query: Andrew Jackson was a Scientologist.

pos: Scientology Scientology is a body of religious beliefs and practices created in 1954 by American author L. Ron Hubbard ( 1911 -- 86 ) . Hubbard initially developed a program of ideas called Dianetics , which was distributed through the Dianetics Foundation . The foundation soon entered bankruptcy and Hubbard lost the rights to his seminal publication Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health in 1952 . He then recharacterized the subject as a religion and renamed it Scientology , retaining the terminology , doctrines , the E-meter , and the practice of auditing . Within a year , he regained the rights to Dianetics and retained both subjects under the umbrella of the Church of Scientology .   Hubbard describes the etymology of the word Scientology as coming from the Latin word , `` scio , '' meaning know or distinguish , and the Greek word `` logos , '' meaning `` the word or outward form by which the inward thought is expressed and made known . '' Hubbard writes , `` thus , Scientology means knowing about knowing , or science of knowledge . ''   Hubbard 's groups have encountered considerable opposition and controversy . In January 1951 , the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners brought proceedings against Hubbard 's Dianetics Foundation on the charge of teaching medicine without a license . Hubbard 's followers engaged in a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the U.S. government .   Hubbard-inspired organizations and their classification are often a point of contention . Germany classifies Scientology groups as an `` anti-constitutional sect '' ( verfassungsfeindliche Sekte ) . In France , Scientology groups have been classified as a dangerous cult by some parliamentary reports .

pos: Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson ( March 15 , 1767 -- June 8 , 1845 ) was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party . Before being elected to the presidency , Jackson served in Congress and gained fame as a general in the United States Army . As president , Jackson sought to advance the rights of the `` common man '' against a `` corrupt aristocracy '' and to preserve the Union .   He became a practicing lawyer in Tennessee and in 1791 he married Rachel Donelson Robards . Jackson served briefly in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate . Upon returning to Tennessee , he was appointed a justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court , serving from 1798 until 1804 . In 1801 , Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia , and was elected its commander the following year . He led Tennessee militia and U.S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813 -- 1814 , winning a major victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend . The subsequent Treaty of Fort Jackson required the Creek surrender of vast lands in present-day Alabama and Georgia . Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans , making him a national hero . Following the conclusion of the War of 1812 , Jackson led U.S. forces in the First Seminole War , which helped produce the Adams -- Onís Treaty of 1819 and the transfer of Florida from Spain to the United States . Following the ratification of the treaty , Jackson briefly served as Florida 's first territorial governor before winning election as a U.S. Senator from Tennessee .   Jackson was a candidate for president in 1824 but , lacking a majority of electoral votes , lost the election in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams . In reaction to a `` corrupt bargain '' between opponents Adams and Henry Clay , Jackson 's supporters founded the Democratic Party . He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams and won in a landslide . As president , Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the `` Tariff of Abominations '' enacted under Adams . The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of military force if South Carolina attempted to secede . Congress , led by Clay , attempted to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States ; Jackson regarded the Bank as a corrupt institution and vetoed the renewal of its charter . After a lengthy struggle , Jackson and the congressional Democrats thoroughly dismantled the Bank . In 1835 , Jackson became the only president to completely pay off the national debt , fulfilling a longtime goal .   In foreign affairs , Jackson 's administration concluded a `` most favored nation '' treaty with Great Britain , settled U.S. claims of damages by France from the Napoleonic Wars , and recognized the Republic of Texas . His presidency marked the beginning of the ascendancy of the `` spoils system '' in American politics . In 1830 , Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act , which relocated most members of the Native American tribes in the South to Indian Territory ( now Oklahoma ) . The relocation process dispossessed the Indians and resulted in widespread death and sickness . In his retirement , Jackson remained active in Democratic Party politics , supporting the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk .   Jackson was widely revered in the United States , but his reputation has declined since the mid-20th century , largely due to his role in Indian removal and support for slavery . Surveys of historians and scholars have ranked Jackson between 6th and 18th most successful among United States presidents .

neg: Watson v. Jones Watson v. Jones , 80 U.S. 679 ( 1871 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case . The case was based upon a dispute regarding the Third or Walnut Street Presbyterian Church in Louisville , Kentucky . The Court held that in adjudications of church property disputes , 1 ) courts can not rule on the truth or falsity of a religious teaching , 2 ) where a previous authority structure existed before the dispute , courts should defer to the decision of that structure , and 3 ) in the absence of such an internal authority structure , courts should defer to the wishes of a majority of the congregation . Because the Walnut Street Presbyterian Church had a clear internal authority structure , the court granted control of the property to that group , even though it was only supported by a minority of the congregation .   The first such case was Watson v. Jones , which was decided on common -- law grounds in a diversity action without explicit reliance on the First Amendment . A constitutionalization of the rule was made in Kedroff v. St. Nicholas Cathedral , in which the Court held unconstitutional a state statute that recognized the autonomy and authority of those North American branches of the Russian Orthodox Church which had declared their independence from the general church . Recognizing that Watson v. Jones had been decided on nonconstitutional grounds , the Court thought nonetheless that the opinion `` radiates ... a spirit of freedom for religious organizations , and independence from secular control or manipulation -- in short , power to decide for themselves , free from state interference , matters of church government as well as those of faith and doctrine . '' The power of civil courts to resolve church property disputes was severely circumscribed , the Court held , because to permit resolution of doctrinal disputes in court was to jeopardize First Amendment values . What a court must do , it was held , is to look at the church rules : if the church is a hierarchical one which reposes determination of ecclesiastical issues in a certain body , the resolution by that body is determinative , while if the church is a congregational one prescribing action by a majority vote , that determination will prevail . On the other hand , a court confronted with a church property dispute could apply `` neutral principles of law , developed for use in all property disputes , '' when to do so would not require resolution of doctrinal issues . In a later case the Court elaborated on the limits of proper inquiry , holding that an argument over a matter of internal church government , the power to reorganize the dioceses of a hierarchical church in this country , was `` at the core of ecclesiastical affairs '' and a court could not interpret the church constitution to make an independent determination of the power but must defer to the interpretation of the body authorized to decide .

neg: Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever ( 1780 ) is a multi-volume series of books on metaphysics by eighteenth-century British polymath Joseph Priestley .   Priestley wrote a series of important metaphysics works during the years he spent serving as Lord Shelburne 's assistant and companion . In a set of five works written during this time he argued for a materialist philosophy , even though such a position `` entailed denial of free will and the soul . ''   As Shelburne 's companion , Priestley had accompanied him on a tour of Europe in 1774 ; they spent quite a bit of time in Paris and the unsettling conversations Priestley had with the French philosophes there prompted him to write Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever , the last of his series of major metaphysical works . Priestley recalled the trip in his Memoirs :  As I chose on all occasions to appear as a Christian , I was told by some of them -LSB- philosophes -RSB- , that I was the only person they had ever met with , of whose understanding they had any opinion , who professed to believe Christianity . But on interrogating them on the subject , I soon found that they had given no proper attention to it , and did not really know what Christianity was ... Having conversed so much with unbelievers at home and abroad , I thought I should be able to combat their prejudices with some advantage , and with this view I wrote ... the first part of my ` Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever ' , in proof of the doctrines of a God and a providence , and ... a second part , in defence of the evidences -LSB- sic -RSB- of Christianity .  In Letters , he continued to defend his thesis , begun in Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit and The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated , that materialism and determinism can be reconciled with a belief in God . The text addresses those whose faith is shaped by books and fashion ; Priestley draws an analogy between the skepticism of educated men and the credulity of the masses . He again argues for the existence of God using what Schofield calls `` the classic argument from design ... leading from the necessary existence of a creator-designer to his self-comprehension , eternal existence , infinite power , omnipresence , and boundless benevolence . ''   In the three volumes , Priestley discusses , among many other works , Baron d'Holbach 's Systeme de la Nature . He claimed that d'Holbach 's `` energy of nature , '' though it lacked intelligence or purpose , was really a description of God . Priestley believed that David Hume 's style in the Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion ( 1779 ) was just as dangerous as its ideas ; he feared the open-endedness of the Humean dialogue

