query: Ancient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient Carthaginians.

pos: Algeria Algeria ( الجزائر ; ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ , Dzayer ; Algérie ) , officially the People 's Democratic Republic of Algeria , is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast . Its capital and most populous city is Algiers , located in the country 's far north . With an area of 2381741 km2 , Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world , and the largest in Africa . Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia , to the east by Libya , to the west by Morocco , to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory , Mauritania , and Mali , to the southeast by Niger , and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea . The country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes ( counties ) . Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999 .   Ancient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties , including ancient Numidians , Phoenicians , Carthaginians , Romans , Vandals , Byzantines , Umayyads , Abbasids , Idrisid , Aghlabid , Rustamid , Fatimids , Zirid , Hammadids , Almoravids , Almohads , Spaniards , Ottomans and the French colonial empire . Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria .   Algeria is a regional and middle power . The North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe , and energy exports are the backbone of the economy . According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world and the second largest in Africa , while it has the 9th largest reserves of natural gas . Sonatrach , the national oil company , is the largest company in Africa . Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent ; most of Algeria 's weapons are imported from Russia , with whom they are a close ally . Algeria is a member of the African Union , the Arab League , OPEC , the United Nations and is the founding member of the Maghreb Union .

neg: North Africa North Africa is the term given to a group of Mediterranean countries situated in the northern-most region of the African continent . The term `` North Africa '' has no single accepted definition . It is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Morocco in the west , to the Suez Canal and the Red Sea in the east . Others have limited it to the countries of Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia , a region known by the French during colonial times as `` Afrique du Nord '' and by the Arabs as the Maghreb ( `` West '' ) .   The most commonly accepted definition includes Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia , as well as Libya and Egypt , It should be noted however that the term `` North Africa '' , when commonly used in North Africa and the Middle East , often refers only to the countries of the Maghreb and Libya . Egypt , due to its greater Middle Eastern associations , is typically viewed separately . The countries of North Africa share a common ethnic , cultural and linguistic identity that is unique to this region .   North west Africa has been inhabited by Berbers since the beginning of recorded history , while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Egyptians . Following the Muslim conquest in the seventh century C.E. , the region underwent a process of Arabization and Islamization that has defined its cultural landscape ever since .   The distinction between North Africa and much of Sub-Saharan Africa is historically and ecologically significant because of the effective barrier created by the Sahara Desert for much of modern history . From 3500 BC , following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to gradual changes in the Earth 's orbit , this barrier has culturally separated the North from the rest of the continent . As the seafaring civilizations of the Phoenicians , Greeks , Romans , Muslims and others facilitated communication and migration across the Mediterranean Sea , the cultures of North Africa became much more closely tied to Southwestern Asia and Europe than Sub-Saharan Africa . The Islamic influence in the area is also significant , and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world .   Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration .

neg: List of Muslim empires and dynasties Scholars debate what exactly constitutes an empire . Generally , they may define an empire as a state that extends dominion over areas and populations distinct culturally and ethnically from the culture/ethnicity at the center of power .   This article lists some of the states , empires , or dynasties that were ruled by a Muslim elite , or which were in some way central to or a part of a Muslim empire . Many Muslim empires had strong influences on the visual arts , architecture , music and food .

neg: Abydos, Egypt Abydos -LSB- əˈbaɪdɒs -RSB- is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt , and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt , of which it was the capital city . It is located about 11 km west of the Nile at latitude 26 ° 10 ' N , near the modern Egyptian towns of el - ` Araba el Madfuna and al-Balyana . In the ancient Egyptian language , the city was called Abdju ( ꜣbdw or AbDw ) . The English name Abydos comes from the Greek Ἄβυδος , a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the unrelated city of Abydos on the Hellespont .   Considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt , the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples , including Umm el-Qa ` ab , a royal necropolis where early pharaohs were entombed . These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area , leading to the growth of the town 's importance as a cult site .   Today , Abydos is notable for the memorial temple of Seti I , which contains an inscription from the nineteenth dynasty known to the modern world as the Abydos King List . It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti I 's father , Ramesses I.   The Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple . Many of the original structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost ; many may have been destroyed by the new construction .

neg: Sahara International Film Festival The Sahara International Film Festival , also known as FiSahara , is an annual event which takes place in the Sahrawi refugee camps , at the South West corner of Algeria , near the border with Western Sahara . It is the only film festival in the world taking place in a refugee camp . The first three years the festival was held alternately in the Wilaya of Smara , Wilaya of Ausserd and Wilaya of El Aaiun , but since 2007 the FiSahara had stayed in the Wilaya of Dakhla . The event is backed by the Polisario Front , but largely organised and funded by donors from Spain , the former colonial power in Western Sahara , attracting support from Spanish film celebrities as Penélope Cruz , Javier Bardem and Pedro Almodóvar . This Festival is an initiative to bring film as an entertainment and cultural form to the thousands of Sahrawis whose community has lived for more than thirty years in relative isolation in the Algerian desert , being the only film festival in the world taking place in a refugee camp .  The first festival was in large part organised by Peruvian film director Javier Corcuera .   The festival has the two-fold aim of providing cultural entertainment and educational opportunities to refugees , and of raising awareness of the plight of the Sahrawi people , who have been exiled from their native Western Sahara for more than three decades . Western Sahara , `` Africa 's last colony , '' was given to Morocco and Mauritania by the Spanish when they withdrew in 1976 . The Moroccans subsequently annexed the entire territory in 1979 , in defiance of a ruling from the International Court of Justice . A sixteen-year war ensued between the Moroccans and the native Sahrawi independence movement , the Polisario Front . Under the terms of a 1991 UN ceasefire agreement , a referendum for self-determination was promised , but has been blocked by Morocco . In the meantime an estimated 165,000 refugees continue to live in four large camps in the inhospitable Algerian desert .   Home to around 30,000 refugees , Dakhla is the most remote of the camps , located 175 km away from the nearest city , Tindouf . It has no electricity or paved roads and is dependent on outside supplies of food and water .   Musicians like Fermín Muguruza , Manu Chao , Macaco , Iván Ferreiro , El Chojin or Tomasito had also performed in concerts during the festival .   In 2010 , a twinning agreement was signed between the FiSahara and the San Sebastian Human Rights Film Festival .

neg: Numidian language East Numidian , also known as Old Libyan , was the language of the Maesulians of the eastern part of ancient Numidia during the Pre-Roman era , in what is now Algeria .   The language is scarcely attested and can be confidently identified only as belonging to the Afroasiatic family . As the Maesulians were ethnically Berber , it is supposed that East Numidian was therefore a Berber language . The Berber branch of Afro-Asiatic is sometimes called Lybico-Berber since it is not certain whether East Numidian would fall within the modern Berber languages or form a sister branch to them . Indeed , it is widely supposed that it constitutes a group of its own , as there is no trace of the noun-case system shared by the modern Berber languages . However , Proto-Berber is theorized to have no grammatical case either .

neg: French colonial empire The French colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies , protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward . A distinction is generally made between the `` first colonial empire '' , that existed until 1814 , by which time most of it had been lost , and the `` second colonial empire '' , which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830 . The second empire came to an end after the loss of bitter wars in Vietnam ( 1955 ) and Algeria ( 1962 ) , and peaceful decolonization elsewhere after 1960 .   Competing with Spain , Portugal , the United Provinces , and later Britain , France began to establish colonies in North America , the Caribbean , and India in the 17th century . A series of wars with Great Britain and other European major powers during the 18th century and early 19th century resulted in France losing nearly all of its conquests . France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850 , concentrating chiefly in Africa , as well as Indochina and the South Pacific . Republicans , at first hostile to empire , only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire . As it developed the new empire took on roles of trade with France , especially supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items , as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language , and the Catholic religion . It also provided manpower in the World Wars .   It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture . In 1884 the leading proponent of colonialism , Jules Ferry declared ; `` The higher races have a right over the lower races , they have a duty to civilize the inferior races . '' Full citizenship rights -- assimilation -- were offered , although in reality `` assimilation was always receding -LSB- and -RSB- the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens . '' France sent small numbers of settlers to its empire , contrary to Great Britain , and previously Spain and Portugal , with the only notable exception of Algeria , where the French settlers nonetheless always remained a small minority .   At its apex , it was one of the largest empires in history . Including metropolitan France , the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11500000 km2 in 1920 , with a population of 110 million people in 1939 . In World War II , Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the overseas colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France . Historian Tony Chafer argues : `` In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation , France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War . '' However , after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority . The French constitution of October 27 , 1946 ( Fourth Republic ) , established the French Union which endured until 1958 . Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as overseas departments and territories within the French Republic . These now total altogether 119,394 km ² ( 46,098 sq. miles ) , which amounts to only 1 % of the pre-1939 French colonial empire 's area , with 2.7 million people living in them in 2013 . By the 1970s , says Robert Aldrich , the last `` vestiges of empire held little interest for the French . '' He argues , `` Except for the traumatic decolonization of Algeria , however , what is remarkable is how few long-lasting effects on France the giving up of empire entailed . ''

neg: Bir el Ater Bir el Ater is a city located in far eastern Algeria . It is located towards the border with Tunisia , around 87 kilometers south of Tebessa and just beyond the Sahara . The town has a population of approximately 100,000 inhabitants .   Bir el Ater is the type site of the Paleolithic Aterian industry . The term Aterian derives from el-Ater . This lithic culture lasted between 40000 -- 20000 years BC .   It is now a mining city , located 15 km south of Bir El Ater . There are deposits of Djebel Onk Phosphates , the largest in Algeria which are extracted and shipped by train to Annaba a port , 300 km north on the Mediterranean or are used locally .

