query: Hannibal had enemies.

pos: Hannibal Hannibal Barca ( Punic language : ð $ ð $ ð $ ð $ ð $ ð $ ð $ `` ð $ ' , Q-R-B L-A - ' - A-B-N-Ḥ ; 247 -- between 183 and 181 BC ) , was a Carthaginian general , considered one of the greatest military commanders in history . His father Hamilcar Barca was the leading Carthaginian commander during the First Punic War . His younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal , and he was brother-in-la   Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in the Mediterranean Basin , when the Roman Republic established its supremacy over other great powers such as ancient Carthage and the Greek kingdoms of Macedonia , Syracuse , and the Seleucid Empire . One of his most famous achievements was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War , when he marched an army which included war elephants from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into Italy . In his first few years in Italy , he won three dramatic victories -- the Trebia , Lake Trasimene , and Cannae , in which he distinguished himself for his ability to determine his and his opponent 's strengths and weaknesses , and to play the battle to his strengths and the enemy 's weaknesses -- and won over many allies of Rome . Hannibal occupied much of Italy for 15 years but was unable to march on Rome . An enemy counter-invasion of North Africa forced him to return to Carthage , where he was decisively defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama . Scipio had studied Hannibal 's tactics and brilliantly devised some of his own , and finally defeated Rome 's nemesis at Zama , having previously driven Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal out of the Iberian Peninsula .   After the war , Hannibal successfully ran for the office of sufet . He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome ; however , Hannibal 's reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome , and he fled into voluntary exile . During this time , he lived at the Seleucid court , where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III the Great in his war against Rome . Antiochus met defeat at the Battle of Magnesia and was forced to accept Rome 's terms , and Hannibal fled again , making a stop in the Kingdom of Armenia . His flight ended in the court of Bithynia , where he achieved an outstanding naval victory against a fleet from Pergamon . He was afterwards betrayed to the Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself .   Hannibal is often regarded as one of the greatest military strategists in history and one of the greatest generals of Mediterranean antiquity , together with Philip of Macedon , Alexander the Great , Julius Caesar , and Scipio Africanus . Plutarch states that Hannibal was questioned by Scipio as to who was the greatest general , and Hannibal replied either Alexander or Pyrrhus , then himself , or , according to another version of the event , Pyrrhus , Scipio , then himself . Military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge called Hannibal the `` father of strategy '' , because his greatest enemy , Rome , came to adopt elements of his military tactics in its own strategic arsenal . This praise has earned him a strong reputation in the modern world , and he was regarded as a great strategist by Napoleon and others .

neg: Maedi The Maedi ( also Maidans , Maedans , or Medi ) , ( Ancient Greek Μαῖδοι ) were a Thracian tribe , which in historic times , occupied the area between Paionia and Thrace , on the southwestern fringes of Thrace , along the middle course of the Strymon , between the Kresna Gorge and the Rupel Pass ( present-day south-western Bulgaria ) .   Their capital city was Iamphorynna which lay somewhere in the southwest corner of what is now Bulgaria . Some scientists posit it in the area between the cities of Petrich and Sandanski , but its exact location remains unknown .   They were an independent tribe through much of their history , and the Thracian king Sitalkes recognized their independence , along with several other warlike `` border '' tribes such as the Dardani , Agrianes , and Paeonians , whose lands formed a buffer zone between the powers of the Odrysians on the east and of Illyrian tribes in the west , while Macedon was located to the south of Paeonia . The ancient historian and biographer Plutarch describes Spartacus as `` a Thracian of nomadic stock '' , in a possible reference to the Maedi . Plutarch also says Spartacus ' wife , a prophetess of the same tribe , was enslaved with him .   In 89 -- 84 BC ( during the First Mithridatic War ) , the Maedi overran Macedon , looted Dodona , and sacked Delphi as allies of Mithridates . It is said that they made a habit of raiding Macedon when a king of Macedon was away on a campaign.Sulla after this ravaged the land of the Maedi . Aristotle recorded that bolinthos was the Maedan word for a species of wild aurochses or wisents that lived in the region .   A number of Maedi emigrated to Asia minor and were called MaedoBythini .