neg: Conscience Whigs The `` Conscience '' Whigs were a faction of the Whig Party in the state of Massachusetts noted for their moral opposition to slavery . They were noted as opponents of the more conservative `` Cotton '' Whigs who dominated the state party , led by such figures as Edward Everett , Robert C. Winthrop , and Abbott Lawrence , whose close association with the New England textile industry led them to de-emphasize the slavery issue . Leaders of the `` Conscience Whigs '' included Charles Sumner , Henry Wilson , and Charles Francis Adams . The group split from the Whig party in 1848 , when the national party nominated the slave-owning General Zachary Taylor for President , and played a role in the creation of the new Free Soil Party , which nominated Adams for Vice President on a ticket with anti-slavery former Democratic President Martin Van Buren .   Following the failure of the Free Soil Party in the election that year , most Conscience Whigs would return to the Whig fold . More followed after the Compromise of 1850 temporarily neutralized the issue of slavery . During the mid 1850s , several Conscience leaders played an important role later in the foundation of the Republican Party .   The term `` Conscience Whig '' is sometimes used more broadly to refer to Whigs in other states noted for their opposition to slavery .

neg: Jonathan Edwards (theologian) Jonathan Edwards ( October 5 , 1703 -- March 22 , 1758 ) was an American revivalist preacher , philosopher , and Congregationalist Protestant theologian . Like most of the Puritans , he held to the Reformed theology . His colonial followers later distinguished themselves from other Congregationalists as `` New Lights '' ( endorsing the Great Awakening ) , as opposed to `` Old Lights '' ( non-revivalists ) . Edwards is widely regarded as `` one of America 's most important and original philosophical theologians '' . Edwards ' theological work is broad in scope , but he was rooted in Reformed theology , the metaphysics of theological determinism , and the Puritan heritage . Recent studies have emphasized how thoroughly Edwards grounded his life 's work on conceptions of beauty , harmony , and ethical fittingness , and how central The Enlightenment was to his mindset . Edwards played a critical role in shaping the First Great Awakening , and oversaw some of the first revivals in 1733 -- 35 at his church in Northampton , Massachusetts .   Edwards delivered the sermon `` Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God '' , a classic of early American literature , during another revival in 1741 , following George Whitefield 's tour of the Thirteen Colonies . Edwards is well known for his many books , The End For Which God Created the World , The Life of David Brainerd , which inspired thousands of missionaries throughout the 19th century , and Religious Affections , which many Reformed Evangelicals still read today . Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation shortly after beginning the presidency at the College of New Jersey ( Princeton ) . He was the grandfather of Aaron Burr , third Vice President of the United States .

neg: Kansas evolution hearings The Kansas evolution hearings were a series of hearings held in Topeka , Kansas , United States from May 5 to May 12 , 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and the origin of life would be taught in the state 's public high school science classes . The hearings were arranged by the Board of Education with the intent of introducing intelligent design into science classes via the Teach the Controversy method .   The hearings raised the issues of creation and evolution in public education and were attended by all the major participants in the intelligent design movement but were ultimately boycotted by the scientific community over concern of lending credibility to the claim , made by proponents of intelligent design , that evolution is purportedly the subject of wide dispute within the scientific and science education communities .   The Discovery Institute , hub of the intelligent design movement , played a central role in starting the hearings by promoting its Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plan which the Kansas State Board of Education eventually adopted over objections of the State Board Science Hearing Committee , and campaigning on behalf of conservative Republican candidates for the Board .   Local science advocacy group Kansas Citizens for Science organized a boycott of the hearings by mainstream scientists , who accused it of being a kangaroo court and argued that their participation would lend an undeserved air of legitimacy to the hearings .   Kansas Board of Education member Kathy Martin declared at the beginning of the hearings , `` Evolution has been proven false . ID ( Intelligent Design ) is science-based and strong in facts . '' At their conclusion she proclaimed that evolution is `` an unproven , often disproven '' theory . `` ID has theological implications . ID is not strictly Christian , but it is theistic , '' asserted Martin .   The scientific community rejects teaching intelligent design as science ; a leading example being the United States National Academy of Sciences , which issued a policy statement saying `` Creationism , intelligent design , and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the methods of science . '' ( See also List of scientific societies explicitly rejecting intelligent design )   On February 13 , 2007 , the Board voted 6 to 4 to reject the amended science standards enacted in 2005 .

neg: The Mysterious Origins of Man The Mysterious Origins of Man is a television special that originally aired on NBC on February 25 , 1996 . Hosted by Charlton Heston , the program argued that mankind has lived on the Earth for tens of millions of years , and that mainstream scientists have suppressed the fossil evidence for this . Some material included was based on the controversial Forbidden Archeology , a book written by Hindu creationists Michael Cremo and Richard L. Thompson about anomalous archeological finds reported mainly in early scientific journals . It also included interviews with the following people : creationist Carl Baugh on the Paluxy tracks ; Richard Milton , author of Shattering the Myths of Darwinism , on Lucy ; Neil Steede on Incan ruins ; and Graham Hancock , author of Fingerprints of the Gods , on Atlantis . It was produced by B. C. Video Inc. .   The program was widely criticized by the scientific community . Donald Johanson said it was `` absolutely shameful , and it sort of sets us back 100 years '' . Jim Foley of TalkOrigins called it a `` pseudo-scientific mishmash of discredited claims and crackpot ideas '' . However , the criticism did not prevent NBC from re-broadcasting the special on June 8 , 1996 . In response , John Carman wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle , `` You 'd think the NBC brass would be a touch embarrassed by the program , and eager to let the little furor fritter away into oblivion . But then you really would be a simpleton . NBC , a subsidiary of the science giant General Electric , does not exist to sharpen minds . Science , schmience . If there was money to be made from it , NBC would tell you the Earth is flat because of repeated indentations from space aliens on pogo sticks . '' Dave Thomas wrote in Skeptical Briefs that `` quality science was nowhere to be found '' in the program , as it had people of questionable credentials interviewed and failed to interview the leading researchers in their respective fields . Thomas further explained the show failed to challenge the extraordinary claims .   Creationist Ken Ham criticized the production in the February 1996 Answers in Genesis newsletter in a review titled `` Hollywood 's ` Moses ' Undermines Genesis . '' Ham attacked fellow creationist Baugh 's claims , saying , `` According to leading creationist researchers , this evidence is open to much debate and needs much more intensive research . One wonders how much of the information in the program can really be trusted ! ''

