological function .   Through proximity , the speed and selectivity of binding interactions between enzymatic complex and substrates can be vastly improved , leading to higher cellular efficiency . Unfortunately , many of the techniques used to break open cells and isolate proteins are inherently disruptive to such large complexes , so it is often difficult to determine the components of a complex . Examples of protein complexes include the proteasome for molecular degradation and most RNA polymerases . In stable complexes , large hydrophobic interfaces between proteins typically bury surface areas larger than 2500 square Ås .

neg: Deuterosome In cell biology , a deuterosome is a protein structure within a multiciliated cell ( such as an epithelial cell of respiratory tract ) that produces multiple centrioles .   Most cells in human body possess one primary cilium , a relatively small protrusion of the cell membrane that looks like a stick or a finger under the electron microscope . Primary cilium is typically used by the cell as a sensory organelle , or antenna . Some cells , however , have numerous cilia which they use to generate directed fluid flow . The examples include epithelial cells of the respiratory tract in which multiple cilia are used for mucus clearance , the oviduct , in which cilia help the egg migrate to the uterus , and others .   Each cilium has a basal body formed from a centriole to which it is anchored and from which it starts to grow after each cell division , when a new daughter cell is formed . Centrioles typically replicate once during cell division , thus allowing for only one cilium for a daughter cell . Multiciliated cells , on the other hand , need to produce more than 100 centrioles in order to grow multiple cilia . This problem is solved by the existence of deuterosome , a structure thought to be formed from amorphous filamentous material and able to make many centrioles at once .   The evidence of the existence of deuterosome first came from electron microscopy work in various multiciliated tissues . It was found that both centriole duplication and de novo generation of centrioles occurs in such cells . The generation of new centrioles which will serve as basal bodies for multiple cilia is due to a cytoplasmic structure , which was termed the `` deuterosome '' by Sorokin .

neg: Microorganism A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism , which may be single-celled or multicellular . The study of microorganisms is called microbiology , a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek . Robert Hooke coined the term `` cell '' after viewing plant cells under his microscope . Later , in the 19th century , Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage , debunking the theory of spontaneous generation . In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases .   Microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria , archaea and most protozoa . This group also contains some fungi , algae , and some micro-animals such as rotifers . Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages . Some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms , but others consider these as nonliving . In July 2016 , scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor of all life , including microorganisms , living on Earth .   Microorganisms live in every part of the biosphere , including soil , hot springs , inside rocks at least 12 mi deep underground , the deepest parts of the ocean , and at least 40 mi high in the atmosphere . Microorganisms , under certain test conditions , have been observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space . Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined . The mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon , out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons . Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench , the deepest spot in the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to 580 m below the sea floor under 2590 m of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States , as well as 2400 m beneath the seabed off Japan . In August 2014 , scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica . According to one researcher , `` You can find microbes everywhere -- they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . ''   Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers . As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen , they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle , and recent studies indicate that airborne microorganisms may play a role in precipitation and weather . Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology , both in traditional food and beverage preparation , and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering . A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic , causing disease and even death in plants and animals .

neg: Animat Animat ( third-person indicative present of the Latin verb animō ) , meaning to `` animate , give or bring life '' .   Animats are artificial animals , a contraction of animal-materials . The term includes physical robots and virtual simulations . Animat research , a subset of Artificial Life studies , has become rather popular since Rodney Brooks ' seminal paper `` Intelligence without representation '' . The word was coined by S.W. Wilson in 1985 ,  in `` Knowledge growth in an artificial animal '' , published in the first Proceedings  of an International Conference on Genetic Algorithms and Their Applications .   An example using the Animat model as proposed by Wilson is discussed at some length in chapter 9 of Stan Franklin 's book , Artificial Minds . In this implementation , the animat is capable of independent learning about its environment through application and evolution of pattern-matching rules called `` taxons '' .   In 2001 Thomas DeMarse performed studies on ` Neurally controlled animat ' . Every two years , the Society of Adaptive Behaviour meets and produces a proceedings on this topic . They also have a journal , Adaptive Behavior .   Alan H Goldstein has proposed that , because nanobiotechnology is in the process of creating real animal-materials , speculative use of this term should be discouraged and its application become purely phenomenological . Based on the Animat Test ( contained in the reference `` I , Nanobot . '' ) any nonbiological material or entity that exhibits the minimum set of behaviors that define a life form is , de facto , an Animat . Goldstein 's basic premise is that in the age of nanobiotechnology it is necessary to follow the chemistry and molecular engineering rather than watching for the emergence of some pre-conceived minimum level of ` intelligence ' such as an artificial neural network capable of adaptive phenomena . Goldstein has cautioned that there is a serious disconnect between the fields of nanobiotechnology and A-life based on profound differences in scientific training , experimental systems , and the different sets of terminology ( jargon ) these two fields have produced . Nanobiotechnologists ( really molecular engineers who work with both biological and nonbiological molecules ) are generally not concerned with complex systems per se ; even when they are building molecular interconnects between such systems , e.g. neuroelectronic splices . A-Life researchers mainly take a systems-level approach . The enormous transformative power of novel molecular engineering has the potential to create Animats , true nonbiological life forms , whose relatively simple behavior would not fit into most standard A-Life paradigms . As a result , Goldstein argues , the first Animats may come into being completely unrecognized by either scientific community .