neg: Operation Barclay Operation Barclay was a World War II deception by the Allies in support of Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 .   The goal was to deceive the Axis powers as to the location of the Allies ' assault across the Mediterranean and to divert the Axis military command 's attention and resources . Operation Barclay used bogus troop movements , radio traffic , recruitment of Greek interpreters , and acquisition of Greek maps to indicate an invasion through the Balkans .   Operation Barclay created a sham army in the eastern Mediterranean : the `` Twelfth Army '' consisting of 12 fictitious divisions . Adolf Hitler suspected that the Allies would invade Europe through the Balkans , and Barclay served to reinforce this .   As part of Barclay the British also launched `` Operation Mincemeat '' , where faked documents were planted via Spain . To reinforce the impression that an Allied invasion was imminent the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) , in co-operation with the Greek andartes , mounted `` Operation Animals '' , a series of attacks on rail and road networks .   The deception was successful . The German High Command concluded there was a greater concentration of Allied forces in the eastern Mediterranean than was the case and held to this assessment , making subsequent deceptions more credible . German forces in the Balkans were reinforced from 8 to 18 divisions , and the Italian fleet diverted into the Adriatic Sea . The Allied invasion of Sicily thus achieved surprise .   The greatly increased number of German occupying forces in Greece resulted in negative consequences for the Greek Resistance . Wide-ranging counterguerrilla operations were carried out , culminating in mass reprisals such as the Massacre of Kalavryta and Distomo massacre .

neg: Lucian Lucian of Samosata ( -LSB- ˈluːʃən , _ ˈluːsiən -RSB- Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς , Lucianus Samosatensis about 125 CE -- after 180 CE ) was a satirist and rhetorician who wrote in the Greek language during the Second Sophistic .   Although he claimed to be a native Assyrian , his actual nationality is hotly disputed ; Lucian wrote exclusively in Ancient Greek . Most of his works are written in the Attic dialect , but On the Syrian Goddess , which is attributed to him , is written in a faux-Ionic dialect .   Noted for his witty and scoffing nature , Lucian frequently poked fun at superstition , religious practices , and belief in the paranormal . He admired the philosophers Democritus and Epicurus , both of whom advocated naturalistic worldviews . His works were wildly popular in antiquity and more than eighty works attributed to him have survived to the present day , a considerably higher quantity than for most other classical writers . His reception among modern scholars has been overwhelmingly positive .   His most famous work is A True Story , a tongue-in-cheek satire against authors who tell incredible tales , which is widely regarded as the earliest known work of science fiction . His framing story The Lover of Lies makes fun of people who believe in the supernatural and contains the oldest known version of the `` The Sorcerer 's Apprentice '' , while his letter The Passing of Peregrinus contains one of the earliest known references to Jesus Christ by a pagan author .   Lucian 's Dialogues of the Gods makes fun of ancient Greek religion and portrays the traditional Olympian deities as unworthy to be worshipped . His Dialogues of the Dead focusses on the Cynic philosophers Diogenes and Menippus . His story Timon the Misanthrope was the inspiration for William Shakespeare 's tragedy Timon of Athens .

neg: Barcids The Barcid family was a notable family in the ancient city of Carthage ; many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic . `` Barcid '' is an adjectival form coined by historians ( cf. `` Ramesside '' and `` Abbasid '' ) ; the actual byname was Barca or Barcas , which means lightning . See ברק Baraq in Canaanite and Hebrew , برق , barq in Arabic , and similar words in other Semitic languages .