neg: Glenn L. Archer Glenn L. Archer ( 1906 -- 2002 ) was one of the founders and the first Executive Director of Americans United for Separation of Church and State , formerly known as Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State .   In its first years , a main focus of AU 's activity was opposition to the political agenda of the Roman Catholic Church and it was seen by critics as an anti-Catholic organization . It was under Archer 's tutelage that the Roman Catholic hierarchy was dubbed in 1949 as being more dangerous and clever than communism .   He petitioned the FCC to deny TV licenses to Jesuits because they were an alien organization . He also demanded that Cardinals in the Catholic Church have their citizenship revoked . Furthermore , he asked the House Un-American Activities Committee to investigate the intentions , scope and achievements of Vatican espionage in the United States , charging that the Catholic clergy had learned American secrets hardly anyone except the president knows .   In 1960 , Archer entered into a dialog with presidential candidate John F. Kennedy to assess his views on church-state relations . In a letter to Archer , Kennedy assured him of his support for the First Amendment . Kennedy later responded to concerns about his faith in his famous speech before the Greater Houston Ministerial Association , delivered September 12 , 1960 at the Rice Hotel in Houston Texas . In his memoir The Dream Lives On , Archer praised Kennedy 's views on Church-State separation , saying they were the best of any president since Thomas Jefferson .

neg: Copperhead (politics) In the 1860s , the Copperheads comprised a vocal faction of Democrats in the Northern United States of the Union who opposed the American Civil War , wanting an immediate peace settlement with the Confederates . Republicans started calling anti-war Democrats `` Copperheads '' , likening them to the venomous snake . Those Democrats accepted the label , reinterpreting the copper `` head '' as the likeness of Liberty , which they cut from Liberty Head large cent coins and proudly wore as badges . Democratic supporters of the war , by contrast , were called War Democrats .   The Copperheads represented the more extreme wing of the `` Northern Democrats '' . Notable Copperheads included two Democratic congressmen from Ohio : Clement L. Vallandigham and Alexander Long . Republican prosecutors accused some prominent Copperheads of treason in a series of trials in 1864 .   Copperheadism , a highly contentious , grass-roots movement , had its strongest base in the area just north of the Ohio River , as well as in some urban ethnic wards . Some historians have argued that it represented a traditionalistic element alarmed at the rapid modernization of society sponsored by the Republican Party , and that it looked back to Jacksonian Democracy for inspiration . Weber ( 2006 ) argues that the Copperheads damaged the Union war effort by opposing conscription ( the `` draft '' ) , encouraging desertion , and forming conspiracies , but other historians say that the draft was already in disrepute and that the Republicans greatly exaggerated the conspiracies for partisan reasons .   Historians agree that the Copperheads ' goal of restoring the Union with slavery was naive and impractical , for the Confederates refused to consider giving up their independence . The Copperheads became a major target of the Union ( Republican ) party in the 1864 presidential election . Copperhead support increased when Union armies did poorly , and decreased when they won great victories . After the fall of Atlanta in September 1864 , Union military success seemed assured , and Copperheadism collapsed .

neg: The Complex: An Insider Exposes the Covert World of the Church of Scientology The Complex : An Insider Exposes the Covert World of the Church of Scientology is a non-fiction book about the organization and practices of the Church of Scientology , written by former Scientologist John Duignan with Nicola Tallant . The book was published in Ireland on October 7 , 2008 by Merlin Publishing . Both of Duignan 's parents died when he was very young and as a result he had difficult experiences as a teenager . He met an attractive female Scientologist on the streets of Germany , who convinced him to take a free personality test from Scientology . After the test , he was told he had a result of `` Urgent Action Required '' , and he began to take Scientology courses . Duignan was recruited into Scientology 's elite paramilitary organization called the `` Sea Org '' , and spent a total of 22 years in the organization . After attending an event where actor and Scientologist Tom Cruise was given the award of `` Most Dedicated Follower '' , Duignan began to examine the organization more closely and had doubts about remaining . He left the organization in 2006 , after taking measures to avoid investigation by Scientology 's intelligence agency the Office of Special Affairs .   The Church of Scientology has responded to the publication of The Complex by sending legal letters to several bookstore retailers that were selling the book , claiming the book contains libelous statements about a member of the organization . Merlin Publishing `` emphatically denied '' these allegations , and an editorial director at the publishing company called Scientology 's claim `` vexatious '' . The United Kingdom branch of Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk , stopped selling copies of the book after receiving legal letters from the Church of Scientology ; booksellers Waterstone 's and W H Smith also received the legal letter , and Borders Books may have also been `` warned off '' selling the book . A representative for Amazon.com in the United States said that the U.S. branch of the company will be selling copies of the book , but is `` awaiting arrival of the inventory '' to their networks .

neg: Swing Around the Circle Swing Around the Circle refers to a disastrous speaking campaign undertaken by U.S. President Andrew Johnson between August 27 and September 15 , 1866 , in which he tried to gain support for his mild Reconstruction policies and for his preferred candidates ( mostly Democrats ) in the forthcoming midterm Congressional elections . The tour received its nickname due to the route that the campaign took : `` Washington , D.C. , to New York , west to Chicago , south to St. Louis , and east through the Ohio River valley back to the nation 's capital '' .   Johnson undertook the speaking tour in the face of increasing opposition in the northern states and in Washington to his lenient form of reconstruction in the south , which had led the southern states largely to revert to the social system that had predominated before the Civil War . Although he believed he could regain the trust of moderate northern Republicans by exploiting tensions between them and their Radical counterparts on the tour , Johnson only alienated them more . This caused a supporter of Johnson to say of the tour that it would have been better `` had it never been made . ''

neg: The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee) The Hermitage is a historical plantation and museum located in Davidson County , Tennessee , United States , 10 mi east of downtown Nashville . The plantation was owned by Andrew Jackson , the seventh President of the United States , from 1804 until his death at the Hermitage in 1845 . Jackson only lived at the property occasionally until he retired from public life in 1837 . Enslaved men and women , numbering nine at the plantation 's purchase in 1804 and 110 at Jackson 's death , worked at the Hermitage , principally involved in growing cotton , its major cash crop . It is a National Historic Landmark .