neg: Ex vivo Ex vivo ( Latin : `` out of the living '' ) means that which takes place outside an organism . In science , ex vivo refers to experimentation or measurements done in or on tissue from an organism in an external environment with minimal alteration of natural conditions . Ex vivo conditions allow experimentation on an organism 's cells or tissues under more controlled conditions than is possible in in vivo experiments ( in the intact organism ) , at the expense of altering the `` natural '' environment .   A primary advantage of using ex vivo tissues is the ability to perform tests or measurements that would otherwise not be possible or ethical in living subjects . Tissues may be removed in many ways , including in part , as whole organs , or as larger organ systems .   Examples of ex vivo specimen use include :  assays ;  finding cancer treatment agents that are effective against the organism 's cancer cells  measurements of physical , thermal , electrical , mechanical , optical and other tissue properties , especially in various environments that may not be life-sustaining ( for example , at extreme pressures or temperatures ) ;  realistic models for surgical procedure development ;  investigations into the interaction of different energy types with tissues ;  or as phantoms in imaging technique development .   The term ex vivo means that the samples to be tested have been extracted from the organism . The term in vitro ( `` within the glass '' ) means the samples to be tested are obtained from a repository , in the case of cancer cells a strain that would produce favorable results , then grown to produce a control sample and the number of samples required for the number of tests . These two terms are not synonymous even though the testing in both cases is `` within the glass '' . The results of ex vivo only apply to the organism supplying the cell whereas the in vitro results only apply to the cell line used .   In cell biology , ex vivo procedures often involve living cells or tissues taken from an organism and cultured in a laboratory apparatus , usually under sterile conditions with no alterations , for up to 24 hours to obtain sufficient cells for the experiments . Experiments generally start after 24 hours of incubation . Using living cells or tissue from the same organism are still considered to be ex vivo . One widely performed ex vivo study is the chick chorioallantoic membrane ( CAM ) assay . In this assay , angiogenesis is promoted on the CAM membrane of a chicken embryo outside the organism ( chicken ) .

neg: Abiogenesis Abiogenesis ( British English : -LSB- ˌeɪˌbaɪoʊˈdʒɛnᵻsᵻs , _ - ˌbaɪə - -RSB- , -LSB- - en - ˌbiːoʊ - , _ - ˌbiːə - -RSB- ) , biopoiesis , \ \ or informally , the origin of life , is the natural process by which life arises from non-living matter , such as simple organic compounds . Abiogenesis is studied through a combination of paleontology , laboratory experiments and extrapolation from the characteristics of modern organisms , and aims to determine how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life on Earth .   The study of abiogenesis can be geophysical , chemical , or biological , with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three . Life itself is dependent upon the specialized chemistry of carbon and water and is largely based upon five different families of chemicals . Lipids are fatty molecules comprising large chemical chains of hydrocarbons and play an important role in the structure of living cell membranes , actively and passively determining the transport of other molecules into and out of cells . Carbohydrates are sugars , and as monomer units can be assembled into polymers called polysaccharides , such as cellulose , the rigid chemical of most plant cell walls . Nitrogenous bases are organic molecules in which the amine group of nitrogen , combined with two hydrogen atoms , plays an important part . Chlorophyll is based upon a porphyrin ring derived from amine monomer units , and is important in the capture of the energy needed for life . Nucleic acid monomers are made from a carbohydrate monosaccharide a nitrogenous base and one or more high energy phosphate groups . When joined together they form either the unit of inheritance , the gene , made from DNA or RNA , which translates the genetic information into protein structures . The monomer unit of a protein is usually one of 20 amino acids , comprising an amine group , a hydrocarbon , and a carboxylic acid . Through a condensation reaction , in which the carboxylic acid of one amino acid is linked to the amine of another with removal of a water molecule , a peptide bond is formed . Polymers of amino acids are termed proteins and these molecules provide many catalytic metabolic functions for living processes . Any successful theory of abiogenesis must explain the origins and interactions of these five classes of molecules .   Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how self-replicating molecules , or their components , came into existence . It is generally thought that current life on Earth is descended from an RNA world , although RNA-based life may not have been the first life to have existed . The classic Miller -- Urey experiment and similar research demonstrated that most amino acids , the basic chemical constituents of the proteins used in all living organisms , can be synthesized from inorganic compounds under conditions intended to replicate those of the early Earth . Various external sources of energy that may have triggered these reactions have been proposed , including lightning and radiation . Other approaches ( `` metabolism-first '' hypotheses ) focus on understanding how catalysis in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the precursor molecules necessary for self-replication . Complex organic molecules have been found in the Solar System and in interstellar space , and these molecules may have provided starting material for the development of life on Earth .   The panspermia hypothesis alternatively suggests that microscopic life was distributed to the early Earth by meteoroids , asteroids and other small Solar System bodies and that life may exist throughout the Universe . It is speculated that the biochemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13.8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the age of the universe was only 10 to 17 million years . The panspermia hypothesis proposes that life originated outside the Earth , not how life came to be .   Nonetheless , Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life , and fossil evidence from the Earth informs most studies of abiogenesis . More than 99 % of all species of life forms , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years ; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago , and possibly as early as the Eoarchean Era , after geological crust started to solidify following the molten Hadean Eon . In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits ( often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . However , there have been a number of discoveries that suggested the earliest appearance of life on Earth was even earlier in time . Currently , microfossils within hydrothermal vent precipitates dated from 3.77 to 4.28 billion years old found in Quebec , Canada may be the oldest record of life on Earth , suggesting `` an almost instantaneous emergence of life '' after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago . According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . ''

neg: Cell cycle The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA ( DNA replication ) to produce two daughter cells . In bacteria , which lack a cell nucleus , the cell cycle is divided into the B , C , and D periods . The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication . DNA replication occurs during the C period . The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells . In cells with a nucleus , as in eukaryotes , the cell cycle is also divided into three periods : interphase , the mitotic ( M ) phase , and cytokinesis . During interphase , the cell grows , accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis , preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA . During the mitotic phase , the chromosomes separate . During the final stage , cytokinesis , the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells . To ensure the proper division of the cell , there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints .   The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism , as well as the process by which hair , skin , blood cells , and some internal organs are renewed . After cell division , each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle . Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable , each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell divisions .

neg: Metabolism Metabolism ( from μεταβολή metabolē , `` change '' ) is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms . The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food/fuel to energy to run cellular processes , the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins , lipids , nucleic acids , and some carbohydrates , and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes . These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce , maintain their structures , and respond to their environments . The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms , including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells , in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism .   Metabolism is usually divided into two categories : catabolism , the breaking down of organic matter for example , the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate , by cellular respiration , and anabolism , the building up of components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids . Usually , breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy .   The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways , in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical , by a sequence of enzymes . Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves , by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy . Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly . Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell 's environment or to signals from other cells .   The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous . For example , some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient , yet this gas is poisonous to animals . The speed of metabolism , the metabolic rate , influences how much food an organism will require , and also affects how it is able to obtain that food .   A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species . For example , the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms , being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants . These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history , and their retention because of their efficacy .