neg: Tribute A tribute ( from Latin tributum , contribution ) is wealth , often in kind , that a party gives to another as a sign of respect or , as was often the case in historical contexts , of submission or allegiance . Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conquered or otherwise threatened to conquer . In case of alliances , lesser parties may pay tribute to more powerful parties as a sign of allegiance and often in order to finance projects that benefited both parties . To be called `` tribute '' a recognition by the payer of political submission to the payee is normally required ; the large sums , essentially protection money , paid by the later Roman and Byzantine Empires to barbarian peoples to prevent them attacking imperial territory , would not usually be termed `` tribute '' as the Empire accepted no inferior political position . Payments by a superior political entity to an inferior one , made for various purposes , are described by terms including `` subsidy '' .   The ancient Persian Achaemenid Empire is an example of an ancient ` tribute empire ; one that made relatively few demands on its non-Persian subjects other than the regular payment of tribute , which might be gold , luxury goods , animals , soldiers or slaves . However failure to keep up the payments had dire consequences . The reliefs at Persepolis show processions of figures bearing varied types of tribute .   The medieval Mongol rulers of Russia likewise only expected tribute from the Russian states , which continued to govern themselves . Athens received tribute from the other cities of the Delian League . The empires of Assyria , Babylon , Carthage and Rome exacted tribute from their provinces and subject kingdoms . Ancient China received tribute from various states such as Japan , Korea , Vietnam , Cambodia , Borneo , Indonesia , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Myanmar and Central Asia . The Aztec Empire is another example . The Roman republic exacted tribute in the form of payments equivalent to proportional property taxes , for the purpose of waging war .   Tribute empires contrast with those like the Roman Empire , which more closely controlled and garrisoned subject territories . A tributary state is one that preserves its political position and such independence as it has only by paying tribute .

neg: Barcids The Barcid family was a notable family in the ancient city of Carthage ; many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic . `` Barcid '' is an adjectival form coined by historians ( cf. `` Ramesside '' and `` Abbasid '' ) ; the actual byname was Barca or Barcas , which means lightning . See ברק Baraq in Canaanite and Hebrew , برق , barq in Arabic , and similar words in other Semitic languages .

neg: Estoria de España The Estoria de España , also known in the 1906 edition of Ramón Menéndez Pidal as the Primera Crónica General , is a history book written on the initiative of Alfonso X of Castile `` El Sabio '' ( `` the Wise '' ) , who was actively involved in the editing . It is believed to be the first extended history of Spain in Old Spanish , a West Iberian Romance language that forms part of the lineage from Vulgar Latin to modern Spanish . Many prior works were consulted in constructing this history .   The book narrates a history beginning in Biblical and legendary origins and continues  through the history of Castile under Fernando III of Castile . In the style of chronicles of its time , it begins by retelling the stories of remote origins found in the Bible . From the time of Moses onward , the mix begins to include Greek sources on ancient history . However , as the story continues , the details become increasingly detailed , especially from the Germanic invasions to the time of Alfonso 's father Fernando III .   The work is divided into four large parts . The first includes a history of Ancient Rome : the medieval European monarchs considered themselves heirs to the Roman Empire . The second tells the history of the barbarian and Gothic kings , treated as antecedents within the Iberian Peninsula . The third is a history of the Kingdom of Asturias from which the Reconquista ( the Christian reconquest of Iberia from Muslim rule ) began . The fourth and final part is a history of the Kingdoms of León and Castile .

neg: Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus IV Epiphanes ( -LSB- ænˈtaɪ.əkəs _ ɛˈpɪfəniːz -RSB- Ἀντίοχος Δ΄ ὁ Ἐπιφανής , Antíochos D' ho Epiphanḗs , `` God Manifest '' ; c. 215 BC -- 164 BC ) was a Hellenistic Greek king of the Seleucid Empire from 175 BC until his death in 164 BC . He was a son of King Antiochus III the Great . His original name was Mithradates ( alternative form Mithridates ) ; he assumed the name Antiochus after he ascended the throne .   Notable events during the reign of Antiochus IV include his near-conquest of Egypt , his persecution of the Jews of Judea and Samaria , and the rebellion of the Jewish Maccabees .   Antiochus was the first Seleucid king to use divine epithets on coins , perhaps inspired by the Bactrian Hellenistic kings who had earlier done so , or else building on the ruler cult that his father Antiochus the Great had codified within the Seleucid Empire . These epithets included Θεὸς Ἐπιφανής `` manifest god '' , and , after his defeat of Egypt , Νικηφόρος `` bringer of victory '' . However , Antiochus also tried to interact with common people by appearing in the public bath houses and applying for municipal offices , and his often eccentric behavior and capricious actions led some of his contemporaries to call him Epimanes ( `` The Mad One '' ) , a word play on his title Epiphanes .

neg: Ancient empires Ancient empires may refer to a number of empires in ancient history . See List of empires .   It may also refer to these computer games :   Ancient Empires ( mobile game )  Challenge of the Ancient Empires !  The Rise & Rule of Ancient Empires

neg: Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa , concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place which is now the country Egypt . It is one of six historic civilizations to arise independently . Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC ( according to conventional Egyptian chronology ) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh , Narmer ( commonly referred to as Menes ) . The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms , separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods : the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age , the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age .   Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom , during the Ramesside period , where it rivalled the Hittite Empire , Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire , after which it entered a period of slow decline . Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers , such as the Canaanites/Hyksos , Libyans , the Nubians , the Assyrians , Babylonians , the Achaemenid Persians , and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt . In the aftermath of Alexander the Great 's death , one of his generals , Ptolemy Soter , established himself as the new ruler of Egypt . This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC , when , under Cleopatra , it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province .   The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture . The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops , which supported a more dense population , and social development and culture . With resources to spare , the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions , the early development of an independent writing system , the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects , trade with surrounding regions , and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance . Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes , religious leaders , and administrators under the control of a pharaoh , who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs .   The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying , surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids , temples , and obelisks ; a system of mathematics , a practical and effective system of medicine , irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques , the first known planked boats , Egyptian faience and glass technology , new forms of literature , and the earliest known peace treaty , made with the Hittites . Egypt left a lasting legacy . Its art and architecture were widely copied , and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world . Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries . A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy .

neg: Armed Islamic Group of Algeria The Armed Islamic Group ( GIA , from Groupe Islamique Armé الجماعة الإسلامية المسلّحة , ) was one of the two main Islamist insurgents groups that fought the Algerian government and army in the Algerian Civil War . It was created from smaller armed groups following the 1992 military coup and arrest and internment of thousands of officials in the Islamist Islamic Salvation Front ( FIS ) party after that party won the first round of parliamentary elections in December 1991 . It was led by a succession of amirs ( commanders ) who were killed or arrested one after another .   Unlike the other main armed groups , the MIA and later the AIS , in its pursuit of an Islamic state the GIA sought not to pressure the government into concessions but to destabilise and overthrow it , to `` purge the land of the ungodly '' . Its slogan inscribed on all communiques was : `` no agreement , no truce , no dialogue '' .  The group desired to create `` an atmosphere of general insecurity '' and employed kidnapping , assassination , and bombings , including car bombs and targeted not only security forces but civilians .   Between 1992 and 1998 , the GIA conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres , sometimes wiping out entire villages in its area of operation , ( notably the Bentalha and Rais ) . It attacked and killed other Islamists that left the GIA or attempted to negotiate with the government . It also targeted foreign civilians living in Algeria , killing more than 100 expatriate men and women in the country . The group established a presence outside Algeria , in France , Belgium , Britain , Italy and the United States , and launched terror attacks in France in late 1994 .   The `` undisputed principal Islamist force '' in Algeria in 1994 , by 1996 , militants were deserting `` in droves '' , alienated by its execution of civilians and Islamists leaders . In 1999 , a government amnesty law motivated large numbers of jihadis to `` repent '' . The remnants of the GIA proper were hunted down over the next two years , leaving a splinter group the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat ( GSPC ) , which announced its support for Al-Qaeda in October 2003 .   The GIA was and is considered a terrorist organisation by the governments of Algeria and France . To what extent the group was infiltrated and manipulated by Algerian security services is disputed . The GIA remains a Proscribed Organisation in the United Kingdom under the Terrorism Act 2000 .