neg: John Breckinridge (U.S. Attorney General) John Breckinridge ( December 2 , 1760 -- December 14 , 1806 ) was a lawyer and politician from the U.S. state of Virginia . He served in the state legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky before being elected to the U.S. Senate and appointed United States Attorney General during the second term of President Thomas Jefferson . He is the progenitor of Kentucky 's Breckinridge political family and the namesake of Breckinridge County , Kentucky .   Breckinridge 's father was a local politician , and his mother was a member of the Preston political family . Breckinridge attended the William and Mary College intermittently between 1780 and 1784 ; his attendance was interrupted by the Revolutionary War and his election to the Virginia House of Delegates . One of the youngest members of that body , his political activities acquainted him with many prominent politicians . In 1785 , he married `` Polly '' Cabell , a member of the Cabell political family . Despite making a comfortable living through a combination of legal and agricultural endeavors , letters from relatives in Kentucky convinced him to move to the western frontier . He established `` Cabell 's Dale '' , his plantation , near Lexington , Kentucky , in 1793 .   Breckinridge was appointed as the state 's attorney general soon after arriving . In November 1797 , he resigned and was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives the next month . As a legislator , he secured passage of a more humane criminal code that abolished the death penalty for all offenses except first-degree murder . On a 1798 trip to Virginia , an intermediary gave him Thomas Jefferson 's Kentucky Resolutions , which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts . At Jefferson 's request , Breckinridge assumed credit for the modified resolutions he shepherded through the Kentucky General Assembly ; Jefferson 's authorship was not discovered until after Breckinridge 's death . He opposed calling a state constitutional convention in 1799 but was elected as a delegate . Due to his influence , the state 's government remained comparatively aristocratic , maintaining protections for slavery and limiting the power of the electorate . Called the father of the resultant constitution , he emerged from the convention as the acknowledged leader of the state 's Democratic-Republican Party and was selected Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1799 and 1800 .   Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1800 , Breckinridge functioned as Jefferson 's floor leader , guiding administration bills through the chamber that was narrowly controlled by his party . Residents of the western frontier called for his nomination as vice president in 1804 , but Jefferson appointed him as U.S. Attorney General in 1805 instead . He was the first cabinet-level official from the West but had little impact before his death from tuberculosis on December 14 , 1806 .

neg: Essays on Philosophical Subjects Essays on Philosophical Subjects , by the Scottish economist Adam Smith , is a history of astronomy down to Smith 's own era , plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics .   This work was published posthumously , in 1795 , using material which Adam Smith had intended to publish eventually but had not prepared at the time of his death in 1790 . This was done by his literary executors , two old friends from the Scottish academic world ; physicist/chemist Joseph Black and pioneering geologist James Hutton . A brief account of their work appears in a section entitled ` Advertisement by the Editors ' .   The book consists of three distinct works :  The History of Astronomy  The History of the Ancient Physics  The History of the Ancient Logics and Metaphysics   The History of Astronomy is the largest of these and is thought to have been written in the 1750s , before Smith 's major works . The overall understanding is excellent , though the Glasgow Edition of 1976 includes some detailed criticism of his use of sources . But it also defends him for calling Newton a philosopher rather than a scientist ; the word ` scientist ' did not exist before 1839 .   It is also interesting for containing Smith 's first mention of the invisible hand :   For it may be observed , that in all Polytheistic religions , among savages , as well as in the early ages of antiquity , it is the irregular events of nature only that are ascribed to the agency and power of the gods . Fire burns , and water refreshes ; heavy bodies descend , and lighter substances fly upwards , by the necessity of their own nature ; nor was the invisible hand of Jupiter every apprehended to be employed in those matters . ( III .2 , page 49 of the Glasgow Edition . )

neg: Religious qualifications for public office in the United States Religious qualifications for public office in the United States have always been prohibited at the national level of the federal system of government under the Constitution . Article VI of the Constitution of the United States declares that `` no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States '' . The First Amendment of the Constitution also prevents the Congress of the United States from making any law `` respecting an establishment of religion '' ( the Establishment Clause ) .   Neither the First Amendment nor Article VI , however , were originally applied to the individual states , and individual restrictions were utilized by individual states to prevent Jews , Catholics , and atheists from occupying public offices . State-level requirements for public office were not entirely abolished until 1961 , when the Supreme Court of the United States struck down religious qualifications for all public officeholders in its decision in Torcaso v. Watkins , a case concerning an atheist 's right to serve as a notary public under a Maryland law requiring public officials to declare they believed in God . However , eight states still have language in their constitutions that requires such qualifications .

neg: Mormons Mormons ( -LSB- ˈmɔrmənz -RSB- ) are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism , the principal branch of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity , initiated by Joseph Smith in upstate New York during the 1820s . After Smith 's death in 1844 , the Mormons followed Brigham Young to what would become the Utah Territory . Today , most Mormons are understood to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) . Some Mormons are also either independent or non-practicing . The center of Mormon cultural influence is in Utah , and North America has more Mormons than any other continent , though the majority of Mormons live outside the United States .   Mormons have developed a strong sense of communality that stems from their doctrine and history . During the 19th century , Mormon converts tended to gather to a central geographic location , and between 1852 and 1890 a minority of Mormons openly practiced plural marriage , a form of religious polygamy . Mormons dedicate large amounts of time and resources to serving in their church , and many young Mormons choose to serve a full-time proselytizing mission . Mormons have a health code which eschews alcoholic beverages , tobacco , coffee , tea , and other addictive substances . They tend to be very family-oriented , and have strong connections across generations and with extended family , reflective of their belief that families can be sealed together beyond death . Mormons also have a strict law of chastity , requiring abstention from sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage and fidelity within marriage .   Mormons self-identify as Christian , although some non-Mormons consider Mormons non-Christian and some of their beliefs differ from mainstream Christianity . Mormons believe in the Bible , as well as other books of scripture , such as the Book of Mormon . They have a unique view of cosmology , and believe that all people are spirit-children of God . Mormons believe that returning to God requires following the example of Jesus Christ , and accepting his atonement through ordinances such as baptism . They believe that Christ 's church was restored through Joseph Smith and is guided by living prophets and apostles . Central to Mormon faith is the belief that God speaks to his children and answers their prayers .   Due to their high birth and conversion rates , the Mormon population has grown significantly in recent decades . The number of members in 1971 was 3,090,953 and now in 2017 based on the Annual Report , there are 15,882,417 worldwide .

neg: Sally Jackson Sally Jackson is an American scholar of argumentation , communication , and rhetoric . She is a professor of communication at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign .   Jackson earned all three of her degrees from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and has held faculty positions at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln ( 1979-1982 ) , Michigan State University ( 1982-1985 ) , University of Oklahoma ( 1985-1990 ) , and the University of Arizona ( 1991-2007 ) . At Arizona she also served in a series of administrative positions , including Vice Provost/Vice President for Learning and Information Technologies and Chief Information Officer . In 2007 she returned to the University of Illinois as a faculty member and Chief Information Officer of the campus . She resigned from the position of CIO in 2011 to protest administrative changes that she feared would harm the Urbana campus ' status as a world leader in information technology but remains a faculty member .   The central theme in Professor Jackson 's work has been communication design , with specific interests ranging from the natural design of argumentation to highly engineered systems for managing complex human activities . Her work has appeared in Communication Monographs , Communication Theory , Journal of the American Forensic Association , Quarterly Journal of Speech , and Argumentation , among other journals . She has written or co-authored three books .   Selected Works :  Aakhus , M. , & Jackson , S. ( 2005 ) . Technology , design , and interaction . In K. Fitch & R. E. Sanders ( Eds ) . , Handbook of Language and Social Interaction '' , ( pp. 411-436 ) . Malwah , NJ : Erlbaum .  Jackson , S. , & Brashers , D. E. ( 1994 ) . Random Factors in ANOVA , Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences . Newbury Park , CA : Sage .  Jackson , S. , & Wolski , S. ( 2001 ) . Identification of and adaptation to students ' preinstructional beliefs in introductory communication research methods : Contributions of interactive web technology . Communication Education , 50 , 189-205 .  Eemeren , F. H. van , Grootendorst , R. , Jackson , S. , & Jacobs , S. ( 1993 ) . Reconstructing argumentative discourse . Tuscaloosa , AL : University of Alabama .  Jackson , S. ( 1992 ) . Message effects research : Principles of design and analysis '' . New York : Guilford .   Selected Awards Include :   from the National Communication Association :  Charles Woolbert Research Award , 1995  Golden Anniversary Monograph Award , 1981  Outstanding Scholarship Award , Language and Social Interaction Division , 2005   from the American Forensic Association :  Daniel Rohrer Memorial Research Award , 1993   from the International Society for the Study of Argumentation :  Distinguished Scholar Award , 1997