neg: Roman army mutiny in 342 BC Several ancient authors have written descriptions of a Roman army mutiny in 342 BC.The Romans customarily dated events by noting which consuls held office that year , the mutiny took place in the year in which Quintus Servilius Ahala , for the third time , and Gaius Marcius Rutilus , for the fourth time , were consuls . When converted to the western calendar using the traditional Varronian chronology this year becomes 342 BC . However modern historians have shown that the Varronian chronology dates the mutiny four years too early due to inclusion of unhistorical `` dictator years '' . Despite this known inaccuracy , the Varronian chronology remains in use by convention also in current academic literature . Forsythe ( 2005 ) , pp. 369-370 According to the most well-known version , the mutiny originated in a group of Roman garrison soldiers wintering in Campania to protect the cities there against the Samnites . Subverted by the luxurious living of the Campanians , these soldiers conspired to take over their host cities . When the conspiracy was discovered , the conspirators formed a rebel army and marched against Rome . They were met by an army commanded by Marcus Valerius Corvus who had been nominated dictator to solve the crisis . Rather than do battle , Corvus managed to end the mutiny by peaceful means . All the mutineers received amnesty for their part in the rebellion and a series of laws were passed to address their political grievances .   All preserved accounts of the mutiny were however written several hundred years after the events they describe . Modern historians have found many elements in the classical accounts resembling the civil strife of the Late Republic which they consider anachronistic to the Roman Republic of the late 4th century BC . Some even believe the mutiny to be entirely invented by writers wishing to provide a context for the important political reforms they knew had been legislated in 342 BC .

neg: Apollonius of Ephesus Apollonius of Ephesus ( Ἀπολλώνιος fl . 180 -- 210 ) was an anti-Montanist Greek ecclesiastical writer , probably from Asia Minor .   He was thoroughly acquainted with the Christian history of Ephesus and the doings of the Phrygian Montanists . The unknown author of Praedestinatus says he was a Bishop of Ephesus . However , the lack of support from other Christian writers makes this testimony doubtful . He undertook the defense of the Church against Montanus , and followed in the footsteps of Zoticus of Comanus , Julian of Apamaea , Sotas of Anchialus , and Apollinaris of Hierapolis .   His work is cited by Eusebius , and is praised by St. Jerome , but has been lost , and not even its title is known . It most likely showed the falsity of the Montanist prophecies , recounted the unedifying lives of Montanus and his prophetesses . It also gave currency to the report of their suicide by hanging , and threw light on some of the adepts of the sect , including the apostate Themison , and the pseudo-martyr Alexander .   Themison , having evaded martyrdom by means of money , posed as an innovator , addressing a letter to his partisans after the manner of the Apostles , and finally blasphemed Christ and the Church . Alexander , a notorious thief , publicly condemned at Ephesus , had himself adored as a god .   Based on Eusebius , it is known that Apollonius spoke in his work of Zoticus , who had tried to exorcise Maximilla , but had been prevented by Themison , and of the martyr-Bishop Thraseas , another adversary of Montanism . He likely gave the signal in it for the movement of opposition to Montanism which the reunion of the first synods developed .   At all events , he recalls the tradition according to which Jesus had advised the Apostles not to go far from Jerusalem during the twelve years immediately following His Ascension , a tradition known to Clement of Alexandria from the apocryphal Praedicatio Petri . Moreover , he recounts the restoration to life of a dead man at Ephesus by the Apostle St. John , whose Apocalypse he knew and quotes .   He takes rank among the opponents of Montanism with the `` Anonymous '' of Eusebius , with Miltiades and with Apollinaris . Eusebius says his work constituted `` an abundant and excellent refutation of Montanism '' . St. Jerome qualified it as `` a lengthy and remarkable volume '' . It did not therefore pass unnoticed , and roused some feeling among the Montanists since Tertullian felt it necessary to reply to it .   After his six books peri ekstaseos , in which he apologized for the ecstasies into which the Montanist prophetesses fell before prophesying , Tertullian composed a seventh especially to refute Apollonius ; he wrote it also in Greek for the use of the Asiatic Montanists .

neg: Barbarians in the Byzantine Empire In the Byzantine Empire , the term `` barbarians '' was used for several non-Greek peoples . The Byzantines regarded most neighbouring people as barbarians . The Bureau of Barbarians was a department of government dealing with matters relating to these `` barbarians '' . In the Early Middle Ages in Europe , the term was applied to Huns , Goths , Pechenegs , Avars , Slavs , Bulgars , and others .