neg: Algerian Civil War The Algerian Civil War was an armed conflict between the Algerian Government and various Islamic rebel groups which began in 1991 following a coup negating an Islamist electoral victory . The war began slowly as it first appeared the government had successfully crushed the Islamist movement , but armed groups emerged to fight jihad and by 1994 , violence had reached such a level that it appeared the government might not be able to withstand it . By 1996-7 however it became clear that the violence and predation of the Islamists had lost its popular support , although fighting continued for several years after .   The war has been referred to as ` the dirty war ' ( la sale guerre ) , and saw extreme violence and brutality used against civilians . Islamists targeted journalists , over 70 of whom were killed , and foreigners , over 100 of whom were killed ,  although it is thought by many that security forces as well as Islamists were involved , as the government infiltrated the insurgents .  Total fatalities have been estimated to be a range of different values from 44,000 to between 100,000 and 200,000 .   The conflict began in December 1991 , when the new and enormously popular Islamic Salvation Front ( FIS ) party appeared poised to defeat the ruling National Liberation Front ( FLN ) party in the national parliamentary elections . The elections were canceled after the first round and the military effectively took control of the government , forcing pro-reform president Chadli Bendjedid from office . After the FIS was banned and thousands of its members arrested , Islamist guerrillas rapidly emerged and began an armed campaign against the government and its supporters .   They formed themselves into various armed groups , principally the Islamic Armed Movement ( MIA ) , based primarily in the mountains , and the more hard-line Armed Islamic Group ( GIA ) , based primarily in the towns .  The GIA motto was `` no agreement , no truce , no dialogue '' and declared war on the FIS in 1994 after it made progress in negotiations with the government . The MIA and various smaller insurgent bands regrouped , becoming the FIS-loyalist Islamic Salvation Army ( AIS ) .   After talks collapsed , elections were held and won by the army 's candidate , General Liamine Zéroual . The GIA not only fought the AIS but began a series of massacres targeting entire neighborhoods or villages -- some evidence also suggests the involvement of government forces -- which peaked in 1997 . Its massacre policy caused desertion and splits , while the AIS , under attack from both sides , declared a unilateral ceasefire with the government in 1997 . In the meantime 1997 parliamentary elections were won by a newly created pro-Army party supporting the president .   In 1999 , following the election of Abdelaziz Bouteflika as president , violence declined as large numbers of insurgents `` repented '' , taking advantage of a new amnesty law . The remnants of the GIA proper were hunted down over the next two years , and had practically disappeared by 2002 , with the exception of a splinter group called the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat ( GSPC ) , which announced its support for Al-Qaeda in October 2003 and continued fighting an insurgency that would eventually spread to other countries in the region .

neg: History of the Byzantine Empire This history of the Byzantine Empire covers the history of the Eastern Roman Empire from late antiquity until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD . Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the transitional period during which the Roman Empire 's east and west divided . In 285 , the emperor Diocletian ( r. 284 -- 305 ) partitioned the Roman Empire 's administration into eastern and western halves . Between 324 and 330 , Constantine I ( r. 306 -- 337 ) transferred the main capital from Rome to Byzantium , later known as Constantinople ( `` City of Constantine '' ) and Nova Roma ( `` New Rome '' ) . Under Theodosius I ( r. 379 -- 395 ) , Christianity became the Empire 's official state religion and others such as Roman polytheism were proscribed . And finally , under the reign of Heraclius ( r. 610 -- 641 ) , the Empire 's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin . Thus , although it continued the Roman state and maintained Roman state traditions , modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture , and characterised by Orthodox Christianity rather than Roman polytheism .   The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence , as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery . During the reign of Justinian I ( r. 527 -- 565 ) , the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast , including north Africa , Italy , and Rome itself , which it held for two more centuries . During the reign of Maurice ( r. 582 -- 602 ) , the Empire 's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised . However , his assassination caused a two-decade-long war with Sassanid Persia which exhausted the Empire 's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century . In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces , Egypt and Syria , to the Arabs .   During the Macedonian dynasty ( 10th -- 11th centuries ) , the Empire again expanded and experienced a two-century long renaissance , which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia as a homeland .   The final centuries of the Empire exhibited a general trend of decline . It struggled to recover during the 12th century , but was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade , when Constantinople was sacked and the Empire dissolved and divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople and re-establishment of the Empire in 1261 , Byzantium remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence . Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century . The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Roman Empire .

neg: Batna (département) Batna is a former French département in Algeria . The département of Batna existed between 1957 and 1962 .   Considered as an integral piece of French territory , Algeria was departmentalised on 9 December 1848 , and thereby was administratively structured in the same way as metropolitan France . Three civil zones ( départements ) replaced the three beyliks into which the Ottoman former rulers had divided the territory . The easternmost of the three original Algerian departments was called Constantine . For over a century the town of Batna , was a sub-prefecture in the département of Constantine : this changed in 1957 .   On 20 May 1957 the Batna sub-prefecture was split off and became a separate département . This administrative reorganisation was undertaken in response to the rapid population increase experienced across the territory , especially during the preceding decade . The new département of Batna was located directly to the south of the newly created département of Sétif and the newly diminished département of Constantine .   The département of Batna covered an area of 38,494 km ² : a population of 529,532 was recorded . The department comprised five sub-prefectures : these were Arris , Barika , Biskra , Corneille and Khenchela .   The 1957 departmental reorganisation was marked by a change in the `` suffix '' number appearing on automobile license plates and in other places that used the same code . Until 1957 , as part of the département of Constantine , Batna was identified by the department number `` 93 '' : after 1957 the département of Batna became department number `` 9B '' . ( In 1968 , under a law enacted in 1964 , the number `` 93 '' would be reallocated to a new département comprising the northern suburbs of Paris . )   The département of Batna remained in existence until after the independence of Algeria and subsequently became Batna Province .

neg: Timeline of Algiers The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Algiers , Algeria .

neg: Antiquity Antiquity may refer to any period before the Middle Ages ( 476 -- 1453 ) , but still within Western civilization-based human history or prehistory :  Ancient history , any historical period before the Middle Ages  Classical antiquity , the classical civilizations of the Mediterranean  Late Antiquity , the period between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages  Ancient Egypt , a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa , concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt  Ancient China  Ancient Somalia , ancient pyramidal structures , mausoleums , ruined cities and stone walls found in Somalia ( such as the Wargaade Wall ) are evidence of an old sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula  Ancient Greece , a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( c. 600 AD )  Ancient India  Ancient Iran  Ancient Israel and Judah  Ancient Japan  Ancient Near East , the home of early civilizations within roughly the modern Middle East  North Africa during Antiquity , the history of Egypt , Ancient Libya , Numidia and Mauretania  Poland in Antiquity , an era that dates from about 400 BC to 450 -- 500 AD  Romania in Antiquity , between the foundation of Greek colonies in present-day Dobruja and the withdrawal of the Romans from `` Dacia Trajana '' province  Ancient Rome  Ancient languages  Ancient music , music that developed in literate cultures , replacing prehistoric music  Antiquities , objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures


query: Clint Eastwood has been in films.

pos: Clint Eastwood Clinton Eastwood Jr. '' ' ( born May 31 , 1930 ) is an American actor , filmmaker , musician , and political figure . After achieving success in the Western TV series Rawhide , he rose to international fame with his role as the Man with No Name in Sergio Leone 's Dollars trilogy of spaghetti Westerns during the 1960s , and as antihero cop Harry Callahan in the five Dirty Harry films throughout the 1970s and 1980s . These roles , among others , have made Eastwood an enduring cultural icon of masculinity .   For his work in the Western film Unforgiven ( 1992 ) and the sports drama Million Dollar Baby ( 2004 ) , Eastwood won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture , as well as receiving nominations for Best Actor . Eastwood 's greatest commercial successes have been the adventure comedy Every Which Way But Loose ( 1978 ) and its sequel , the action comedy Any Which Way You Can ( 1980 ) , after adjustment for inflation . Other popular films include the Western Hang 'Em High ( 1968 ) , the psychological thriller Play Misty for Me ( 1971 ) , the crime film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot ( 1974 ) , the Western The Outlaw Josey Wales ( 1976 ) , the prison film Escape from Alcatraz ( 1979 ) , the action film Firefox ( 1982 ) , the suspense thriller Tightrope ( 1984 ) , the Western Pale Rider ( 1985 ) , the war films Where Eagles Dare ( 1968 ) , Heartbreak Ridge ( 1986 ) , the action thriller In the Line of Fire ( 1993 ) , the romantic drama The Bridges of Madison County ( 1995 ) , and the drama Gran Torino ( 2008 ) .   In addition to directing many of his own star vehicles , Eastwood has also directed films in which he did not appear , such as the mystery drama Mystic River ( 2003 ) and the war film Letters from Iwo Jima ( 2006 ) , for which he received Academy Award nominations , and the drama Changeling ( 2008 ) . The war drama biopic American Sniper '' ( 2014 ) set box office records for the largest January release ever and was also the largest opening ever for an Eastwood film .   Eastwood received considerable critical praise in France for several films , including some that were not well received in the United States . Eastwood has been awarded two of France 's highest honors : in 1994 he became a recipient of the Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , and in 2007 he was awarded the Legion of Honour medal . In 2000 , Eastwood was awarded the Italian Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for lifetime achievement .   Since 1967 , Eastwood has run his own production company , Malpaso , which has produced all but four of his American films . Starting in 1986 , Eastwood served for two years as Mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea , California , a non-partisan office .

neg: Clint Eastwood in the 1970s In the 1970s , Clint Eastwood 's acting career was at its peak .

neg: The Rebel Outlaw: Josey Wales The Rebel Outlaw : Josey Wales is a 1972 American Western novel ( also republished in 1975 as Gone to Texas ) written by Forrest Carter that was adapted into the film The Outlaw Josey Wales directed by and starring Clint Eastwood . The novel was republished in 1975 under the title Gone to Texas .   Wales was portrayed by Michael Parks in the 1986 sequel to the film The Return of Josey Wales .

neg: List of action films of the 1960s This is chronological list of action films released before the 1970s . Often there may be considerable overlap particularly between action and other genres ( including horror , comedy , and science fiction films ) ; the list should attempt to document films which are more closely related to action , even if they bend genres .   Action films are generally considered a post-Classical Hollywood film genre . Additions to this category before the 1970s should be used sparingly , and films before the 1960s are not to be included .