neg: Xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation ( xenos - from the Greek meaning `` foreign '' ) , is the transplantation of living cells , tissues or organs from one species to another . Such cells , tissues or organs are called xenografts or xenotransplants . It is contrasted with allotransplantation ( from other individual of same species ) , Syngeneic transplantation ( Grafts transplanted between two genetically identical individuals of the same species ) and Autotransplantation ( from one part of the body to another in the same person ) .   Xenotransplantation of human tumor cells into immunocompromised mice is a research technique frequently used in pre-clinical oncology research .   Human xenotransplantation offers a potential treatment for end-stage organ failure , a significant health problem in parts of the industrialized world . It also raises many novel medical , legal and ethical issues . A continuing concern is that many animals , such as pigs , have a shorter lifespan than humans , meaning that their tissues age at a quicker rate . Disease transmission ( xenozoonosis ) and permanent alteration to the genetic code of animals are also causes for concern . A few successful cases of xenotransplantation are published .   It is not uncommon for patients and physicians to use the term `` allograft '' imprecisely to refer to either allograft ( human-to-human ) or xenograft ( animal-to-human ) , but it is helpful scientifically ( for those searching or reading the scientific literature ) to maintain the more precise distinction in usage .

neg: Chromosome A chromosome ( from ancient Greek : χρωμόσωμα , chromosoma , chroma means color , soma means body ) is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material ( genome ) of an organism .   Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only when the cell is undergoing the metaphase of cell division . Before this happens , every chromosome is copied once ( S phase ) , and the copy is joined to the original by a centromere , resulting in an X-shaped structure . The original chromosome and the copy are now called sister chromatids . During metaphase , when a chromosome is in its most condensed state , the X-shape structure is called a metaphase chromosome . In this highly condensed form chromosomes are easiest to distinguish and study .   Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms . Some species such as certain bacteria , which lack histones , also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA . These are circular structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer . In prokaryotes ( see nucleoids ) and viruses , the DNA is often densely packed and organized ; in the case of archaea , by homology to eukaryotic histones , and in the case of bacteria , by histone-like proteins .   Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during cell division ( mitosis or meiosis ) results either in a four-arm structure ( pictured to the right ) if the centromere is located in the middle of the chromosome or a two-arm structure if the centromere is located near one of the ends . Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction play a significant role in genetic diversity . If these structures are manipulated incorrectly , through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation , the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe and die , or it may unexpectedly evade apoptosis , leading to the progression of cancer .   Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense , to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells , either visible or not under light microscopy . However , others use the concept in a narrower sense , to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division , visible under light microscopy due to high condensation .

neg: Phenotype A phenotype is the composite of an organism 's observable characteristics or traits , such as its morphology , development , biochemical or physiological properties , behavior , and products of behavior ( such as a bird 's nest ) . A phenotype results from the expression of an organism 's genetic code , its genotype , as well as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions between the two . When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species , the species is called polymorphic . A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring ; while the coat color depends on many genes , it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow , black and brown .   This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism 's heredity and what that heredity produces . The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann , who distinguished between germ plasm ( heredity ) and somatic cells ( the body ) . The genotype-phenotype distinction should not be confused with Francis Crick 's central dogma of molecular biology , which is a statement about the directionality of molecular sequential information flowing from DNA to protein , and not the reverse .   Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that bird nests and other built structures such as caddis fly larvae cases and beaver dams can be considered as `` extended phenotypes '' .

neg: Backbone chain In polymer science , the backbone chain of a polymer is the longest series of covalently bonded atoms that together create the continuous chain of the molecule . This science is subdivided into the study of organic polymers , which consist of a carbon backbone , and inorganic polymers which have backbones containing only main group elements .   In biochemistry , organic backbone chains make up the primary structure of macromolecules . The backbones of these biological macromolecules consist of central chains of covalently bonded atoms . The characteristics and order of the monomer residues in the backbone make a map for the complex structure biological polymers . The backbone is , therefore , directly related to biological molecules ' function . The macromolecules within the body can be divided into four main subcategories , each of which are involved in very different and important biological processes : Proteins , Carbohydrates , Lipids , and Nucleic acids . Each of these molecules has a different backbone and consists of different monomers each with distinctive residues and functionalities . This is the driving factor of their different structures and functions in the body . Although lipids have a `` backbone , '' they are not true biological polymers as their backbone is a three carbon molecule , glycerol , with longer substituent `` side chains . '' For this reason , only proteins , carbohydrates , and nucleic acids should be considered as biological macromolecules with polymeric backbones .

neg: Stroma (tissue) Stroma ( from Greek στρῶμα , meaning `` layer , bed , bed covering '' ) is the part of a tissue or organ that has a connective and structural role . It consists of all the parts which do not conduct the specific functions of the organ , for example , connective tissue , blood vessels , nerves , ducts , etc. . The other part is the parenchyma , which is the cells that perform the function of the tissue or organ . There are multiple ways of classifying tissues : one way of classifying tissues is based on their functions and another is based on their cellular components . Stromal tissue falls into the class that functions in contributing to the body 's support and movement . The cells that stroma tissues are composed of serve as a matrix in which the other cells are embedded . Stroma is made of various types of stromal cells .   Examples of stroma include :  stroma of iris  stroma of cornea  stroma of ovary  stroma of thyroid gland  stroma of thymus  stroma of bone marrow  lymph node stromal cell

neg: Semi-biotic systems Semi-biotic systems are systems that incorporate biologically derived components/modules -- which could range from multi-protein complexes through DNA constructs to multi-cellular assemblies -- and integrate them with synthetic components ( e.g. microfabricated systems ) to produce hybrid devices . One of the potential attractions of these hybrid devices is the possibility that they can be designed to exhibit higher degrees of adaptability and autonomy than is possible with solid-state devices . Examples include : artificial organelle-like systems that could accomplish the synthesis of complex biomacromolecules , or synthetic multi-cellular structures that incorporate specific sensing and reporting functionalities , such that they could be used in hybrid devices for chemical or biological agent sensing .   Semi-biotic systems is an emerging area of research within the broader area of Synthetic Biology . In the European community a programme entitled NEONUCLEI was funded under FP7 whose aim is to generate synthetic analogues of cell  nuclei capable of sustaining transcription , in self-assembled systems comprising DNA , macromolecules ( or nanoparticles ) , and lipids .