neg: Dentheletae The Dentheletae were a Thracian tribe that in antiquity lived near the sources of the River Strymon , and are mentioned in texts by Polybius , Cassius Dio , Tacitus and by Livy . They lived in the neighbourhoods of the modern towns Kyustendil ( ancient Pautalia ) and Dupnitsa ( ancient Germania , `` hot '' in Thracian due the springs ) , stretching to as far as the mountains to the west towards the valleys of the Morava and the Vardar river , with territories situated next to the Thracian tribes Agrianes ( per Theopompus ) and the Maedi ( per Strabo ) . Their main city , called Dentheletica , was presumably Pautalia ( modern-day Kyustendil ) as this was the capital of the Roman reigion Dentheletica . They possibly built fortifications around Stara Planina in the 1st century BC , lived around Sofia and Skaptopara ( modern Blagoevgrad ) was their town .   Livy mentions them in passing in his account of King Philip V of Macedon , who in 214BC plundered them for supplies even though they were his ally . The Dentheletae were allies of Rome . Along with the Scordisci , the Dentheletae invaded Macedonia .   Circa 30BC , when under their king ` Sitas , who was blind ' , and whilst under treaty with Rome , their territories were invaded by the Bastarnae . In response to this invasion and with the wider objective of securing the Macedonia/Thrace frontier of the Roman Empire , Consul Marcus Licinus Crassus Dives ( grandson of Crassus the triumvir ) earned a triumph for his attack on the Bastarnae in defense of the Denteleti in 28-29BC with Legio IIII Scythica , Legio V Macedonica and possibly Legio X Fretensis .   Raids in Dardania 16-13BC marked the end of the Denteleti .

neg: Sicut Judaeis Sicut Judaeis ( Latin : `` As the Jews '' ) was a papal bull setting out the official position of the papacy regarding the treatment of Jews .   The first bull was issued in about 1120 by Calixtus II and was intended to protect Jews . It was prompted by the First Crusade , during which over five thousand Jews were slaughtered in Europe . The words sicut Judaeis ( `` and thus to the Jews '' ) were first used by Pope Gregory I ( 590-604 ) in a letter addressed to the Bishop of Naples . Even then the Pope emphasized that Jews were entitled to `` enjoy their lawful liberty . ''   The bull was reaffirmed by many popes including Alexander III , Celestine III ( 1191-1198 ) , Innocent III ( 1199 ) , Honorius III ( 1216 ) , Gregory IX ( 1235 ) , Innocent IV ( 1246 ) , Alexander IV ( 1255 ) , Urban IV ( 1262 ) , Gregory X ( 1272 & 1274 ) , Nicholas III , Martin IV ( 1281 ) , Honorius IV ( 1285-1287 ) , Nicholas IV ( 1288-92 ) , Clement VI ( 1348 ) , Urban V ( 1365 ) , Boniface IX ( 1389 ) , Martin V ( 1422 ) , and Nicholas V ( 1447 ) .   The bull forbade Christians , on pain of excommunication , from forcing Jews to convert , from harming them , from taking their property , from disturbing the celebration of their festivals , and from interfering with their cemeteries .   The bull of 1120 was not the first papal expression against the mistreatment of Jews . In 1065 , for example , Pope Alexander II wrote to Béranger , Viscount of Narbonne , and to Guifred , bishop of the city , praising them for having prevented the massacre of the Jews in their district , and reminding them that God does not approve of the shedding of blood . In 1065 also , Alexander admonished Landulf VI of Benevento `` that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force . ''

neg: Granada War The Granada War ( Guerra de Granada ) was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1492 , during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs ( los Reyes Católicos ) Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , against the Nasrid dynasty 's Emirate of Granada . It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile , ending all Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula ( al-Andalus ) .   The ten-year war was not a continuous effort , but a series of seasonal campaigns launched in spring and broken off in winter . The Granadans were crippled by internal conflict and civil war , while the Christians were generally unified . The war also saw the effective use of artillery by the Christians to rapidly conquer towns that would otherwise have required a long siege . On January 2 , 1492 Muhammad XII of Granada ( King Boabdil ) surrendered the Emirate of Granada , the city of Granada , and the Alhambra palace to the Castilian forces .   The war was a joint project between Isabella 's Crown of Castile and Ferdinand 's Crown of Aragon . The bulk of the troops and funds for the war came from Castile , and Granada was annexed into Castile 's lands . The Crown of Aragon was less important : apart from the presence of King Ferdinand himself , Aragon provided naval collaboration , guns , and some financial loans . Aristocrats were offered the allure of new lands , while Ferdinand and Isabella centralized and consolidated power . The aftermath of the war saw the end of convivencia ( `` live and let live '' ) between religions In the Iberian peninsula : the Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or be exiled in 1492 , and by 1501 , all of Granada 's Muslims were obliged to either convert to Christianity , become slaves , or be exiled ; by 1526 this prohibition spread to the rest of Spain . `` New Christians '' ( conversos ) came to be accused of crypto-Islam and crypto-Judaism . Spain would go on to model its national aspirations as the guardian of Christianity and Catholicism . The fall of the Alhambra is still celebrated every year by the City Council of Granada , and the Granada War is considered in traditional Spanish historiography as the final war of the Reconquista . At the same time , and uniquely in the `` Reconquista '' , the Granada War itself is never called `` the reconquest of Granada '' '' , but rather `` the conquest of Granada '' . Granada had never been Christian before the `` reconquista '' .