neg: Left Handed Johnny West Left Handed Johnny West ( Johnny West il mancino , also known just as Johnny West ) is a 1965 Italian spaghetti western film directed by Gianfranco Parolini .

neg: List of films based on magazine articles This is a list of films based on non-fiction articles published in periodicals such as magazines or newspapers . See also List of films based on short fiction .  Adaptation . - `` The Orchid Thief '' , The New Yorker , January 23 , 1995 - Susan Orlean  Almost Famous - `` The Allman Brothers Story '' , Rolling Stone , December 6 , 1973 - Cameron Crowe  American Gangster - `` The Return of Superfly '' , New York , August 14 , 2000 - Mark Jacobson  Argo - `` How the CIA Used a Fake Sci-Fi Flick to Rescue Americans From Tehran '' , Wired , April 2007 Joshuah Bearman  Bigger Than Life - `` Ten Feet Tall '' , The New Yorker , September 10 , 1955 - Berton Roueche  Biker Boyz - `` Biker Boyz '' , New Times Los Angeles , April 2000 , Michael Gougis  The Bling Ring - `` The Suspects Wore Louboutins '' , Vanity Fair , March 2010 - Nancy Jo Sales  Blue Crush - `` Life 's Swell '' , Women Outside , September 1998 - Susan Orlean  Boogie Nights - `` The Devil and John Holmes '' , Rolling Stone , May 1989 - Mike Sager  City by the Sea - `` Mark of a Murderer '' , Esquire , September 1997 - Michael McAlary  Coyote Ugly - `` The Muse of the Coyote Ugly Saloon '' , GQ , March 1997 - Elizabeth Gilbert  Dog Day Afternoon - `` The Boys in the Bank '' , Life , September 22 , 1972 - P. F. Kluge  The Fast and the Furious - `` Racer X '' , Vibe , May 1998 - Ken Li  Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas - `` Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas '' , Rolling Stone , November 11 & November 25 , 1971 - Hunter S. Thompson  In Cold Blood - `` In Cold Blood : The Last to See Them Alive '' ' The New Yorker , September 25 , 1965 - Truman Capote  The Insider - `` The Man Who Knew Too Much '' , Vanity Fair , May 1996 - Marie Brenner  Into the Wild - `` Death of an Innocent '' , Outside , January 1993 - Jon Krakauer  The Killing Fields - `` The Death and Life of Dith Pran '' , The New York Times Magazine , January 20 , 1980 - Sydney Schanberg  Ladybug Ladybug - `` They Thought the War Was On '' , McCall 's , April 1963 - Lois Dickert  Live Free or Die Hard - `` A Farewell to Arms '' , Wired , May 1997 - John Carlin  Perfect -- Series of articles in Rolling Stone - Aaron Latham  Proof of Life - `` Adventures in the Ransom Trade '' Vanity Fair , May 1998 - William Prochnau  Pushing Tin - `` Something 's Got to Give '' , The New York Times Magazine , March 24 , 1996 - Darcy Frey  Radio - `` Someone to Lean On '' , Sports Illustrated , December 16 , 1996 - Gary Smith  Saturday Night Fever - `` Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night '' , New York , June 7 , 1976 - Nik Cohn  Shattered Glass - Vanity Fair , September 1998 - Buzz Bissinger  Top Gun - `` Top Guns '' , California , May 1983 - Ehud Yonay  Urban Cowboy - `` The Ballad of the Urban Cowboy : America 's Search for True Grit '' , Esquire , September 12 , 1978 - Aaron Latham  `` War Dogs ( 2016 film ) '' - `` The Stoner Arms Dealers : How Two American Kids Became Big-Time Weapons Traders '' , `` Rolling Stone '' , March 16 , 2011 - Guy Lawson

neg: Film director A film director is a person who directs the making of a film . Generally , a film director controls a film 's artistic and dramatic aspects and visualizes the screenplay ( or script ) while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision . The director has a key role in choosing the cast members , production design , and the creative aspects of filmmaking . Under European Union law , the director is viewed as the author of the film .   The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized , or noticed . Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the boundaries of the film 's budget . There are many pathways to becoming a film director . Some film directors started as screenwriters , cinematographers , film editors or actors . Other film directors have attended a film school . Directors use different approaches . Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue , while others control every aspect , and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely . Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners . Some directors edit or appear in their films , or compose the music score for their films .

neg: Clint Eastwood at the 2012 Republican National Convention On Thursday , August 30 , 2012 , American actor and director Clint Eastwood gave a speech at the Republican National Convention . Eastwood had endorsed Mitt Romney for the 2012 United States presidential election earlier that month , and spent much of his speech 's running time on a largely improvised routine in which he addressed an empty chair that represented President Barack Obama . The speech , broadcast in a prime time slot , was viewed live by around 30 million Americans . It generated many responses and much discussion .

neg: Acid Western Acid Western is a subgenre of the Western film that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s that combines the metaphorical ambitions of critically acclaimed Westerns , like Shane and The Searchers , with the excesses of the Spaghetti Westerns and the outlook of the 1960s counter-culture . Acid Westerns subvert many of the conventions of earlier Westerns to `` conjure up a crazed version of autodestructive white America at its most solipsistic , hankering after its own lost origins '' .

neg: Goodfellas (soundtrack) Martin Scorsese chose the songs for Goodfellas only if they commented on the scene or the characters `` in an oblique way '' . The only rule he adhered to with the soundtrack was to only use music which could have been heard at that time .   For example , if a scene took place in 1973 , he could use any song that was current or older . According to Scorsese , a lot of non-dialogue scenes were shot to playback . For example , he had `` Layla '' playing on the set while shooting the scene where the dead bodies are discovered in the car and the meat-truck . Sometimes , the lyrics of songs were put between lines of dialogue to comment on the action .   Some of the music Scorsese had written into the script while other songs he discovered during the editing phase . There is no music once Henry is arrested in his driveway by the DEA , until the end credits .

neg: Paint Your Wagon (film) Paint Your Wagon is a 1969 Western musical film starring Lee Marvin , Clint Eastwood , and Jean Seberg . The film was adapted by Paddy Chayefsky from the 1951 musical Paint Your Wagon by Lerner and Loewe . It is set in a mining camp in Gold Rush-era California . It was directed by Joshua Logan .

neg: Rocky Rocky is a 1976 American sports drama film directed by John G. Avildsen and both written by and starring Sylvester Stallone . It tells the rags to riches American Dream story of Rocky Balboa , an uneducated but kind-hearted working class Italian-American boxer working in a meat warehouse and as a debt collector for a loan shark in the slums of Philadelphia . Rocky starts out as a small-time club fighter , and later gets a shot at the world heavyweight championship . The film also stars Talia Shire as Adrian , Burt Young as Adrian 's brother Paulie , Burgess Meredith as Rocky 's trainer Mickey Goldmill , and Carl Weathers as the champion , Apollo Creed .   The film , made on a budget of just over $ 1 million and shot in 28 days , was a sleeper hit ; it earned $ 225 million in global box office receipts , becoming the highest-grossing film of 1976 , and went on to win three Oscars , including Best Picture . The film received many positive reviews and turned Stallone into a major star . In 2006 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically or aesthetically significant '' . Rocky is considered to be one of the greatest sports films ever made and was ranked as the second-best in the genre , after Raging Bull , by the American Film Institute in 2008 .   The film has spawned six sequels : Rocky II ( 1979 ) , Rocky III ( 1982 ) , Rocky IV ( 1985 ) , Rocky V ( 1990 ) , Rocky Balboa ( 2006 ) and Creed ( 2015 ) . Stallone portrays Rocky in all six sequels , wrote the first five , and directed four ( Avildsen returned to direct Rocky V and Ryan Coogler directed Creed ) .

neg: Pony Express (film) Pony Express is a 1953 American western film directed by Jerry Hopper and starring Charlton Heston as Buffalo Bill , Forrest Tucker as Wild Bill Hickok , Jan Sterling as a Calamity Jane type character  and Rhonda Fleming that was filmed in Kanab , Utah . The story is largely based on the 1925 silent film The Pony Express and tells a highly fictionalized account ( e.g. Buffalo Bill was born in 1846 and would have been 14 at the time ) of the formation of the Pony Express rapid transcontinental mail delivery pioneers in 1860 's United States .

neg: List of Republic Pictures films This is a list of films produced and distributed by Republic Pictures . Republic Pictures was an American independent film production-distribution corporation with studio facilities , operating from 1935 through 1959 , and was best known for specializing in westerns , serials , and B films emphasizing mystery and action .

neg: The Gauntlet (film) The Gauntlet is a 1977 American action film directed by Clint Eastwood , starring Eastwood and Sondra Locke . The film 's supporting cast includes Pat Hingle , William Prince , Bill McKinney , and Mara Corday . Eastwood plays a down-and-out cop who falls in love with a prostitute ( Locke ) whom he is assigned to escort from Las Vegas to Phoenix in order for her to testify against the mob .

neg: Golden Boot Awards The Golden Boot Awards is an American acknowledgment of achievement honoring actors , actresses , and crew members who have made significant contributions to the genre of Western television and movies . The award is sponsored and presented by the Motion Picture & Television Fund . Money raised at the award banquet is used to help finance various services offered by the Fund to those in the entertainment industry .   Actor Pat Buttram conceived the idea of the Golden Boot Award , and the first ones were presented in 1983 . The awards appear to have been discontinued since 2007 .