neg: Cell cortex The cell cortex , also known as the actin cortex or actomyosin cortex , is a specialized layer of cytoplasmic protein on the inner face of the plasma membrane of the cell periphery . It functions as a modulator of plasma membrane behavior and cell surface properties . In most eukaryotic cells lacking a cell wall , the cortex is an actin-rich network consisting of F-actin filaments , myosin motors , and actin-binding proteins . The actomyosin cortex is attached to the cell membrane via membrane-anchoring proteins called ERM proteins and it plays a central role in cell shape control . The protein constituents of the cortex undergo rapid turnover , making the cortex both mechanically rigid and highly plastic , two properties essential to its function . In most cases , the cortex is in the range of 100 to 1000 nanometers thick .   In some animal cells , the protein spectrin may be present in the cortex . Spectrin helps to create a network by cross-linked actin filaments . The proportions of spectrin and actin vary with cell type . Spectrin proteins and actin microfilaments are attached to transmembrane proteins by attachment proteins between them and the transmembrane proteins . The cell cortex is attached to the inner ( cytosolic ) face of the plasma membrane in cells where the spectrin proteins and actin microfilaments form a mesh-like structure much like a fishnet except that it can be broken and reformed .   In plant cells , the cell cortex is reinforced by cortical microtubules underlying the plasma membrane . The direction of these cortical microtubules determines which way the cell elongates when it grows .


query: Horseshoe Falls is a part of Niagara Falls.

pos: Horseshoe Falls Horseshoe Falls , also known as Canadian Falls , is one of three waterfalls which collectively form Niagara Falls on the Niagara River along the Canada-US Border . Approximately 90 % of the Niagara River , after diversions for hydropower generation , flows over Horseshoe Falls . The remaining 10 % flows over American Falls and Bridal Veil falls . It is located between Terrapin Point on Goat Island in the US state of New York , and Table Rock in the Canadian province of Ontario .

neg: Sauble Falls Provincial Park Sauble Falls Provincial Park is located in the community of Sauble Falls , town of South Bruce Peninsula , Bruce County in southwestern Ontario , Canada . It is in the lower drainage basin of the Sauble River , which flows into Lake Huron . The campground consists of two sections divided by County Road 13 . The West section of the site is a quiet zone ( no radios allowed ) . Group camping is available in the east section . Many sites along the east portion of the park back up against the Sauble River . The park is also the downstream terminus of the Rankin River canoe route .

neg: Middle Vinemount Falls Middle Vinemount Falls is a 10 metre high cascade waterfall found on CN property in Stoney Creek , Hamilton , Ontario , Canada .   Nearby attractions include the Bruce Trail , Vinemount Conservation Area , Dofasco 2000 Trail , Battlefield House Museum , Devil 's Punch Bowl , Devil 's Punch Bowl Conservation Area , Erland Lee House .

neg: Nottawasaga Bay Nottawasaga Bay is a sub-bay within Georgian Bay in Southern Ontario , Canada located at the southernmost end of the main bay . The communities located on Nottawasaga Bay are Meaford , The Blue Mountains , Collingwood , Wasaga Beach and Tiny .   The western shore of Nottawasaga Bay is determined by the Niagara Escarpment , which reaches Nottawasaga Bay between Collingwood and Thornbury . The southern shore is flat limestone plain , with cedar marshes . The Nottawasaga River flows into Georgian Bay near the southern end of the bay , and onward to the east the shore is predominantly sand dunes and marshes created by the strong predominant northwest winds . This part of Nottawasaga Bay is heavily built up with summer homes . Nearer to Thornbury and the Beaver River Valley there are some vineyards and many apple orchards dot the area .

neg: Jordan Falls, Nova Scotia Jordan Falls is a community of the Municipality of the District of Shelburne in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia on Nova Scotia Trunk 3 and Highway 103 .   Temperate climate . Village on the Jordan River and resulting delta basin : The lands are tidal with substantial marshlands that can be visited by the Trans Canada trails starting from several points in the village . Jordan River and delta feeds Jordan Bay . Forests , marshes and fields predominate . Wildlife populate both land and waters . Waterfowl , marshland animals and deer in lower delta . Northern river delta lowly populated and used by hunters and recreationalists .   Aboriginal peoples and acadiennes replaced by US puritans in lower farmlands in 1700s , then mixed settlers , and then loyalists from American revolution in 1776 . Jordan Falls rests between Towns of Shelburne and Lockeport . Baptist and Anglians hold church , cemetery and summer camp properties .   Wood milling , micro-farming , merchants , sports and artists continue long tradition - the noted nineteenth-century shipbuilder and designer Donald McKay came from Jordan Falls . His most famous vessel was the clipper ship Flying Cloud .

neg: Grand River (Ontario) The Grand River ( Grande-Riviere in French and O : se Kenhionhata : tie in Mohawk ) is a large river in Southwestern Ontario , Canada . It also lies along the western fringe of the Golden Horseshoe region of Ontario which overlaps the eastern portion of southwestern Ontario along the length of this river . From its source near Wareham , Ontario , it flows south through Grand Valley , Fergus , Elora , Waterloo , Kitchener , Cambridge , Paris , Brantford , Caledonia , and Cayuga before emptying into the north shore of Lake Erie south of Dunnville at Port Maitland . One of the scenic and spectacular features of the river is the falls and Gorge at Elora .   The Grand River is the largest river that is entirely within southern Ontario 's boundaries . The river owes its size to the unusual fact that its source is relatively close to the base of the Bruce Peninsula , yet it flows southwards to Lake Erie , rather than to central Lake Huron or Georgian Bay ( most southern Ontario rivers flow into the nearest Great Lake , which is why most of them are small ) , thus giving it more distance to take in more water from tributaries .   The river 's rural character , ease of access and lack of portages make it a desirable canoeing location , especially the stretch between West Montrose and Paris . A number of conservation areas have been established along the river , and are managed by the Grand River Conservation Authority .   The Grand Valley Trail stretches 275 km along the river 's valley between the town of Dundalk and Lake Erie .   The Mohawk name for the Grand River , O : se Kenhionhata : tie means `` Willow River , '' for the many willows in the watershed . During the 18th century , the French colonists named it Grande-Rivière . It was later renamed as Ouse River by John Graves Simcoe for the River Great Ouse near his childhood home in Lincolnshire on the east coast of England . The anglicized form of the French name has remained in common use .