neg: Marcus Cornelius Cethegus Marcus Cornelius Cethegus ( -196 BC ) was a Roman Republican consul and censor during the Second Punic War , best known as a political ally of his kinsman Scipio Africanus .

neg: Samnite Wars The First , Second , and Third Samnite Wars ( 343 -- 341 BC , 326 -- 304 BC and 298 -- 290 BC ) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites , who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains to the south of Rome and the north of the Lucanians . The first of these wars was the result of Rome 's intervening to rescue the Campanian city of Capua from a Samnite attack . The second one was the result of Rome 's intervention in the politics of the city of Naples and developed into a contest over the control of much of central and southern Italy . The third war also involved a struggle over the control of this part of Italy . The wars extended over half a century and the peoples to the east , north and west of Samnium ( land of the Samnites ) as well as the peoples of central Italy north of Rome ( the Etruscans , Umbrians and Picenti ) and the Senone Gauls got involved to various degrees and at various points in time . The Samnites were one of early Rome 's most formidable rivals .

neg: Legio XVII Legio septima decima ( `` Seventeenth Legion '' ) was a legion of the Imperial Roman army . It was founded by Augustus around 41 BC . The legion was destroyed in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ( September 9 , 9 ) . The legion 's symbol and cognomen are unknown .   This legion was probably created to deal with Sextus Pompey , the last opponent of the second triumvirate , garrisoned in Sicily and threatening Rome 's grain supply .   Following the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium ( 31 BC ) , the legion was stationed in Gaul . In the end of the 1st century BC , the Seventeenth was sent to the Germania provinces in the Rhine and was stationed in Castra Vetera ( Xanten ) . In AD 5 , the provinces were pacified and Publius Quinctilius Varus was assigned governor and commander of the Germania army .   On September 9 , Arminius , leader of the Cheruscan allies , reported a rebellion in the Rhine area . Without suspecting the information received , Varus took his three legions , the XVII along with XVIII and XIX , and headed west . On 9 September , near modern Osnabrück , the Cheruscii led by Arminius ambushed the governor 's army . All three legions were destroyed in what is known as the battle of the Teutoburg Forest and their eagle standards lost .   After its destruction , the Romans never used this legion number again .

neg: Roman–Persian Wars The Roman -- Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between states of the Greco-Roman world and two successive Iranian empires : the Parthian and the Sassanid . Battles between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 54 BC ; wars began under the late Republic , and continued through the Roman and Sassanid Persian empires . Several buffer states , vassal kingdoms , and allied nations also played major role . The wars were ended by the Arab Muslim invasions , which led to the demise of the Sassanid Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine East Roman empire , shortly after the end of the last war between them .   Although warfare between the Romans and the Parthians/Sassanids lasted for seven centuries , the frontier remained largely stable . A game of tug of war ensued : towns , fortifications , and provinces were continually sacked , captured , destroyed , and traded . Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders , and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin . Both sides did make conquests beyond the border , but in time the balance was almost always restored . The line of stalemate shifted in the 2nd century AD : it had run along the northern Euphrates ; the new line ran east , or later northeast , across Mesopotamia to the northern Tigris . There were several substantial shifts further north , in Armenia and the Caucasus .   The expense of resources during the Roman -- Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires . The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Caliphate , whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman -- Persian war . Benefiting from their weakened condition , the Arab Muslim armies swiftly conquered the entire Sassanid Empire , and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of its territories in the Levant , the Caucasus , Egypt , and the rest of North Africa . Over the following centuries , more of the Eastern Roman Empire came under Muslim rule .   As it stands , the Roman -- Persian War was the longest conflict in human history , lasting discontinuously over 680 years .