neg: Clint Eastwood bibliography A list of books and essays about Clint Eastwood :                      Eastwood  Category : Clint Eastwood

neg: Kill Bill Kill Bill is an American two-part martial arts film series , and the fourth film overall that was written and directed by Quentin Tarantino . It was originally set to be released as one film , but with a running time of over four hours , it was separated into two films : Kill Bill : Volume 1 , released in late 2003 , and Kill Bill : Volume 2 , released in early 2004 . The original four-hour cut , retitled Kill Bill : The Whole Bloody Affair , was screened at select cinemas in 2011 .   Tarantino has discussed the possibility of a third Kill Bill film .

neg: Stark Love Stark Love ( 1927 ) is a feature film directed by Karl Brown and released by Paramount Famous Lasky Corporation , now known as Paramount Pictures . The film is a maverick production in both design and concept , is a beautifully photographed mix of lyrical anthropology and action melodrama from director Karl Brown . `` Man is absolute ruler . Woman is working slave . '' Such are the rigid attitudes framing this tale of a country boy 's beliefs about chivalry that lead him to try to escape a brutal father with the girl he loves . Stark Love , was cast almost exclusively with amateur actors and filmed entirely in the Great Smoky Mountains , near Robbinsville , North Carolina .   In 2009 , it was named to the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being `` culturally , historically or aesthetically '' significant and will be preserved for all time .   An extensive account of the movie 's making , and its aftermath , can be found in the book Hillbillyland : What the Movies Did to the Mountains and What the Mountains Did to the Movies by J. W. Williamson .   The star of the film , Forrest James , is the father of Fob James , 48th governor of Alabama .

neg: The Law vs. Billy the Kid The Law vs. Billy the Kid is a 1954 Western film starring Scott Brady as Billy the Kid . It was directed by William Castle .

neg: Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards 2014 The 20th Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards honoring the best in film for 2014 were announced on December 15 , 2014 . These awards `` recognizing extraordinary accomplishment in film '' are presented annually by the Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association ( DFWFCA ) , based in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex region of Texas . The organization , founded in 1990 , includes 30 film critics for print , radio , television , and internet publications based in north Texas . The Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association began presenting its annual awards list in 1993 .   Birdman was the DFWFCA 's most awarded film of 2014 , taking five top honors . Birdman won in Best Picture , Best Actor ( Michael Keaton ) , Best Director ( Alejandro G. Iñárritu ) , Best Cinematography ( Emmanuel Lubezki ) , and Best Screenplay ( Alejandro G. Iñárritu , Nicolás Giacobone , Alexander Dinelaris Jr. , and Armando Bo ) .   Another film , Boyhood , earned multiple 2014 honors from the DFWFCA . The coming-of-age tale received top honors in the Best Supporting Actress ( Patricia Arquette ) as well as being presented the Russell Smith Award as the `` best low-budget or cutting-edge independent film '' of the year . The award is named in honor of late Dallas Morning News film critic Russell Smith . Reese Witherspoon was named Best Actress for her role as Cheryl Strayed in Wild . The other films earning honors were Sweden 's Force Majeure for Best Foreign Language Film , Citizenfour as Best Documentary Film , and The Lego Movie for Best Animated Film .


query: Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling is a wrestling promotion for women.

pos: Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling , also known as GLOW or G.L.O.W. , is a women 's professional wrestling promotion begun in 1986 ( the pilot was filmed in December 1985 ) and continued in various forms after it left television . Colorful characters , strong women and over-the-top comedy sketches were integral to the series ' success . Most of the performers were actresses , models , dancers and/or stunt women hoping to get into show business through wrestling .

neg: World Wrestling Championships UWW United World Wrestling is the Amateur Wrestling World Championship organized by the United World Wrestling .   The Men 's Greco-Roman Wrestling tournament began in 1904 , and the Men 's Freestyle Wrestling tournament began in 1951 . The Women 's Freestyle championships were first staged in 1987 .

neg: SuperBrawl I SuperBrawl was the first ever first annual professional wrestling pay-per-view ( PPV ) event produced by World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) under the SuperBrawl banner , which ended up encompassing eleven pay-per-views in total between 1991 and 2001 . The show took place on May 19 , 1991 and was held at the Bayfront Arena in St. Petersburg , Florida .   The main event of the show was a match between then reigning WCW World Heavyweight Champion Ric Flair and the NWA World Heavyweight Champion Tatsumi Fujinami with both world championships on the line . In the United States the match was promoted as simply being for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship , not promoting the fact that Fujinami had defeated Flair for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship in March 1991 . The undercard saw Bobby Eaton win the WCW World Television Championship from Arn Anderson while The Steiner Brothers defended the WCW World Tag Team Championship . In the opening match , The Fabulous Freebirds won the vacant WCW United States Tag Team Championship . The show consisted of twelve matches , with some of the matches being edited out of the official VHS tape release of the show . The event also featured the television debut of Johnny B. Badd .   In 2015 , all WCW pay-per-views were made available on the WWE Network .

neg: IWA World Women's Championship The IWA World Women 's Championship was a major women 's professional wrestling title in All Japan Women 's Pro-Wrestling . It had its origins with Stampede Wrestling in Calgary , Alberta in 1987 .

neg: June Byers DeAlva Eyvonnie Sibley ( May 25 , 1922 -- July 20 , 1998 ) , better known by her ring name of June Byers , was an American women 's professional wrestler famous in the 1950s and early 1960s . She held the Women 's World Championship for ten years and is a member of the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame .

neg: Stampede Women's Pacific Championship The Stampede Women 's Pacific Championship is the major title for female wrestlers in the Canadian professional wrestling promotion Stampede Wrestling .

neg: Memphis Championship Wrestling Memphis Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) was a professional wrestling promotion run by Terry Golden , based in Memphis , Tennessee . The promotion 's first event was on February 20 , 2000 , and it remained active until mid-2001 . It was employed as a World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) developmental territory , so the roster was made up primarily of wrestlers being groomed for prime time or those that had already been established there but were returning from injury .

neg: Frontier Wrestling Alliance Frontier Wrestling Alliance ( FWA ) is a professional wrestling promotion in Britain . Established in 1993 as the Fratton Wrestling Association it soon became the Frontier Wrestling Alliance six years later and until 2007 when it lost a scripted inter-promotional feud with International Pro Wrestling : United Kingdom . As a result of losing the promotion was forced to close and the company XWA was founded , largely based on the old FWA with some old staff and wrestlers as well as some championships . However , in 2009 the FWA brand was relaunched again as a separate promotion to the XWA .

neg: Stacy Carter Stacy Lee Carter ( born September 29 , 1970 ) is an American professional wrestling valet and occasional professional wrestler , under her ring name Stacy Carter . She is better known for her work in the World Wrestling Federation under her ring name The Kat .   During her tenure in the World Wrestling Federation , she held the Women 's Championship once , although she was not a trained wrestler . During the Armageddon pay-per-view in December 1999 , she flashed her breasts in what was an early instance of intentional nudity in the WWF . After the event , she was shown nude several more times on other pay-per-views . She is also an ex-wife of wrestler and color-commentator Jerry Lawler , who quit the WWF after Carter was released in early 2001 but returned after their divorce in July 2001 . She currently works on the independent circuit under her real name .

neg: Best of World Championship Wrestling Best of World Championship Wrestling ( a.k.a. Best of Championship Wrestling ) was an hour-long Sunday evening edition of TBS ' Saturday night wrestling shows , Georgia Championship Wrestling and NWA World Championship Wrestling . The rights to Best of World Championship Wrestling now belong to World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) .

neg: The Women's Conference The Women 's Conference ( also known as the California Governor & First Lady 's Conference on Women ) is a nonprofit , nonpartisan US organization and annual forum for women . The event first began in 1986 as a California government initiative for working professionals and women business owners . Since 2004 , The Women 's Conference has become a large event at which people such as the Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso , former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair , Oprah Winfrey , Barbara Walters , Jane Fonda , Martha Stewart , Tyra Banks , Sarah , Duchess of York , Tim Russert , Deepak Chopra , Tom Brokaw , Queen Rania of Jordan , Maureen Dowd , Sandra Day O'Connor , Thomas Friedman , Anna Quindlen , and Billie Jean King have spoken .   Restructured by Shriver in 2010 , The Women 's Conference reportedly became the `` largest meeting of women in the country '' and a celebration of `` lives and lessons '' . Now known as the California Women 's Conference , its main stage presentations and seminar sessions have addressed personal topics such as work-life balance , service and volunteerism , healthy lifestyles , spirituality and families , professional issues such as professional development , financial planning , entrepreneurialism and communications , as well as social issues like women 's maternal health , global poverty , climate change and emergency preparedness .   The event is staged at the Long Beach Convention Center in Long Beach , California , usually in the fall .   Every year , substantial portions of the event are made available free through a live streaming webcast at The Women 's Conference 's web site .

neg: Sumie Sakai is a Japanese professional wrestler and mixed martial artist . She currently resides in the United States , appearing with professional wrestling promotions in the northeastern United States such as Women 's Extreme Wrestling and Chikara .

neg: History of female professional bodybuilding The history of female professional bodybuilding dates back to August 18 , 1978 , when promoter George Snyder organized the IFBB Best in the World competition , which was the first IFBB sanctioned event for female bodybuilding .