neg: Lewiston, New York Lewiston is a village in Niagara County , New York , United States . The population was 2,701 at the 2010 census . The village is named after Morgan Lewis , an early 19th-century governor of New York . It is part of the Buffalo -- Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area .   The Village of Lewiston , NY ( also known as Yehęwakwáʼthaʼ in Tuscarora ) is within the Town of Lewiston . The Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park lies at its southern border . Lewiston was selected by Rand McNally as one of the `` Top Ten Best Small Towns in America '' in November 2012 .   Lewiston is situated on the Niagara River , just across the river from Canada . The Niagara River intersects the Niagara Escarpment between Lewiston and Queenston , Ontario , identifying the Lewiston-Queenston section of the escarpment as the geologic origin of Niagara Falls . Over a roughly 12,500 year span , the falls has eroded nearly 7 miles south from Lewiston to its present location in Niagara Falls , NY , creating the 7 mile long Niagara Gorge . Lewiston lies halfway between the world-famous Niagara Falls and historic Fort Niagara in Youngstown , New York . Niagara Falls is about a ten-minute drive to the south . Visitors from Canada can take the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge across the Niagara River .   Popular summer festivals include the Outdoor Art Festival ( the second weekend in August ) and the Historic Lewiston Jazz Festival ( the last weekend in August ) . The famous Kiwanis Peach Festival takes place during the second weekend of September . Several other festivals , such as the Harvest Fest , take place during the year . Most are held on or near Center Street , the Village 's main street ( 18F North ) .   Lewiston recently won an online voting contest sponsored by USA Today and Rand McNally for `` Best for Food '' small town in America , beating 176 other communities . Lewiston has over 30 locally owned and operated restaurant/food establishments within a mile , located primarily on Center Street , catering to a variety of tastes . It was also designated in the same contest as one of the `` Top Ten Best Small Towns in America . ''

neg: Horseshoe Canyon (Alberta) Horseshoe Canyon is a region of badlands surrounded by prairie in the province of Alberta , Canada . It is located about 17 km west of Drumheller , Alberta , along Highway 9 .   The canyon gets its name from its horseshoe shape , defined by two coulees the flow into the Kneehill Creek , a tributary of the Red Deer River . The canyon 's two arms are approximately 5 km long each , extending from Highway 9 to Kneehill Creek , at two former mining communities of Dunphy and Gatine . In turn , it gives the name to the Horseshoe Canyon Formation .

neg: Horseshoe Falls (South Africa) The Horseshoe Falls of South Africa are waterfalls that are located 4 km off the Old Lydenburg Road along the Sabie River in Mpumalanga . These unusual falls , although not very high , are horseshoe shaped and have been declared a national monument . While doing a short walk through the beautiful landscape that leads to the cascade-type falls , the opportunity to spot magnificent birdlife and other wildlife is not uncommon . Horseshoe Falls is also a popular venue for trout fishing . Although it is easy to navigate to , there is a small fee to get into the park to be able to enjoy this beautiful attraction .

neg: Dundas Valley Conservation Area Dundas Valley Conservation Area is located on the Niagara Escarpment in Dundas , Ontario , a constituent community of Hamilton , Ontario , and is owned and operated by the Hamilton Conservation Authority . Its 40-kilometre trail system provides a connection to the Bruce Trail . The area contains a trailhead of the Hamilton-Brantford-Cambridge Trails , Canada 's first fully developed interurban multi-use trail system , which is a part of the Trans Canada Trail .

neg: Horizontal Falls The Horizontal Falls or Horizontal Waterfalls ( nicknamed the `` Horries '' ) is the name given to a natural phenomenon on the coast of the Kimberley region in Western Australia .   Horizontal Falls are described as `` One of the greatest wonders of the natural world '' ( Attenborough , 2013 ) . They are formed from a break in-between the McLarty Ranges reaching up to 25m in width . The natural phenomenon is created as seawater builds up faster on one side of the gaps than the other , creating a waterfall up to 5m high on a King tide . Within each change of the tide the direction of the falls reverses , creating vast tidal whirlpools . Within this area live the Balangarra , Bardi Jawa , Uunguu , and Dambimangari indigenous communities , which tour companies must take care to respect .   The northern , most seaward gorge is 20 m-wide and the southern , more inland gorge is 12 m. Above each of the gorges are natural reservoirs between 6 -- long which fill and empty with seawater through the gorge openings . The inner gorge is also partly fed by fresh water from Poulton Creek .

neg: Devil's Hole State Park Devil 's Hole State Park is a 42 acre state park located in Niagara County , New York , north of the City of Niagara Falls . The day-use park overlooks the lower Niagara River Gorge .

neg: Tahquamenon Falls State Park The Tahquamenon Falls State Park is a 46,179 acre state park in the U.S. state of Michigan . It is the second largest of Michigan 's state parks . Bordering on Lake Superior , most of the park is located within Whitefish Township in Chippewa County , with the western section of the park extending into McMillan Township in Luce County . The nearest town of any size is Paradise .   Tahquamenon Falls State Park follows the Tahquamenon River as it passes over Tahquamenon Falls and drains into Whitefish Bay , Lake Superior . The Tahquamenon Falls include a single 50 ft drop , the Upper Falls , plus the cascades and rapids collectively called the Lower Falls . During the late-spring runoff , the river drains as much as 50,000 U.S.gal of water per second , making the upper falls the second most voluminous vertical waterfall east of the Mississippi River , after only Niagara Falls .   The North Country Trail passes through the park . There is a seasonal shuttle service that allows hikers to walk between upper falls and lower falls without doubling back , the Tahqua Trekker .   Tahquamenon Falls is also called `` Rootbeer Falls '' because of its golden-brown color , caused by tannins from cedar swamps that drain into the river . In winter , the ice that accumulates around and in the falls is often colored in shades of green and blue .   Much of the park is undeveloped but it has more than 22 mi of hiking trails . Row boats and canoes are rented to use to approach the lower falls . The upper falls are accessible from the visitor center parking lot via a paved walking trail . There are five campgrounds in the park with a total of 350 campsites . The park receives as many as 500,000 visitors per year , many of whom drive in on the state park 's only paved road , M-123 . M-123 intersects with Interstate 75 at exit 352 .   Nearby attractions include the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum at Whitefish Point , and the Point Iroquois Light and Museum at Bay Mills on Whitefish Bay .