neg: Hannibal – Rome's Worst Nightmare Hannibal -- Rome 's Worst Nightmare is a 2006 television film , presented as a dramatised documentary , made by the BBC . It is narrated by Kenneth Cranham .   The film is chiefly centred on the Italian campaign of Hannibal , the famous Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War .

neg: Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus IV Epiphanes ( -LSB- ænˈtaɪ.əkəs _ ɛˈpɪfəniːz -RSB- Ἀντίοχος Δ΄ ὁ Ἐπιφανής , Antíochos D' ho Epiphanḗs , `` God Manifest '' ; c. 215 BC -- 164 BC ) was a Hellenistic Greek king of the Seleucid Empire from 175 BC until his death in 164 BC . He was a son of King Antiochus III the Great . His original name was Mithradates ( alternative form Mithridates ) ; he assumed the name Antiochus after he ascended the throne .   Notable events during the reign of Antiochus IV include his near-conquest of Egypt , his persecution of the Jews of Judea and Samaria , and the rebellion of the Jewish Maccabees .   Antiochus was the first Seleucid king to use divine epithets on coins , perhaps inspired by the Bactrian Hellenistic kings who had earlier done so , or else building on the ruler cult that his father Antiochus the Great had codified within the Seleucid Empire . These epithets included Θεὸς Ἐπιφανής `` manifest god '' , and , after his defeat of Egypt , Νικηφόρος `` bringer of victory '' . However , Antiochus also tried to interact with common people by appearing in the public bath houses and applying for municipal offices , and his often eccentric behavior and capricious actions led some of his contemporaries to call him Epimanes ( `` The Mad One '' ) , a word play on his title Epiphanes .

neg: Battle of Wesenberg (1268) The Battle of Wesenberg , Rakvere or Rakovor was a battle fought on February 18 , 1268 , between the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Knights and a coalition of Russian princes . Medieval accounts of the battle vary , with both sides claiming victory , such that the other was unable to mount further attacks . The most likely conclusion is that the battle was a tactical draw , with both sides withdrawing , badly bloodied , to defend their own lands .   The two armies clashed within 7.5 kilometers ( roughly 4.5 miles ) from the Livonian town of Wesenberg ( Rakvere , Rakovor ) . Russian forces , numbering up to 30,000 troops , were led by Dmitry of Pereslavl ( representing the Novgorod Republic ) together with his future son-in-law , Daumantas of Pskov ( representing the Pskov Republic ) .   Apart from the knights , the Livonian army included Danish forces ( right flank ) and local Estonian militia ( left flank ) . It is unclear who the overall commander of the crusading army was , as some sources claim that Livonian Ordensmeister Otto von Lutterberg was not present , while others claim he was . Bishop Alexander of Dorpat was likely one of the army 's leaders , however .   The Livonian forces deployed in their customary deep `` boar 's head '' wedge of heavily armoured knights , called by the Russians the `` great iron pig . '' These deep wedges had considerable penetrative power , but were unmaneuverable and vulnerable to flank attack due to the resulting narrow frontage of the army , facts which led to the ultimate defeat of the Knights at the Battle of Lake Peipus . As a result , the Livonians attempted to remedy this situation at Rakvere by splitting their knightly assault force into two formations , deploying one wedge in the open and a second in ambush , so that when the first wedge was attacked on all sides by the Russians the second wedge would burst from ambush and in turn encircle the enemy .   The tactic worked well at first , as the wedge of Livonian knights smashed the Novgorod and Pskov forces facing them , but then the second wedge , seeing the Russians in retreat , apparently assumed the battle was won and emerged from their ambush position to loot the Russian baggage . This abandonment of the battle plan led to the first wedge being encircled .   The fighting to reduce the first wedge was apparently terrific . `` Neither our fathers nor grandfathers have witnessed such a terrible battle '' , reports the Novgorodian First Chronicle . At last the Novgorodian militia prevailed , although its leader , the posadnik Mikhailo Fyodorovich , was killed in action .   The Russian princes pursued the knights up to Rakvere . Prince Daumantas of Pskov , whose bravery was recognized even in the Livonian chronicles of the battle , pursued the defeated knights all the way to the coast of the Baltic Sea , and took substantial booty before returning to the Russian lines . Upon his return to his camp , Dmitry of Pereslavl discovered that it had been looted by another regiment of the knights . He decided to wait for the morning . Three days passed and no new attack ensued on the part of the knights . The Russian leaders claimed victory and returned to Novgorod in triumph .   The most proximate Livonian source for the battle , the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle , tells a very different story , however . According to the anonymous author , Ordenmeister Otto von Lutterberg was away , campaigning elsewhere , when the Russians invaded Estonia . As a result , only a small number of brothers of the Livonian Order were present with the local troops , which included the forces of Bishop Alexander of Dorpat . In this account , the charge of the Livonian force drove the Russians back across the field of battle , and , despite the death of Bishop Alexander , and a heroic final defense mounted by Prince Dmitry , utterly defeated them . The Livonian force then laid siege to Pskov , but were defeated when a relief army arrived there from Novgorod , whereupon they returned home .