neg: Scholastic wrestling Scholastic wrestling , sometimes known in the United States as folkstyle wrestling , is a style of amateur wrestling practiced at the high school and middle school levels in the United States . This wrestling style is essentially collegiate wrestling with some slight modifications . It is practiced in 49 of the 50 states in the United States . When practiced by wrestling clubs of younger participants , scholastic wrestling is better known as `` folkstyle '' .   According to an athletics participation survey taken by the National Federation of State High School Associations , boys ' wrestling ranked eighth in terms of the number of schools sponsoring teams , with 9,445 schools participating in the 2006-07 school year . Also , 257,246 boys participated in the sport during that school year , making scholastic wrestling the sixth most popular sport among high school boys . In addition , 5,048 girls participated in wrestling in 1,227 schools during the 2006-07 season . Scholastic wrestling is currently practiced in 49 of the 50 states ; only Mississippi does not officially sanction scholastic wrestling for high schools and middle schools . Arkansas , the 49th state to sanction high school wrestling , began scholastic wrestling competition in the 2008-09 season with over forty schools participating . Shortly after , Ocean Springs High School became the first school in Mississippi to have a high school team .

neg: WWA World Women's Championship The WWA World Women 's Championship ( Campeonato Mundial Femilin de WWA in Spanish ) is an inactive professional wrestling women 's professional wrestling championship promoted by the Mexican wrestling promotion World Wrestling Association ( WWA ) . Being a professional wrestling championship , it is not won legitimately ; it is instead won via a scripted ending to a match or awarded to a wrestler because of a storyline . The title was created in 1989 but not very often defended , from 1991 to 2003 and 2003 to 2014 no record of any title defenses have been found , the title may have been inactive in those periods . Lady Apache is the current champion .

neg: Pro Wrestling International The Pro Wrestling International ( PWI ) is a professional wrestling governing body in the United States .

neg: Io Shirai is a Japanese professional wrestler , better known by the ring name .   Making her debut in March 2007 , Io spent several years working as a tag team wrestler , teaming with her older sister Mio , with whom she would wrestle for various promotions across Japan and Mexico , winning the TLW World Young Women 's Tag Team Championship in the process . In June 2010 , the Shirais came together with Kana to form the Triple Tails stable , which would last for fifteen months , before Io broke out of the group and started her singles career with the World Wonder Ring Stardom promotion . In April 2013 , she won the promotion 's top title , the World of Stardom Championship , which she would hold for over fifteen months .   She is currently in her second reign as the World of Stardom Champion , while also being a former one-time holder of the Goddess of Stardom , Wonder of Stardom , High Speed and SWA World Championships and a record four-time Artist of Stardom Champion . She is recognized as the `` ace '' of Stardom , and was named the 2015 and 2016 women 's wrestler of the year by Tokyo Sports .   In May 2017 , it was reported that Shirai had accepted an offer to join WWE .

neg: Funny Women Funny Women is an online and workshop community dedicated to the support of female comedians . It was founded by Lynne Parker in 2000 as a reaction to a misogynistic comments from a comedy promoter . Funny Women helps women find their voice , promote them , and assists charities .

neg: List of International Wrestling Association alumni International Wrestling Association was a professional wrestling promotion based in Cleveland , Ohio from 1975 to 1978 . Former employees in the IWA consisted of professional wrestlers , managers , play-by-play and color commentators , announcers , interviewers and referees .

neg: Kyoko Inoue is a Japanese female professional wrestler . She has held the WWWA World Heavyweight Championship three times , and is the first woman to win a men 's title in Japan . She is also the founder of the joshi promotion NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling . After leaving NEO in May 2010 , Inoue founded the World Woman Pro-Wrestling Diana promotion in January 2011 . Kyoko Inoue was trained by famous Japanese wrestler , Jaguar Yokota .

neg: Shimmer Women Athletes Shimmer Women Athletes ( often referred to simply as Shimmer ) is an American , Chicago-based independent women 's professional wrestling promotion which held its first event on November 6 , 2005 . Established by Dave Prazak and run by both him and Allison Danger , the promotion was created to give female wrestling talent from North America and beyond a serious , non-objectifying platform on which to display their skills . The company takes a unique approach to staging its live events : Shimmer runs one large show every three months ( on average ) at the Eagles Club in Berwyn , Illinois . Two DVDs worth of material are taped at each of these super-shows , and are sold as single volumes -- initially through Ring of Honor 's online store , before being nationally distributed through retail outlets . Due to Prazak 's prior work with Ring of Honor , the two companies are closely affiliated , with ROH promoting Shimmer by periodically featuring its performers on ROH pre - and main-show cards . In September 2008 , Shimmer announced it would start its own wrestling school for female athletes .   Ring of Honor recognizes the Shimmer Championship and the Shimmer Tag Team Championship ; both of which have even been defended at ROH events . Its former sister promotion Full Impact Pro also recognized the titles and had defenses of them at its events . Shimmer is also the sister promotion of Shine Wrestling ( which debuted on July 20 , 2012 , and holds events exclusively on Internet pay-per-view ) .


query: Gustave Eiffel made significant contributions to aerodynamics.

pos: Gustave Eiffel Alexandre Gustave Eiffel ( born Bönickhausen ; -LSB- ˈaɪfəl -RSB- -LSB- ɛfɛl -RSB- ; 15 December 1832 -- 27 December 1923 ) was a French civil engineer and architect . A graduate of École Centrale Paris , he made his name with various bridges for the French railway network , most famously the Garabit viaduct . He is best known for the world-famous Eiffel Tower , built for the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris , and his contribution to building the Statue of Liberty in New York . After his retirement from engineering , Eiffel focused on research into meteorology and aerodynamics , and making significant contributions in both fields .

neg: Rolls-Royce R The Rolls-Royce R was a British aero engine designed and built specifically for air racing purposes by Rolls-Royce Limited . Nineteen R engines were assembled in a limited production run between 1929 and 1931 . Developed from the Rolls-Royce Buzzard , it was a 37-litre ( 2,240 cu in ) capacity , supercharged V-12 capable of producing just under 2,800 horsepower ( 2,090 kW ) , and weighed 1,640 pounds ( 770 kg ) . Intensive factory testing revealed mechanical failures which were remedied by redesigning the components , greatly improving reliability .   The R was used with great success in the Schneider Trophy seaplane competitions held in England in 1929 and 1931 . Shortly after the 1931 competition , an R engine using a special fuel blend powered the winning Supermarine S. 6B aircraft to a new airspeed record of over 400 miles per hour ( 640 km/h ) . Continuing through the 1930s , both new and used R engines were used to achieve various land and water speed records by such racing personalities as Sir Henry Segrave , Sir Malcolm Campbell and his son Donald , the last record being set in 1939 . A final R-powered water speed record attempt by Donald Campbell in 1951 was unsuccessful .   The experience gained by Rolls-Royce and Supermarine designers from the R engine was invaluable in the subsequent development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine and the Spitfire . A de-rated R engine , known as the Griffon , was tested in 1933 , but it was not directly related to the production Rolls-Royce Griffon of 1939 , of the same exact bore/stroke and resultant displacement figures as the `` R '' design . Three examples of the R engine are on public display in British museums as of 2014 .

neg: Ground effect (aerodynamics) In fixed-wing aircraft , ground effect is the increased lift ( force ) and decreased aerodynamic drag that an aircraft 's wings generate when they are close to a fixed surface .  When landing , ground effect can give the pilot the feeling that the aircraft is `` floating '' . When taking off , ground effect may temporarily reduce the stall speed . The pilot can then fly just above the runway while the aircraft accelerates in ground effect until a safe climb speed is reached .

neg: Biplane A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other . The first powered , controlled aeroplane to fly , the Wright Flyer , used a biplane wing arrangement , as did many aircraft in the early years of aviation . While a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane , it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing . Improved structural techniques , better materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s .   Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs : they permit lighter wing structures , low wing loading and smaller span for a given wing area . However , interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially , and biplanes generally need extensive bracing , which causes additional drag .   Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements , where the wings are placed forward and aft , instead of above and below .   The term is also occasionally used in biology , to describe the wings of some flying animals .

neg: Rigid airship A rigid airship is a type of airship ( or dirigible ) in which the envelope is supported by an internal framework rather than by being kept in shape by the pressure of the lifting gas within the envelope , as in blimps ( also called pressure airships ) and semi-rigid airships . Rigid airships are often commonly called Zeppelins , though this technically refers only to airships built by the Luftschifbau Zeppelin company .   Rigid airships were produced and relatively successfully employed from the beginning of the 1900s to the end of the 1930s ; their heyday ended when the Hindenburg caught fire on May 6 , 1937 .

neg: Vortex lift Vortex lift is a form of lift generated by delta wings operating at high angles of attack .

neg: Lindbergh Boom The Lindbergh Boom ( 1927 -- 1929 ) is a period of rapid interest in aviation following the awarding of the Orteig Prize to Charles Lindbergh for his 1927 non-stop solo transatlantic flight in the Spirit of St. Louis . The Lindbergh Boom occurred during the interwar period between World War I and World War II , where aviation development was fueled by commercial interests rather than wartime necessity . During this period , dozens of companies were formed to create airlines , and aircraft for a new age in aviation . Many of the fledgling companies funded by stock went under as quick as they started as the stock that capitalized them plummeted in value following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . The Great Depression dried up the market for new aircraft , causing many aircraft companies to go into bankruptcy or get consolidated by larger entities . Air racing , record attempts , and barnstorming remained popular , as aviators tried to recapture the prizes and publicity of Lindbergh 's Transatlantic flight .