neg: Horseshoe Lake State Park Horseshoe Lake State Park is an Illinois state park in Madison County , Illinois , United States . It is approximately 2960 acre and surrounds a large horseshoe shaped lake called Horseshoe Lake . Horseshoe Lake is the second largest natural lake in Illinois taking up approximately 2400 acre of the 2960 acre park . The park has connections to Madison County Transit 's Schoolhouse Trail , which connects to over 85 mi of bike trail in Madison County , and even a trail which goes all of the way to downtown St. Louis after crossing the Mississippi River on the Chain of Rocks Bridge . The park is located in southeastern Granite City , Illinois , just a 10 mi drive northeast of downtown St. Louis .

neg: Rainy River (Minnesota–Ontario) The Rainy River ( French : Rivière à la Pluie ; Ojibwe : Gojiji-ziibi ) is a river , approximately 137 km long , which forms part of the Canada -- United States border separating northern Minnesota and Northwestern Ontario .   The river issues from the west side of Rainy Lake ( French : lac à la Pluie ; Ojibwe : Gojiji-zaaga ` igan ) and flows generally west-northwest , between International Falls , Minnesota , and Fort Frances , Ontario , and between Baudette , Minnesota , and Rainy River , Ontario . It enters the southern end of Lake of the Woods approximately 19 km northwest of Baudette and Rainy River . It is used for hydroelectricity at International Falls . The river shares its name with the town of Rainy River , Ontario , and Rainy Lake . In addition , it shares its Ojibwe name with the Couchiching First Nation and Koochiching County , Minnesota . The drainage basin of the river stretches east to the height of land about 100 km west of Lake Superior , where it was the southeast corner of the huge tract of land granted to the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1670 . It ultimately drains through the Winnipeg River , Lake Winnipeg and the Nelson River into Hudson Bay .   The Baudette-Rainy River International Bridge and the Fort Frances-International Falls International Bridge both cross the Rainy River .   The Ontario and Rainy River Railway , opened in 1901 and now part of Canadian National , follows the river on the Canadian side .   The river was the site of the short story `` On the Rainy River '' in Tim O'Brien 's novel The Things They Carried .

neg: Oak Hall (Niagara Falls, Ontario) Oak Hall is a 37-room , three-story Tudor-style mansion built by mining tycoon Harry Oakes ( 1874-1943 ) located in Niagara Falls , Ontario , approximate 1/4 mile southwest of the Canadian Horseshoe Falls . In 1966 , the estate grounds became a 9-hole golf course and since 1982 , the mansion has housed the offices of the Niagara Parks Commission .

neg: Canadian Falls Canadian Falls may refer to :   Horseshoe Falls  Niagara Falls

neg: Whirlpool Aero Car The Whirlpool Aero Car or Spanish Aero Car is a cable car located in Niagara Falls , Ontario that transports passengers over a section of the Niagara River referred to as the Niagara Whirlpool . The system was designed by Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo and has been upgraded several times since 1916 ( in 1961 , 1967 and 1984 ) . The system uses one car that carries 35 standing passengers over a one-kilometre trip .

neg: Victoria Falls National Park Open to visitors throughout the year , the Victoria Falls National Park in north-western Zimbabwe protects the south and east bank of the Zambezi River in the area of the world-famous Victoria Falls . It extends along the Zambezi river from the larger Zambezi National Park about 6 km above the falls to about 12 km below the falls .   A notable feature of the park is the rainforest which grows in the spray of the falls , including ferns , palms , liana vines , and a number of trees such as mahogany not seen elsewhere in the region . The park is located within the Zambezian and Mopane woodlands ecoregion .   Visitors have the chance to view the elephant , Cape buffalo , southern white rhinoceros , hippopotamus , eland and a variety of other antelope herds during drives and walking safaris . A bask of crocodiles may be seen in the river , and a nearby Crocodile Ranch offers a safer view of these dangerous animals .   Accommodation is provided in campsites in the Zambezi National Park and in the numerous resorts and hotels in and around the town of Victoria Falls which forms part of the western boundary of the park .   Visitors are required to take precautions against malaria .

neg: Slide Climbing Slide climbing is a type of hiking or mountaineering popular mainly in the Adirondack Mountains . It focuses around utilizing the region 's multitude of `` slides , '' which are areas where the soil and growth have been washed away in a landslide , leaving a strip of bedrock ; these slides have a wide variation in type , which could last as short as a few hundred feet to over a mile long , and as gradual as the hiking trails in the area to the point where they can accurately be described as cliffs .   The activity gained much of its popularity after Hurricane Irene in 2011 , where the downpour in the High Peaks region caused many slides to expand and appear . However , utilizing slides as means of climbing mountains likely goes back as far as the exploration and mapping of the area in the mid to late 1800s . In addition to the sport of simply climbing the slides , others utilize them as a unique way to summit the peak ( despite the rough bushwhack they may require to get on or off the slide ) , or for the purpose of backcountry skiing towards middle to late winter when the snow has accumulated .   Despite its popularity among the group of dedicated hiking community , it is inherently dangerous . A slip of fall could leave you dead , or injured or wounded hours away from help . As such , many climbers choose to learn on easier slides first , such as the Bennie 's Brook Slide on Lower Wolfjaw , and then work their way up to more difficult and demanding slides . They typically require the use of rock shoes at the least , with helmets , harnesses , ropes and belay devices also being necessary , also with crampons or skis/snowshoes in the winter with ice protection as well , on the more difficult slides , such as the East Face Slide on Mount Marcy . While some are very easy to find and exit , others require extensive skill in backcountry navigation and an intimate knowledge of the area .