neg: Siege of Massilia -RCB-  | -  |  | -RCB-   The Siege and naval Battle of Massilia was an episode of Caesar 's civil war , fought in 49 BC .   Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus had become proconsul of Gaul and was sent to gain control of Massilia ( modern Marseille ) in order to oppose Caesar . As Caesar marched to Hispania ( en route to the Battle of Ilerda ) , the Massiliots closed their gates to him , having allied with Ahenobarbus and the Optimates . Roused by their hostile actions , he commenced a siege against Massilia , leaving the newly raised 17th , 18th , and 19th legions to conduct the siege . These were the same legions that would be wiped out at Teutoburg Forest 58 years later . He also placed Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus in charge of his fleet there .   After the siege had begun , Ahenobarbus arrived in Massilia to defend it against the Caesarian forces . In late June , Caesar 's ships , although they were less skillfully built than those of the Massiliots and outnumbered , were victorious in the ensuing naval battle .   Gaius Trebonius , Caesar 's legatus , conducted the siege using a variety of siege machines including siege towers , a siege-ramp , and a `` testudo-ram '' .  Gaius Scribonius Curio , careless in adequately guarding the Sicilian Straits , allowed Lucius Nasidius to bring more ships to the aid of Ahenobarbus . He fought a second naval battle with Decimus Brutus in early September , but withdrew defeated and sailed for Hispania .   Caesar built a stationary tower , 30 ft. square and six stories in height , under the very walls of the city and in face of a rain of missiles from its engines . The walls of the tower were of brickwork 5 ft. thick . When the lowest storey was built it was covered with a solid fireproof roof which was not secured to the walls but rested upon them like a lid . The eaves projected  considerably , and from them screens were hung on all sides , covering all the walls . By means of screws the whole canopy , roof and screens , was now raised to the height of one storiey and the workmen proceeded to build the  walls of that storiey under its protection . This process was repeated in the same  manner until the full height of the tower was attained .   The Massiliots valiantly defended against the siege machines and works . They threw down burning pitch and pine-shavings and the Caesarians undermined the foundations of their city walls . At one point they seemed likely to surrender and declare a truce , but at night they cunningly destroyed the siege works in a gross violation of the treaty , according to Caesar 's own account ( Bellum Civile 2.14 ; alternatively , Dio 41.25.2 records that the Massiliots destroyed these works in response to a surprise attack by the Caesarian forces ) . The city 's inhabitants were then near surrender .   At the final surrender of Massilia , Caesar showed his usual leniency and Lucius Ahenobarbus escaped to Thessaly in the only vessel that was able to escape from the Populares . Afterwards , Massilia was allowed to keep nominal autonomy , due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome , along with some territories while most of its empire was confiscated by Julius Caesar .

neg: Africa (Petrarch) Africa is an epic poem in Latin hexameters by the 14th century Italian poet Petrarch ( Francesco Petrarca ) . It tells the story of the Second Punic War , in which the Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy , but Roman forces were eventually victorious after an invasion of north Africa led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , the epic poem 's hero .