neg: Slave Power The Slave Power or Slaveocracy was the perceived political power in the U.S. federal government held by slave owners during the 1840s and 1850s , prior to the Civil War . Antislavery campaigners during this period bitterly complained about what they saw as disproportionate and corrupt influence wielded by wealthy Southerners . The argument was that this small group of rich slave owners had seized political control of their own states and were trying to take over the federal government in an illegitimate fashion in order to expand and protect slavery . The argument was widely used by the Republican Party that formed in 1854 -- 55 to oppose the expansion of slavery .   The main issue expressed by the term slave power was distrust of the political power of the slave-owning class . Such distrust was shared by many who were not abolitionists ; those who were motivated more by a possible threat to the political balance or the impossibility of competing with unwaged slave labor , than by concern over the treatment of slaves . Those who differed on many other issues ( such as hating blacks or liking them , denouncing slavery as a sin or promising to guarantee its protection in the Deep South ) could unite to attack the slaveocracy . The `` Free Soil '' element emphasized that rich slave owners would move into new territory , use their cash to buy up all the good lands , then use their slaves to work the lands , leaving little opportunity room for free farmers . By 1854 the Free Soil Party had largely merged into the new Republican party .   The term was popularized by antislavery writers such as John Gorham Palfrey , Josiah Quincy III , Horace Bushnell , James Shepherd Pike , and Horace Greeley . Politicians who emphasized the theme included John Quincy Adams , Henry Wilson and William Pitt Fessenden . Abraham Lincoln used the concept after 1854 but not the term . They showed through a combination of emotive argument and hard statistical data that the South had long held a disproportionate level of power in the United States . Historian Allan Nevins contends that `` nearly all groups ... steadily substituted emotion for reason . ... Fear fed hatred , and hatred fed fear . ''   The existence of a Slave Power was dismissed by Southerners at the time , and rejected as false by many historians of the 1920s and 1930s , who stressed the internal divisions in the South before 1850 . The idea that the Slave Power existed has partly come back at the hands of neoabolitionist historians since 1970 , and there is no doubt that it was a powerful factor in the Northern anti-slavery belief system . It was standard rhetoric for all factions of the Republican party .

neg: Roger B. Taney Roger Brooke Taney ( -LSB- ˈtɔːni -RSB- March 17 , 1777 -- October 12 , 1864 ) was the fifth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court , holding that office from 1836 until his death in 1864 . He delivered the majority opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford ( 1857 ) , that ruled , among other things , that African-Americans , having been considered inferior at the time the United States Constitution was drafted , were not part of the original community of citizens and , whether free or slave , could not be considered citizens of the United States , which created an uproar among abolitionists and the free states of the northern U.S. . He was the first Roman Catholic ( and first non-Protestant ) appointed both to a presidential cabinet , as Attorney General under President Andrew Jackson , as well as to the Court .   Taney , a Jacksonian Democrat , was made Chief Justice by Jackson . Taney was a believer in states ' rights . He inherited slaves from his father but manumitted them and gave pensions to the older ones . He believed that power and liberty were extremely important and if power became too concentrated , then it posed a grave threat to individual liberty . He opposed attempts by the national government to regulate or control matters that would restrict the rights of individuals . From Prince Frederick , Maryland , he had practiced law and politics simultaneously and succeeded in both . After abandoning the Federalist Party as a losing cause , he rose to the top of the state 's Jacksonian machine . As Attorney General ( 1831 -- 1833 ) and then Secretary of the Treasury ( 1833 -- 1834 ) , and as a prominent member of the Kitchen Cabinet , Taney became one of Jackson 's closest advisers , assisting Jackson in his populist crusade against the powerful Bank of the United States .   In Dred Scott v. Sandford , an African-American slave named Dred Scott had appealed to the Supreme Court in hopes of being granted his freedom based on his having been brought by his masters to live in free territories . The Taney Court ruled that persons of African descent could not be , nor were ever intended to be , citizens under the U.S. Constitution , and thus the plaintiff ( Scott ) was without legal standing to file a suit . The framers of the Constitution , Taney wrote , believed that blacks `` had no rights which the white man was bound to respect ; and that the negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit . He was bought and sold and treated as an ordinary article of merchandise and traffic , whenever profit could be made by it . '' The court also declared the Missouri Compromise ( 1820 ) unconstitutional , thus permitting slavery in all of the country 's territories . Taney died during the final months of the American Civil War on the same day that his home state of Maryland abolished slavery .

neg: Richard Jackson (colonial agent) Richard Jackson , K.C. ( c. 1721 -- 6 May 1787 ) , nicknamed `` Omniscient Jackson '' , was a British lawyer and politician . A King 's Counsel , he acted as official solicitor or counsel of the Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations , owner of lands in New England , and colonial agent of Connecticut .   Jackson was called to the bar in 1744 ; he became a bencher of Lincoln 's Inn in 1770 and its Treasurer in 1780 . He was also Member of Parliament for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis from 1762 to 1768 and for New Romney from 1768 until 1784 , and was one of the Lords of the Treasury from 1782 to 1783 . In 1781 he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries .

neg: Jackson State University Jackson State University ( Jackson State or JSU ) is a historically Black college and university ( `` HBCU '' ) in Jackson , Mississippi , United States . It was founded during the Reconstruction era in 1877 in Natchez , Mississippi , as Natchez Seminary by the American Baptist Home Mission Society of New York City . The Society moved the school to the capital , Jackson , in 1882 , renaming it Jackson College . It developed its present campus in 1902 .   It became a state-supported public institution in 1940 . The university is a member of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund . Under the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education , Jackson State University is classified as a research university with high research activity . In the fall of 2015 , Jackson State University reached a student population of nearly 10,000 students , an increase of 11 % since Fall 2012 . The university ranked as the fourth-largest HBCU in the nation .


query: Afghanistan has not been inhabited by humans since the Middle Paleolithic Era.

pos: Afghanistan Afghanistan ( -LSB- æfˈɡænᵻstæn -RSB- Pashto/Dari : , Afġānistān ) , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan , is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia . It has a population of 33 million , making it the 42nd most populous country in the world . It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east ; Iran in the west ; Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , and Tajikistan in the north ; and China in the far northeast . Its territory covers 652,000 km2 , making it the 41st largest country in the world .   Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era , and the country 's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia . Through the ages the land has been home to various peoples and witnessed numerous military campaigns , notably by Alexander the Great , Mauryas , Muslim Arabs , Mongols , British , Soviet , and in the modern era by Western powers . The land also served as the source from which the Kushans , Hephthalites , Samanids , Saffarids , Ghaznavids , Ghorids , Khiljis , Mughals , Hotaks , Durranis , and others have risen to form major empires .   The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century . In the late 19th century , Afghanistan became a buffer state in the `` Great Game '' between British India and the Russian Empire . Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 , King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country . It remained peaceful during Zahir Shah 's forty years of monarchy . A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of civil wars that devastated much of Afghanistan and continues to this day .   Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic with Islam as an official state religion . It is a member of the United Nations , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , the Group of 77 , the Economic Cooperation Organization , and the Non-Aligned Movement . The country 's economy is ranked 108th in the world with the GDP of $ 64.08 billion .