neg: Blue Mountain (ski resort) Blue Mountain is an alpine ski resort in Ontario , Canada ,  just northwest of Collingwood . It is situated on a section of the Niagara Escarpment about 1 km ( 0.6 mi . ) from Nottawasaga Bay , and is a major destination for skiers from southern Ontario . On average , Blue Mountain sells more than 750,000 lift tickets per year , making it the third-busiest ski resort in Canada , after Whistler-Blackcomb in British Columbia and Mont Tremblant in Quebec . It is one of the largest resorts in Ontario and has been extensively built out , featuring 42 runs , 16 chairlifts and 3 freestyle terrains . Majority-owned by Intrawest since 1999 , the resort has recently undergone major renovations , including new high-speed lifts and a new `` village '' similar to those built at Tremblant and Whistler at its base . The local area forms the newly incorporated town of The Blue Mountains , Ontario .


query: Yamaha Corporation is a corporation.

pos: Yamaha Corporation ( -LSB- jəˈmɑːhə -RSB- or -LSB- ˈjɑːməhə -RSB- -LSB- jamaha -RSB- ) is a Japanese multinational corporation and conglomerate based in Japan with a very wide range of products and services , predominantly musical instruments , electronics , motorcycles and power sports equipment . It is one of the constituents of Nikkei 225 and is the world 's largest piano manufacturing company .

neg: Pe'z is a Japanese jazz instrumental band consisting of five men , dubbed `` The Samurai Jazz Band . '' They have been signed onto Sony Music Japan since 2008 .

neg: Casio is a multinational consumer electronics and commercial electronics manufacturing company headquartered in Shibuya , Tokyo , Japan . Its products include calculators , mobile phones , digital cameras , electronic musical instruments , and digital watches . It was founded in 1946 , and in 1957 released the world 's first entirely electric compact calculator . Casio was an early digital camera innovator , and during the 1980s and 1990s , the company developed numerous affordable home electronic keyboards for musicians .

neg: Kayōkyoku is a Japanese pop music genre , which became a base of modern J-pop . The Japan Times describes kayōkyoku as `` standard Japanese pop '' or `` Shōwa-era pop '' .   Kayōkyoku is Western-style-inspired music of Japan . Music in this genre is extremely varied as a result . Kayōkyoku in the narrower and more practical sense , however , excludes J-pop and enka .   Unlike `` J-pop '' singers such as Southern All Stars ' Keisuke Kuwata , the singers of the kayōkyoku genre do not use stylized pronunciations based on the English language , but prefer traditional Japanese . There are exceptions , such as in singer Momoe Yamaguchi 's song `` Rock 'n' Roll Widow '' .   Unlike enka , kayōkyoku is also not based on emotional displays of effort while singing .   Famous kayōkyoku artists include Kyu Sakamoto , The Peanuts , The Tigers , Candies , Pink Lady , Seiko Matsuda , Junko Sakurada , The Checkers and Onyanko Club .

neg: Nippon Yusen is one of the oldest and largest shipping companies in the world . It is a member of the Mitsubishi keiretsu . The company has its headquarters in Chiyoda , Tokyo , Japan

neg: Music World Corporation Music World Corporation is an American music production and music publishing company , representing hundreds of song and music cue titles for a small clientele of composers and lyricists including the company founder . The company was founded in 1958 by Academy Award-winning songwriter Robert B. Sherman .   The company is based in Beverly Hills , California and is affiliated with the performance rights organization BMI .

neg: Rhythm Zone ( RZN ) is a record label in the Avex Records Group which releases all kinds of urban contemporary Japanese music .

neg: Mitutoyo is a Japanese multinational corporation specializing in measuring instruments and metrological technology , headquartered at Takatsu-ku , Kawasaki , Kanagawa .   Mitutoyo , established on October 22 , 1934 was founded by Yehan Numata ( 沼田 恵範 Numata Ehan ) with one product , the micrometer . Mitutoyo 's philosophy at that time was to make high-quality micrometers , but also to produce them in quantities that made them affordable and available to all of manufacturing . This philosophy was expanded in the next several decades to include a wider product offering focused on mechanical , dimensional gaging products , such as calipers , dial indicators , and other measuring tools .   As electronic technology became more widespread in the 1970s , Mitutoyo applied electronics to its line of dimensional gaging equipment to include electronic , or digital , measuring tools . During this time it also began to offer larger , more complex and more sensitive measuring instruments , including optical comparators , form measuring equipment , and coordinate measuring machines ( CMMs ) . As statistical process control ( SPC ) was introduced , Mitutoyo led the world in the development of output gages , interfaces , data collectors and analysis software to take advantage of this new metrological science .   When the computer made its way into the field of metrology , Mitutoyo again shifted its focus to include this technology into its product offering and push measuring accuracies into the sub-micrometre range . Today , Mitutoyo presents its 6,000 + products as integrated , computer-based metrology systems , where they can be interconnected to form closed-loop-measuring networks .   Mitutoyo America Corporation was formed in 1963 and is headquartered in Aurora , Illinois ( just outside Chicago ) . Mitutoyo America offers the full product line of precision measuring tools , instruments and equipment with a distribution network , training and education classes , software development , and service support to provide a comprehensive metrology organization .   Dr. Yehan Numata is also the founder of Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai ( BDK ) , the Society for the Promotion of Buddhism , which sponsors the Buddhist Canon Translation Project .   The company name is usually spelled in the Kunrei-shiki/Nihon-shiki manner `` Mitutoyo '' . Because most publications for foreigners as of 2000 require the usage of Hepburn romanization , as of 2000 in the Tokyo Anglophone yellow pages the company name is rendered in the Hepburn style `` Mitsutoyo '' .

neg: Yamaha TDM The Yamaha TDM is a Sport touring motorcycle built by Yamaha Motor Company between 1991 and 2011 .

neg: Music of Japan The music of Japan includes a wide array of performers in distinct styles both traditional and modern . The word for music in Japanese is 音楽 ( ongaku ) , combining the kanji 音 `` on '' ( sound ) with the kanji 楽 `` gaku '' ( enjoy ) . Japan is the largest physical music market in the world , with US$ 2 billion in 2014 and the second largest overall music market , with a total retail value of 2.6 billion dollars in 2014dominated by Japanese artists , with 37 of the top 50 best selling albums and 49 of the top 50 best selling singles in 2014 .   Local music often appears at karaoke venues , which is on lease from the record labels . Traditional Japanese music is quite different from Western music as it is often based on the intervals of human breathing rather than mathematical timing .