neg: Henry Combs Henry Combs was a structural engineer at Clarence Johnson 's famed Skunk Works group of Lockheed Corporation . He was Deputy Project Manager on the Lockheed U-2 program , Head Structural Engineer on the SR-71 Blackbird , and later , Technical Director of the Skunk Works . While he is most known for his integral work on the U-2 , the SR-71 and the F-117 Nighthawk , he also worked on the F-104 , Lockheed Constellation , C-130 Hercules , XP-58 Chain Lightning , and Lockheed JetStar .   Combs is revered as the father of the titanium A-12 structure . According to Ben Rich in `` Skunk Works '' , Combs was the `` dean '' of the eight man structures group and an `` irascible genius '' . Combs spoke on the U-2 's development at the CIA 's `` The CIA and the U-2 Program '' conference on 17 September 1998 .   An accomplished glider pilot , Combs became famous within the soaring community for his weekly cross-country distance flights . Owing to the notable success of these flights , he became the leader of a fiercely loyal group of competition and cross-country sailplane pilots known as the `` Crystal Squadron '' , based at Crystalaire gliderport in Llano , CA . From the mid 1980s through the early 2000s , this group of pilots , under Combs ' spiritual and technical leadership , flew hundreds of long-distance soaring flights from Southern California to Nevada , Utah , and Arizona . In 1998 , he completed his 200th straight-out long-distance flight meeting or exceeding the FAI `` Diamond Badge '' distance of 311 miles ( 500 km ) .   In addition to his long-distance flights , he was well known for his extensive modifications and performance tuning work on the classic Glasflugel H-301 Libelle sailplane . Because of the numerous aerodynamic improvements made by Combs to his aircraft , it was capable of achieving performance levels on a par with more modern aircraft flown by the other members of the group . The net effect of these expert aircraft modifications , combined with his excellent piloting skills , was that ( to their amazement and chagrin ) Combs was often able to fly farther and faster than the other members of the Crystal Squadron , many of whom had spent three or four times the money on far newer `` state of the art '' sailplanes . This served only to further perpetuate the `` irascible genius '' legend , long after his Skunk Works days had passed . His soaring legacy is honored by the Soaring Society of America 's `` Henry Combs Perpetual Trophy '' .   On May 28 , 2016 at 3:10 pm , after a visit with his pastor and surrounded by family , Henry Combs passed to his final rest . He lived to be 99 years old .

neg: Flap (aeronautics) Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed . Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft . Flaps are used to lower the minimum speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown , and to increase the angle of descent for landing . Flaps also cause an increase in drag , so they are retracted when not needed .   Extending the wing flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing , raising the maximum lift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate . This allows the aircraft to generate the required lift at a lower speed , reducing the stalling speed of the aircraft , and therefore also the minimum speed at which the aircraft will safely maintain flight . The increase in camber also increases the wing drag , which can be beneficial during approach and landing , because it slows the aircraft . In some aircraft configurations , a useful side effect of flap deployment is a decrease in aircraft pitch angle , which lowers the nose thereby improving the pilot 's view of the runway over the nose of the aircraft during landing . In other configurations , however , depending on the type of flap and the location of the wing , flaps can cause the nose to rise ( pitch-up ) , obscuring the pilot 's view of the runway .   There are many different designs of flaps used , with the specific choice depending on the size , speed and complexity of the aircraft on which they are to be used , as well as the era in which the aircraft was designed . Plain flaps , slotted flaps , and Fowler flaps are the most common . Krueger flaps are positioned on the leading edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners .   The Fowler , Fairey-Youngman and Gouge types of flap increase the wing area in addition to changing the camber . The larger lifting surface reduces wing loading , hence further reducing the stalling speed .   Some flaps are fitted elsewhere . Leading-edge flaps form the wing leading edge and when deployed they rotate down to increase the wing camber . The de Havilland DH .88 Comet racer had flaps running across beneath the fuselage and forward of the wing trailing edge . Many of the Waco Custom Cabin series biplanes have the flaps at mid-chord on the underside of the top wing .

neg: Lift (soaring) Lift is a meteorological phenomenon used as an energy source by soaring aircraft and soaring birds . The most common human application of lift is in sport and recreation . The three air sports that use soaring flight are : gliding , hang gliding and paragliding .   Energy can be gained by using rising air from four sources :  Thermals ( where air rises due to heat ) ,  Ridge lift , where air is forced upwards by a slope ,  Wave lift , where a mountain produces a standing wave ,  Convergence , where two air masses meet  In dynamic soaring it is also possible to gain energy , though this uses differences in wind speeds rather than rising air .

neg: Exposition Universelle (1889) The Exposition Universelle of 1889 ( -LSB- ɛkspozisjɔ̃ ynivɛʁsɛl -RSB- ) was a world 's fair held in Paris , France , from 6 May to 31 October 1889 .   It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille , an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution . The fair included a reconstruction of the Bastille and its surrounding neighborhood , but with the interior courtyard covered with a blue ceiling decorated with fleur-de-lys and used as a ball room and gathering place .   The 1889 Exposition covered a total area of 0.96 km2 , including the Champ de Mars , the Trocadéro , the quai d'Orsay , a part of the Seine and the Invalides esplanade . Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre ( 1.9 mi ) 600 millimetre ( 2 ft 0 in ) gauge railway by Decauville . It was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation . Some of the locomotives used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados .

neg: Charles Godefroy Charles Godefroy ( 29 December 1888 at La Flèche ( Sarthe ) -- 11 December 1958 at Soisy-sous-Montmorency , ( Val d'Oise ) , north of Paris ) was a French aviator who became famous by his spectacular flight passing through the Arc de Triomphe in Paris in 1919 .

neg: Euler equations (fluid dynamics) In fluid dynamics , the Euler equations are a set of quasilinear hyperbolic equations governing adiabatic and inviscid flow . They are named after Leonhard Euler . The equations represent Cauchy equations of conservation of mass ( continuity ) , and balance of momentum and energy , and can be seen as particular Navier -- Stokes equations with zero viscosity and zero thermal conductivity . In fact , Euler equations can be obtained by linearization of some more precise continuity equations like Navier -- Stokes equations in a local equilibrium state given by a Maxwellian . The Euler equations can be applied to incompressible and to compressible flow -- assuming the flow velocity is a solenoidal field , or using another appropriate energy equation respectively ( the simplest form for Euler equations being the conservation of the specific entropy ) . Historically , only the incompressible equations have been derived by Euler . However , fluid dynamics literature often refers to the full set -- including the energy equation -- of the more general compressible equations together as `` the Euler equations '' .   From the mathematical point of view , Euler equations are notably hyperbolic conservation equations in the case without external field ( i.e. , in the limit of high Froude number ) . In fact , like any Cauchy equation , the Euler equations originally formulated in convective form ( also called usually `` Lagrangian form '' , but this name is not self-explanatory and historically wrong , so it will be avoided ) can also be put in the `` conservation form '' ( also called usually `` Eulerian form '' , but also this name is not self-explanatory and is historically wrong , so it will be avoided here ) . The conservation form emphasizes the mathematical interpretation of the equations as conservation equations through a control volume fixed in space , and is the most important for these equations also from a numerical point of view . The convective form emphasizes changes to the state in a frame of reference moving with the fluid .

neg: Dassault Group Dassault Group ( -LSB- daˈso -RSB- ; GIMD , Groupe Dassault , or the Groupe Industriel Marcel Dassault S.A. ) is a France-based group of companies established in 1929 with the creation of Dassault Aviation by Marcel Dassault , and led by son Serge Dassault with cofounder of Dassault Systèmes Charles Edelstenne , and currently Dassault Aviation Chairman and CEO is Éric Trappier .

neg: Fédération Française Aéronautique The Fédération française aéronautique ( FFA ) , ( Fédération nationale aéronautique , FNA , before 2004 ) founded in 1929 and being recognized as a public service in 1933 , is a French association which represents the majority of aeroclubs .   Its mission is :  Assist and defend aeroclubs  Preserve the number and quality of French aerodromes  Develop and ease recognition of aeronautics  Ease the formation of pilots in aeroclubs  Help the youngest and evangelise aeronautics activities  Contribute , as interlocutor of the Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile , to enact the regulations and defend interests of private pilots  Organise activities and aeronautics tests in France and abroad ( attribution of regional or national titles , selection of French representatives at internationals competitions or exhibitions )   As of 2007 , the FFA includes about 600 aeroclubs over 450 aerodromes , 42,000 pilots , 2,200 instructors and 2,200 aircraft .