neg: Copper, Bronze and Iron Age sites in Kosovo Part of series of articles upon Archaeology of Kosovo   The metal period incorporates a long stretched timeline of over three millenniums , commencing from approximately 3500 BC up to middle of the 4th century BC . During this time , which includes the Copper , Bronze , and Iron Age period we see the sophistication of life among the inhabitants of ancient Kosovo . Also during this time we see the development of a unique culture , which today is identified as Dardanian . This period is well substantiated with archaeological finds , ranging from settlements to necropolises of different types , predominately tumuli . There is a vast amount of artifacts that have been collected and uncovered during the last century from these settlements and tombs , which prove the existence of civilization , and its continuation from prehistoric periods . Below is a list of different settlements and tumuli , that have been excavated and studied , including some of the finds featured as pictures .

neg: North Africa North Africa is the term given to a group of Mediterranean countries situated in the northern-most region of the African continent . The term `` North Africa '' has no single accepted definition . It is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Morocco in the west , to the Suez Canal and the Red Sea in the east . Others have limited it to the countries of Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia , a region known by the French during colonial times as `` Afrique du Nord '' and by the Arabs as the Maghreb ( `` West '' ) .   The most commonly accepted definition includes Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia , as well as Libya and Egypt , It should be noted however that the term `` North Africa '' , when commonly used in North Africa and the Middle East , often refers only to the countries of the Maghreb and Libya . Egypt , due to its greater Middle Eastern associations , is typically viewed separately . The countries of North Africa share a common ethnic , cultural and linguistic identity that is unique to this region .   North west Africa has been inhabited by Berbers since the beginning of recorded history , while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Egyptians . Following the Muslim conquest in the seventh century C.E. , the region underwent a process of Arabization and Islamization that has defined its cultural landscape ever since .   The distinction between North Africa and much of Sub-Saharan Africa is historically and ecologically significant because of the effective barrier created by the Sahara Desert for much of modern history . From 3500 BC , following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to gradual changes in the Earth 's orbit , this barrier has culturally separated the North from the rest of the continent . As the seafaring civilizations of the Phoenicians , Greeks , Romans , Muslims and others facilitated communication and migration across the Mediterranean Sea , the cultures of North Africa became much more closely tied to Southwestern Asia and Europe than Sub-Saharan Africa . The Islamic influence in the area is also significant , and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world .   Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration .

neg: Khorugh The town of Khorugh , also transliterated as Horog , Khoroq , Khorogh , Khorog , or Xoroq is the capital of the Gorno-Badakhshan ( Tajik : Kuhistoni Badakhshon , `` Badakhshan Mountainous Region '' ) Autonomous Region ( GBAO ) in Tajikistan . It is also the capital of the Shughnon District of Gorno-Badakhshan . It has a population of 28,000 ( 2000 census ) . Khorugh is 2200 m above sea level in the Pamir Mountains ( ancient Mount Imeon ) at the confluence of the Ghund and Panj rivers . The city is bounded to the south ( Nivodak ) and to the north ( Tem ) by the deltas of the Shakhdara and Gunt , respectively . The two rivers merge in the eastern part of the city flow through the city , dividing it almost evenly until its delta in the Panj River , also being known as Amu Darya , or in antiquity the Oxus ) on the border with Afghanistan . Khorugh is known for its beautiful poplar trees that dominate the flora of the city .

neg: Altyndepe Altyndepe ( Алтын-Депе , the Turkmen for `` Golden Hill '' ) is a Bronze Age ( BMAC ) site in Turkmenistan , near Aşgabat , inhabited in the 3rd to 2nd millennia BC , abandoned around 1600 BC .   Namazga V and Altyndepe were in contact with the Late Harappan culture ( ca. 2000-1600 BC ) , and Sarianidi affiliates the site with Indo Iranians . Masson ( 1988 ) views the culture as having a Proto-Dravidian affiliation . The site is notable for the remains of its `` proto-Zoroastrian '' ziggurat .   Models of two-wheeled carts from c. 3000 BC found at Altyn-Depe are the earliest complete evidence of wheeled transport in Central Asia , though model wheels have come from contexts possibly somewhat earlier . Judging by the type of harness , carts were initially pulled by oxen , or a bull . However camels were domesticated within the BMAC . A model of a cart drawn by a camel of c. 2200 BC was found at Altyn-Depe .

neg: Balkh Province Balkh ( Persian and Pashto : بلخ , Balx ) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan , located in the north of the country . It is divided into 15 districts and has a population of about 1,245,100 , which is multi-ethnic and mostly a Persian-speaking society . The city of Mazar-i-Sharif serves as the capital of the province . The Mazar-e Sharif International Airport and Camp Marmal sit on the eastern edge of Mazar-i-Sharif .   The name of the province is derived from the ancient city of Balkh , near the modern town . Home to the famous blue mosque , it was once destroyed by Genghis Khan but later rebuilt by Timur . The city of Mazar-e-Sharif has been an important stop on the trade routes from the Far East to the Middle East , the Mediterranean and Europe .   The city of Balkh and the area of Balkh Province was considered a part of various historical regions in history including Ariana and Greater Khorasan .   It serves today as Afghanistan 's second but main gateway to Central Asia , the other being Shir Khan Bandar in neighboring Kunduz Province .

neg: Tillodontia Tillodontia is an extinct suborder of eutherian mammals known from the Early Paleocene to Late Eocene of China , the Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene of North America where they display their maximum species diversity , the Middle Eocene of Pakistan , and the Early Eocene of Europe . Leaving no descendants , they are most closely related to the pantodonts , another extinct group . The tillodonts were medium - to large-sized animals that probably feed on roots and tubers in temperate to subtropical habitats .

neg: Punjabis The Punjabis ( Punjabi : , ਪ ਜਾਬੀ ) , or Punjabi people , are an ethno-linguistic group associated with the Punjab , who speak Punjabi , an Indo-Aryan language . Punjab literally means the land of five waters ( Persian : panj ( `` five '' ) āb ( `` waters '' ) . The name of the region was introduced by the Greeksas Pentapotamia , which was later translated into Persian by the Turko-Persian conquerors of South Asia and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire . Punjab is often referred to as the breadbasket in both Pakistan and India .   The coalescence of the various tribes , castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab into a broader common `` Punjabi '' identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE . Prior to that the sense and perception of a common `` Punjabi '' ethno-cultural identity and community did not exist , even though the majority of the various communities of the Punjab had long shared linguistic , cultural and racial commonalities .   Traditionally , Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic , geographical and cultural . Its identity is independent of historical origin or religion , and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region , or associate with its population , and those who consider the Punjabi language their mother tongue . Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture , since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections . More or less all Punjabis share the same cultural background .   Historically , the Punjabi people were a heterogeneous group and were subdivided into a number of clans called biradari ( literally meaning `` brotherhood '' ) or tribes , with each person bound to a clan . However , Punjabi identity also included those who did not belong to any of the historical tribes . With the passage of time , tribal structures are coming to an end and are being replaced with a more cohesive and holistic society , as community building and group cohesiveness form the new pillars of Punjabi society .