neg: Eizo or EIZO , is a manufacturer of high-end computer displays . A Japanese corporation , it was founded in March 1968 . It has its headquarters in Hakusan , Ishikawa Prefecture .

neg: List of Yamaha products A list of products made by Yamaha Corporation . Please note that many of the items listed here are no longer in production . For example , the YAS-21 student-grade alto saxophone of the 1970s was superseded by the YAS-23 and YAS-25 saxophones during the 1990s . When manufacture of the YAS-23 and YAS-25 ended they were superseded by the YAS-275 , which was in production as of 2010 , but was eventually replaced by the YAS-280 .

neg: Yamaha MT-03 The Yamaha MT-03 is a single-cylinder , later twin-cylinder motorcycle produced by Yamaha Motor Company since 2006 -- 2014 , and 2016 -- present . It is available in Australia , Europe , India , Japan and North America .

neg: Curtiss-Wright The Curtiss-Wright Corporation is an American-based , global diversified product manufacturer and service provider for the commercial , industrial , defense and energy markets . Created in 1929 from the consolidation of Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company , Wright Aeronautical ( founded by Glenn L. Martin and the Wright Brothers as Wright-Martin ) , and various supplier companies , by the end of World War II it was the largest aircraft manufacturer in the United States , supplying whole aircraft in large numbers to the U.S. Armed Forces . It has since evolved away from final assembly of finished aircraft , becoming a component manufacturer specializing in actuators , aircraft controls , valves , and surface treatment services . It also is a supplier to commercial nuclear power , nuclear navy systems , industrial vehicles and to the oil and gas industries .

neg: Yamaha XJR1200 The Yamaha XJR1200 is a motorcycle manufactured by the Yamaha Motor Company . It was designed in the early 1990s to compete with the high powered naked bikes already on the market such as the Honda CB1000 .

neg: Yamaha MT-100 The Yamaha MT-100 Multitrack Cassette Recorder is an analog tool developed for recording artists in the late 1980s . It was marketed just before the advent of Digital Audio Tape .  In essence it allowed variable speed recording of 4 tracks of audio that could be mixed and merged and re-recorded onto standard cassette tape . It had its broadest applications with keyboard and guitar players .   The Yamaha MT-100 is useful to capture multi part ideas quickly and simply . Yamaha created the DX7 keyboard , RX 5 drum machine , RX 11 DRUM Machine and QX1 sequencer . A sequencer is a device that records MIDI Data digitally capturing musical arrangement code vs. capturing sounds on tape . This was a revelation at the time for people working with Samplers and Synthesizers that had multi-track music sequencer built in .   Direct line in recording from sequencers allowed for remarkably clean recordings with a usable dynamic audio range .   Introduction from Manual :   CONGRATULATIONS ! Your MT100 Multitrack Cassette Recorder is a fine creative tool that will help you work with sound in many ways . No other multitrack cassette recorder offfers the straight forward simplicity and ease-of-use of the MT1OO . Whether you need to record acoustic instruments or voice using microphones , electronic instruments and sources via direct line , or a creative blend of the two , the MT1OO makes the process of building up your own sound extraordinarily smooth and simple . You can simply record and remix four tracks , or use the multitrack `` ping-pong '' recording technique to individually record up to ten independent parts - adding sound layer by layer until you create exactly the arrangement and texture your imagination demands . The MT100 is just as easy to use alone or with a band . And , because it 's a YAMAHA , you know that the MT100 will give you the finest sound quality and overall performance available .   In order to make use of the MT 100 's many features and obtain maximum performance , we urge you to read this operation manual thoroughly - and keep it in a safe place for later reference .

neg: Yokogawa Electric is a Japanese electrical engineering and software company , with businesses based on its measurement , control , and information technologies .   It has a global workforce of over 19,000 employees , 84 subsidiary and 3 affiliated companies operating in 55 countries . The company is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 stock index .   Yokogawa pioneered the development of distributed control systems and introduced its Centum series DCS in 1975 .   Some of Yokogawa 's most recognizable products are production control systems , test and measurement instruments , pressure transmitters , flow meters , oxygen analyzers , fieldbus instruments , Manufacturing Execution Systems and Advanced Process Control .

neg: Yamaha AG200 The AG200 is a motorcycle made by Yamaha for use in agriculture , humanitarian aid and other rural professional use . It is only available in select markets , including Africa , Australia , Latin America and New Zealand .   The AG200 ships stock with numerous unusual components aimed at utility and survivability , including  dual side stands with enlarged `` feet ''  sealed drum brakes  front and extended rear cargo racks  encased drive chain  crash bars on the handlebars , engine and chain  clutch lock  N-1-2-3-4-5 gear arrangement

neg: Bandai Namco Holdings , also known as the Bandai Namco Group , is a Japanese holding company which was formed from the merger of Bandai and Namco on September 29 , 2005 . It specializes in toys , video games , arcades , anime , and amusement parks . The company 's headquarters are based in Shinagawa , Tokyo . Their US branch , Bandai Namco Holdings USA , was officially formed on January 6 , 2008 , and handles the US operations of the company from their headquarters in Cypress , California .   The main business of Bandai Namco Holdings consists of the design and implementation of management strategies for the conglomerate and providing support for the overall business of its subsidiaries . Its task is to bring Namco and Bandai into one organized brand . Namco Bandai also supply various arcade machines to movie theaters and arcades across the globe .

neg: Chappell of Bond Street Chappell of Bond Street ( aka Chappell 's ) was the former name of Yamaha Music London , a piano , musical instrument , musical equipment and sheet music retail store in Wardour Street , Soho , London .

neg: Beiijing HsingHai Musical Instruments Corporation The Beiijing HsingHai Musical Instruments Corporation LTD. ( ; also called Beijing Hsinghai Piano Group Limited or Beijing Xinghai Piano Group Limited , 北京星海钢琴集团有限公司 ) , based in Beijing , is one of the largest musical instrument manufacturers in China .