neg: Light fighter Light fighters are fighter aircraft towards the low end of the practical range of weight , cost , and complexity over which fighters are fielded . The term lightweight fighter is more commonly used in the modern literature , and by example tends to imply somewhat more capable aircraft than light fighters at the very low end of the practical weight range , but the terms overlap and are sometimes used interchangeably . Whatever term is used , the concept is to be on the generally lower half of the practical range , but still with carefully selected competitive features , in order to project highly effective force per unit of budget via an efficient design . As well designed lightweight fighters have proven able to match or beat heavier aircraft plane for plane for many missions , and to significantly excel them in budgetary efficiency , light/lightweight fighters have proven to be a strategically valuable concept . Attempting to scale this efficiency to still lower cost , some manufacturers have in recent years adopted the term `` light fighter '' to also refer to light primarily air-to-ground attack aircraft , some of which are modified trainer designs .   A key design goal of light/lightweight fighter design is to satisfy standard air-to-air fighter effectiveness requirements . These criteria in order of importance are the ability to benefit from the element of surprise , to have numerical superiority in the air , to have superior maneuverability , and to possess suitable weapon systems effectiveness . Light fighters typically achieve a surprise advantage over larger aircraft due to smaller visual and radar signatures , which is important since in the majority of air-to-air kills the element of surprise is dominant . Their comparative lower cost and higher reliability also allows greater numbers per budget . Finally , while a single engine light fighter would typically only carry about half the weapons load of a heavy twin engine fighter , its surprise and maneuverability advantages often allow it to gain positional advantage to make better use of those weapons .   The light fighter concept first arose in the period between World War I and World War II . Examples include several RAF fighter designs from the pre-World War II ( WWII ) era , and their French counterparts , known as `` Jockey '' aircraft . None of these very light fighters enjoyed success into World War II , as they were too hampered in performance . Similar to the meaning of lightweight fighter today , during World War II the term `` small fighter '' was used to describe a single engine aircraft of competitive performance , range , and armament load , but with no unnecessary weight and cost . Examples of this style of very successful fighter include the Japanese A6M Zero , British Supermarine Spitfire , German Messerschmitt Bf 109 , American P-51 Mustang , and Soviet Yakovlev Yak-3 .   After World War II fighter design moved into the jet era , and many jet fighters basically followed the successful World War II formula of highly efficient mostly single engine designs that tended to be about half the weight and cost of twin engine heavy fighters . Prominent early examples include the English Folland Gnat , the American F-86 Sabre and Northrop F-5 , the Soviet Mikoyan MiG-15 and Mikoyan MiG-21 , the French Mirage III , and the Swedish Saab Draken . More modern lightweight fighters with competitive air-to-air capability ( supersonic aircraft with afterburning engines and modern missile armament ) include the American F-16 , Swedish JAS 39 Gripen , Indian HAL Tejas , Korean FA-50 , Japanese Mitsubishi F-2 , Chinese Chengdu J-10 , and Pakistani/Chinese CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder . The high practical and budgetary effectiveness of modern light fighters for many missions is why the U.S. Air Force adopted both the F-15 and F-16 in a `` hi/lo '' strategy of both an outstanding but expensive heavy fighter and a lower cost but also outstanding lightweight fighter . The investment to maintain a competitive modern lightweight fighter air force is approximately $ 90M to $ 130M ( 2013 dollars ) per plane over a 20-year service life , which is approximately half the cost of heavy fighters , so understanding fighter aircraft design trade-offs and combat effectiveness is of national level strategic importance .

neg: Tetrahedral kite A tetrahedral kite is a multicelled rigid box kite composed of tetrahedrally shaped cells to create a kind of tetrahedral truss . The cells are usually arranged in such a way that the entire kite is also a regular tetrahedron . The kite can be described as a compound dihedral kite as well .   This kite was invented by Alexander Graham Bell . It came about from his experiments with Hargrave 's Box Kites and his attempts to build a kite that was scalable and big enough to carry both a man and a motor . As such , it was an early experiment on the road to manned flight . He worked on the kites between 1895 and 1910 . Bell wrote about his discovery of this concept in the June 1903 issue of National Geographic magazine ; the article was titled `` Tetrahedral Principle in Kite Structure '' .   From an initial one cell model , Bell advanced to a 3,393 cell `` Cygnet '' model in 1907 . This 40-foot ( 12.2 m ) long , 200 pound ( 91 kilogram ) kite was towed by a steamer offshore near Baddeck , Nova Scotia on 6 December 1907 and carried a man 168 feet ( 51.2 metres ) above the water .   Bell also experimented with a large circular `` tetrahedral truss '' design during the same period .   The tetrahedral kite , while not easy to make compared to the simple cross kite , is very stable and easy to fly . It flies well in moderate to heavy winds if it is properly set up .

neg: Robert Esnault-Pelterie Robert Albert Charles Esnault-Pelterie ( November 8 , 1881 -- December 6 , 1957 ) was a pioneering French aircraft designer and spaceflight theorist . He is referred to as being one of the founders of modern rocketry and astronautics , along with the Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , the German Hermann Oberth and the American Robert H. Goddard .

neg: Prix d'Astronautique The Prix d'Astronautique ( Astronautics Prize ) was an international award of the Société astronomique de France , the French astronomical society , given in recognition of the study of interplanetary travel and astronautics . Specifically , the award was given `` to recognize the best original scientific work , theoretical or experimental , that is able to advance one of the questions related to the realisation of space travel , or to increase human understanding of one of the branches related to the science of astronautics . ''   Established by aviation and astronautical pioneer Robert Esnault-Pelterie and André-Louis Hirsch , a sponsor for early astronautics in France , it was the first prize for astronautics in the world .   The idea for establishing the prize originated during a dinner Hirsch and Esnault-Pelterie organised in Paris on 26 December 1927 . Their guests discussed the emerging science of space travel , which they called `` astronautics '' at the suggestion of science fiction writer J.H. Rosny the elder . Hirsch and Esnault-Pelterie provided funds -- 5,000 francs annually for 1928 , 1929 , and 1930 -- to the Société astronomique de France , for an annual award in astronautics in their names : the Prix REP-Hirsch .   A Comité d'Astronautique was established within the Société astronomique de France to manage the prize . In addition to Hirsch , Esnault-Pelterie and Rosny the elder , the committee was composed of :  President : General Gustave-Auguste Ferrié  Vice-Presidents : Jean Perrin and Eugène Fichot  Members : Henri-Alexandre Deslandres , G. Urbain , Charles Fabry , Jules Baillaud , Em . Belot , Jos. Bethenod , Dr André Bing , général Charbonnier , H. Chrétien , Ernest Esclangon , Léon Gaumont , A. Lambert , Charles Maurain , Rodolphe Soreau .   The prize was awarded for 10 years , from 1929 to 1939 . In 1936 , the name of the award changed from the Prix REP-Hirsch to the Prix d'Astronautique .

neg: Airpower Airpower or air power comprises the application of military strategy and strategic theory to the realm of aerial warfare . Airpower began with the advent of powered flight early in the 20th century . Airpower represents a `` complex operating environment that has been subjected to considerable debate '' . British doctrine defines airpower as `` the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events . ''   Airpower is a function of air supremacy and numbers . Roughly speaking , a combatant side that has 100 % or near 100 % control of the skies has air supremacy ; an advantage of some 70 -- 90 % would indicate air superiority . A 50/50 split is air parity ; lower than this , one side may be said to be air denied or air incapable . Because aeroplanes generally take off from designed airfields on missions typically involving some hours of cruising , the precise state of air superiority is fluid and less defined vis-a-vis land or sea warfare . For example , a contested airspace directly above a battlespace bristling with anti-aircraft weapons may be denied to the air forces of both sides . Further , the completely different situations of a technologically advanced airforce with one flight of high-tech planes ( air supremacy but low capacity ) or a low-tech force of massive numbers of low-tech planes ( e.g. , An-2 ) resulting in high capacity but low long-term survivability demonstrate that ` air power ' is multi-faceted and complex .   Significant contributors to theorizing about air power have been Giulio Douhet , Billy Mitchell , John Boyd and John A. Warden III .   At the start of World War I , opinions differed on the national air forces and the value of airships .  Some early strategists/visionaries after World War I imagined that airpower alone would suffice to bring nations to their knees . The Bombing of Guernica was an early trial that revealed both capabilities and limitations . But yet another maxim , `` no war was ever won solely by airpower '' was challenged by the NATO victory in Kosovo . Airpower has been used to conduct lightning strategic strikes , to complement land offensives , to instill fear and lower morale similarly to a fleet in being , and to create broad-based destruction behind enemy lines . With airpower , supplies can be transported by cargo planes , providing a decisive edge in mobility .   Military and civilian aircraft interact in a number of complex ways , including shootdowns of civilian planes , whether mistaken or not ; military escorts of civilian planes ; civilian planes being used for military transport , espionage , or other purposes ; and/or no-fly zones being enforced to punish or sanction a target nation . Airpower also relates to space power , although militarization of space remains regulated by international treaty .   Developed nations have enjoyed a consistent advantage in airpower since the beginning of mechanized flight . Airpower has been wielded mostly decisively in the last hundred years by Nazi Germany , the United Kingdom , the United States , the Soviet Union , Japan , Italy , and France , with many client nations using aircraft developed by one or more of these nations . A mass technological base is considered necessary for the development of airpower .

neg: L'Intrépide L'Intrépide ( `` The Intrepid '' ) was a hydrogen balloon of the Compagnie d'Aérostiers ( French Aerostatic Corps ) and is the oldest preserved aircraft in Europe .   L'Intrépide was the larger of two observation balloons , the other being Hercule ( `` Hercules '' ) , issued to the Aerostatic Corps in June 1795 . These balloons were used by the Corps 's first company attached to General Jourdan 's Army of Sambre-et-Meuse in 1796 . When that army was defeated by Austrian forces at the Battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796 , the balloon was captured and brought to Vienna , where it is now on display at the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum .   The balloon 's silk envelope is roughly spherical and has a diameter of 9.8 m. Its wooden gondola is very small , measuring 1.14 m by 0.75 m and its railing has a height of 1.05 m . The hull displayed in the museum is a replica , with the original displayed in a glass box nearby .