neg: Khost Province Khost is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan , located in the eastern part of the country next to Pakistan 's Federally Administered Tribal Areas ( FATA ) . Khost province used to be part of Paktia province in the past . The city of Khost serves as the capital of Khost province . The population of the province is around 546,800 , which is mostly a tribal society . Khost Airport serves the province for domestic flights to Afghanistan 's capital , Kabul .

neg: South Asia South Asia or Southern Asia is a term used to represent the southern region of the Asian continent , which comprises the sub-Himalayan SAARC countries and , for some authorities , adjoining countries to the west and east . Topographically , it is dominated by the Indian Plate , which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush . South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land ( clockwise , from west ) by West Asia , Central Asia , East Asia , and Southeast Asia .   The current territories of Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , Maldives , Nepal , India , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia . The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985 and includes all eight nations comprising South Asia .   South Asia covers about 5.1 million km2 ( 1.9 million mi2 ) , which is 11.51 % of the Asian continent or 3.4 % of the world 's land surface area . The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the world 's population , making it both the most populous and the most densely populated geographical region in the world . Overall , it accounts for about 39.49 % of Asia 's population ( or over 24 % of the world 's population ) and is home to a vast array of peoples .   In 2010 , South Asia had the world 's largest population of Hindus , Jains and Sikhs . There are 507 million Muslims as well as over 35 million Christians and 25 million Buddhists in South Asia .

neg: List of World Heritage Sites in Northern and Central Asia The UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) has designated 19 World Heritage Sites in six countries ( also called `` state parties '' ) of Central and North Asia : Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan and the Asian part of Russia . The European part of Russia is included in Eastern Europe .   Russia is home to the most inscribed sites with 7 sites , one of which is a transborder property shared with Mongolia in Eastern Asia . The first site from the region was the Itchan Kala in Uzbekistan inscribed in 1990 . Each year , UNESCO 's World Heritage Committee may inscribe new sites on the list , or delist sites that no longer meet the criteria . Selection is based on ten criteria : six for cultural heritage ( i -- vi ) and four for natural heritage ( vii -- x ) . Some sites , designated `` mixed sites , '' represent both cultural and natural heritage . In Northern and Central Asia , there are 11 cultural , 8 natural , and no mixed sites . All of the Russian sites ( 7 ) are natural and with the exception of Sayarka , all of the sites in Central Asia are cultural .   The World Heritage Committee may also specify that a site is endangered , citing `` conditions which threaten the very characteristics for which a property was inscribed on the World Heritage List . '' None of the sites in this region has ever been listed as endangered , but possible danger listing has been considered by UNESCO in a number of cases .

neg: Daykundi Province Daykundi ( Persian : دایکندی ; Pashto : دایکنډي -LSB- d̪ɑikʊnɖi -RSB- ) , sometimes spelled as Daikundi , Dāykondī , Daikondi or Daykundi , is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan , located in the central part of the country . It has a population of about 723,980 , which is a Hazara Province .   Daykundi Province falls into the traditionally ethnic Hazara region known as the Hazarajat and the provincial capital is Nili . It is surrounded by Ghor in the northwest , Bamyan in the northeast , Ghazni in the southeast , Urozgan in the south , and Helmand Province in west .

neg: Great Pamir The Great Pamir or Big Pamir ( Wakhi : Past Pamir ; Kyrgyz : Chang Pamir ; Pāmīr-e Bozorg or Pāmīr-e Kalan ) is a broad U-shaped grassy valley or pamir in the eastern part of the Wakhan in north-eastern Afghanistan and the adjacent part of Tajikistan , in the Pamir Mountains . The valley is 60 km long , and is bounded to the north by the Southern Alichur Range and to the south by the Nicholas Range and the Wakhan Range .   Zorkol lake lies at the northern edge of the Great Pamir .   The Great Pamir is used by Wakhi and Kyrgyz herders for summer pasture . Side valleys support populations of Marco Polo sheep , snow leopard , ibex , and brown bear .

neg: Igam Igam is a small area in what is now Afghanistan just west of Sanginah . Named by the Persian Empire during the reign of Deioces ( 728BC-675BC ) . Considered to be a Holy site for prophetic theories , Deioces built a shrine in 719BC to the honor of `` Igam '' . Igam was prophesied by Zoroaster ( Around 1200BC ) .   Zoroaster believed these stars would descend unto Earth and sleep in the womb of a woman . He went even as far as to describe the Earthly parents of the prophetic stars . That they would descend into woman and be born as children . Unto Leviathan and a Scion . The accounts were later written about by the Father Sebastien Michaelis .   During the rule of Astyages ( 585BC - 550BC ) the shrines and the temples were destroyed .   Category : Historical regions of Afghanistan

neg: Alishang Alishang is a village , river and a fertile valley of Laghman Province , and also the district headquarters of Mihtarlam District , in eastern Afghanistan . It lies about 40 km northwest of Jalalabad .   The fertile Alishang valley drained by the Alishang River , which is described as `` contracted '' , has an abundance of mounds and caves . Is surrounded by Badrow hills . Alladad Khan castle is located close to the village . The Alishang River valley has a number of villages on the way from Jalalabad , such as Kargai , Tajak , Tigadee and Safees along its river course , which in some reaches is very narrow and can be forded by dismounting from the horse 's back .

neg: Punjab, Pakistan Punjab ( Urdu , Punjabi : , panj-āb , `` five waters '' : ) , is Pakistan 's second largest province by area after Balochistan , and its most populous province with an estimated population of 101,391,000 as of 2015 . It is bordered by Sindh , Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , as well as the regions of Islamabad Capital Territory and the Azad Kashmir . It also shares borders with the Indian states of Punjab , Rajasthan , and Jammu and Kashmir . The provincial capital of Punjab is the city Lahore , a cultural centre of Pakistan where the country 's cinema industry , and much of its fashion industry , are based .   Punjab has been inhabited since ancient times . The Indus Valley Civilization , dating to 2600 BCE , was first discovered at Harappa . Punjab features heavily in the Hindu epic poem , the Mahabharata , and is home to Taxila , site of what is considered by many to be the oldest university in the world . In 326 BCE , Alexander the Great defeated King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes near Mong , Punjab . The Umayyad empire conquered Punjab in the 8th century CE . Punjab was later invaded by Tamerlane , Babur , and Nader Shah . Punjab reached the height of its splendour during the reign of the Mughal Empire , which for a time ruled from Lahore . Following a successful rebellion , Sikh-led armies claimed Lahore in 1759 . The administration of the Sikh Empire was based out of Lahore , until its defeat by the British . Punjab was central to the independence movements of both India and Pakistan , with Lahore being site of both the Declaration of Indian Independence , and the resolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan . The province was formed when the Punjab province of British India was divided along religious boundaries in 1947 by the Radcliffe Line after Partition .   Punjab is Pakistan 's most industrialised province with the industrial sector making up 24 % of the province 's gross domestic product . Punjab is known in Pakistan for its relative prosperity , and has the lowest rate of poverty amongst all Pakistani provinces . A clear divide is present between the northern and southern portions of the province ; with poverty rates in prosperous northern Punjab amongst the lowest in Pakistan , while some in south Punjab are amongst the most impoverished . Punjab is also one of South Asia 's most urbanized regions with approximately 40 % of people living in urban areas . Its human development index rankings are high relative to the rest of Pakistan .   Punjab is known in Pakistan for its relatively liberal social attitudes . The province has been strongly influenced by Sufism , with numerous Sufi shrines spread across Punjab which attract millions of devotees annually . The founder of the Sikh faith , Guru Nanak , was born in the Punjab town of Nankana Sahib near Lahore . Punjab is also the site of the Katasraj Temple , which features prominently in Hindu mythology . Several UNESCO World Heritage Sites are located in Punjab , including the Shalimar Gardens , the Lahore Fort , the archeological excavations at Taxila , and the Rohtas Fort .

neg: 1949 in Afghanistan __ NOTOC __  See also : 1948 in Afghanistan , other events of 1949 , and 1950 in Afghanistan .   The cold war between Afghanistan and Pakistan continues . Political circles in Kabul and the Afghan government insist that Pakistan should constitute the North-West Frontier Province as an independent Pashtun republic , or at least allow the Pashtuns of the tribal areas on the Pakistan side of the Durand Line to opt for Kabul . The British government categorically refuses the Afghan request that it should intervene . The press and wireless of Kabul continue to pour out propaganda against Pakistan . The Pakistan government refrains from reprisals and trade between the two countries goes on as before ; in fact economic cooperation is offered . Afghanistan is in the grip of an economic crisis . The Persian lamb trade , a vital element in Afghan finance , is languishing ; Indian import duties paralyze the export of fruit .

neg: Kabul River The Kabul River , the classical Cophes -LSB- ˈkoʊfiːz -RSB- , is a 700 km long river that emerges in the Sanglakh Range of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and empties into the Indus River near Attock , Pakistan . It is the main river in eastern Afghanistan and is separated from the watershed of the Helmand by the Unai Pass . The Kabul River passes through the cities of Kabul and Jalalabad in Afghanistan before flowing into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan some 25 km north of the Durand Line border crossing at Torkham . The major tributaries of the Kabul River are the Logar , Panjshir , Kunar , Alingar , Bara and Swat rivers .   The Kabul River is little more than a trickle for most of the year , but swells in summer due to melting snows in the Hindu Kush Range . Its largest tributary is the Kunar River , which starts out as the Mastuj River , flowing from the Chiantar glacie in Brughil valley in Chitral , Pakistan and after flowing south into Afghanistan it is met by the Bashgal river flowing from Nurestan . The Kunar meets the Kabul near Jalalabad . In spite of the Kunar carrying more water than the Kabul , the river continues as the Kabul River after this confluence , mainly for the political and historical significance of the name .   The Kabul River is impounded by several dams . The Naghlu , Surobi , and Darunta dams are located in Kabul and Nangarhar provinces of Afghanistan . The Warsak Dam is in Pakistan , approximately 20 km northwest of the city of Peshawar .

neg: Indo-Greek Kingdom The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Graeco-Indian Kingdom was a Hellenistic kingdom covering various parts of the northwest regions of South Asia ( mainly modern Afghanistan and Pakistan ) during the last two centuries BC and was ruled by more than thirty kings , often in conflict with each other .   The kingdom was founded when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the subcontinent early in the 2nd century BC . The Greeks in South Asia were eventually divided from the Graeco-Bactrians centered in Bactria ( now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan ) . But the Greeks failed to establish united rule in present-day north-western South Asia . The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander ( Milinda ) . He had his capital at Sakala in the Punjab ( present-day Sialkot , Punjab , Pakistan ) .   The expression `` Indo-Greek Kingdom '' loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities , traditionally associated with a number of regional capitals like Taxila , ( modern Punjab ( Pakistan ) ) , Pushkalavati and Sagala . Other potential centers are only hinted at ; for instance , Ptolemy 's Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings suggest that a certain Theophila in the south of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also have been a satrapal or royal seat at one time .   Euthydemus I was , according to Polybius a Magnesian Greek . His son , Demetrius , founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom , was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum . A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus III the Great , who had partial Persian descent . The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear .   During the two centuries of their rule , the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indo-Iranian languages and symbols , as seen on their coins , and blended Hindu , Buddhist and ancient Greek religious practices , as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism , pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences . The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today , particularly through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art .   The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians , although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans .

neg: Little Pamir The Little Pamir ( Wakhi : Wuch Pamir ; Kyrgyz : Kichik Pamir ; Pāmīr-e Kochak or Pāmīr-e Khord ) is a broad U-shaped grassy valley or pamir in the eastern part of the Wakhan in north-eastern Afghanistan . The valley is 100 km long and 10 km wide , and is bounded to the north by the Nicholas Range , a subrange of the Pamir Mountains .   Chaqmaqtin Lake ( 9 km by 2 km ) lies towards the western end of the valley while the Tegerman Su valley lies at its easternmost end . The Aksu or Murghab River flows east from the lake through the Little Pamir to enter Tajikistan at the eastern end of the valley . The Bozai Darya ( also known as the Little Pamir River ) rises a short distance west of the lake , and flows 15 km west to join the Wakhjir River and form the Wakhan River near the settlement of Bozai Gumbaz .   The Little Pamir is used by semi-nomadic Kyrgyz herders for summer pasture . In 1978 almost all the inhabitants fled to Pakistan in the aftermath of the Saur Revolution . Many of the Kyrgyz subsequently migrated to Turkey , but in October 1979 , following the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan , a group of about 200 Kyrgyz returned to the Little Pamir . In 2003 there were 140 yurt households .   The valley supports populations of Marco Polo sheep , ibex , and other wild animals . The naturalist George Schaller has advocated the creation of an international peace park to protect the wildlife in the area .   The Little Pamir is accessed by trails from the roadhead at Sarhad-e Broghil , about 5 days walk away . A rough road also leads to the Little Pamir from Murghab in Tajikistan , and was the route by which the Soviets occupied the eastern part of Wakhan . The border is now closed . In 2000 the road was used to deliver humanitarian aid to the Kyrgyz of the Little Pamir , and in 2003 a trade fair was held at the border for a few hours .

neg: Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2014) During the war in Afghanistan ( 2001 -- 14 ) , over 26,000 civilian deaths due to war-related violence have been documented ; 29,900 civilians have been wounded . Over 91,000 Afghans , including civilians , soldiers and militants , are recorded to have been killed in the conflict , and the number who have died through indirect causes related to the war may include an additional 360,000 people . These numbers do not include those who have died in Pakistan .   The war , launched by the United States as `` Operation Enduring Freedom '' in 2001 , began with an initial air campaign that almost immediately prompted concerns over the number of Afghan civilians being killed as well as international protests . With civilian deaths from airstrikes rising again in recent years , the number of Afghan civilians being killed by foreign military operations has led to mounting tension between the foreign countries and the government of Afghanistan . In May 2007 , President Hamid Karzai summoned foreign military commanders to warn them of the consequences of further Afghan civilian deaths . The civilian losses are a continuation of the extremely high civilian losses experienced during the Soviet War in Afghanistan in the 1980s , and the three periods of civil war following it : 1989 -- 1992 , 1992 -- 1996 , and 1996 -- 2001 .