neg: Teutobochus Teutobochus was a legendary giant and king of the Teutons . Large bones discovered in 1613 were claimed to be his skeleton .   In 1869 W.A. Seaver wrote : `` In times more modern ( 1613 ) , some masons digging near the ruins of a castle in Dauphiné , in a field which by tradition had long been called ` The Giant 's Field , ' at a depth of 18 feet discovered a brick tomb 30 feet long , 12 feet wide , and 8 feet high , on which was a gray stone with the words ` Theutobochus Rex ' cut thereon . When the tomb was opened they found a human skeleton entire , 25-1/2 feet long , 10 feet wide across the shoulders , and 5 feet deep from the breast to the back . His teeth were about the size of an ox 's foot , and his shin-bone measured 4 feet in length . ''   The bones were displayed in Paris by Pierre Mazurier , a surgeon who claimed to be one of the finders .   After the finding of the bones , the legend of the king Teutobochus , which was thought to be the Teuton king defeated by Caius Marius , spread despite analysis by anatomist Jean Riolan the Younger , who ascribed the bones to one of Hannibal 's elephants . Three centuries later , the zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville analyzed the bones and concluded they came from a mastodon . Finally in the 1980s , the paleontologist Léonard Ginsburg analyzed a plaster mold from Paris ' Muséum national d'histoire naturelle , that came from the giant bones , and identified a deinotherium . The current location of the bones remains unknown .   Since bones of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals were unknown in 1613 , it would seem that the bones of some such animal , found in historical times , was wrongly attributed as the remains of the legendary giant .


query: John Connally served under President John F. Kennedy as Secretary of the Navy.

pos: John Connally John Bowden Connally , Jr. ( February 27 , 1917June 15 , 1993 ) , was an American politician . As a Democrat he served as Secretary of the Navy under President John F. Kennedy , as the 39th Governor of Texas , and as Secretary of the Treasury under President Richard Nixon . While Governor of Texas , he was seriously wounded when President Kennedy was assassinated . As Treasury Secretary , Connally is best remembered for removing the U.S. dollar from the gold standard in 1971 , an event known as the Nixon shock .   In 1973 he switched parties to become a Republican , and ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for President in 1980 .

neg: David Henshaw David Henshaw ( April 2 , 1791 -- November 11 , 1852 ) was the 14th United States Secretary of the Navy .   Henshaw was born in Leicester , Massachusetts in 1791 and educated at Leicester Academy . Trained as a druggist , he achieved notable success in that field , then expanded his energies into banking , transportation and politics . He was elected to the Massachusetts Senate in 1826 and served as Collector of the Port of Boston from the late 1820s until 1838 . Though he suffered business reverses during the later 1830s , Henshaw regained his political position as a leader of the Massachusetts Democratic Party within a few years .   In July 1843 , President John Tyler selected Henshaw as Secretary of the Navy . During his brief term in office , he addressed shipbuilding problems , selected senior officers for important seagoing commands , revised supply arrangements in the Navy Yards and attempted to establish a school for Midshipmen . His recess appointment as Secretary failed to receive Congressional confirmation , requiring that he leave office when his successor was confirmed . Henshaw then returned to Massachusetts politics . He died in 1852 .   USS Henshaw ( DD-278 ) was named in his honor .

neg: Henry H. Fowler Henry Hammill Fowler ( -LSB- ˈhæməl_ˈfaʊlər -RSB- September 5 , 1908 January 3 , 2000 ) was an American lawyer and politician . He served as the United States Secretary of Treasury under President Lyndon B. Johnson .

neg: Unitary executive theory The unitary executive theory is a theory of American constitutional law holding that the President possesses the power to control the entire executive branch . The doctrine is rooted in Article Two of the United States Constitution , which vests `` the executive power '' of the United States in the President .   Although that general principle is widely accepted , there is disagreement about the strength and scope of the doctrine . It can be said that some favor a `` strongly unitary '' executive , while others favor a `` weakly unitary '' executive . The former group argue , for example , that Congress 's power to interfere with intra-executive decision-making ( such as firing executive branch officials ) is limited , and that the President can control policy-making by all executive agencies within the limits set for those agencies by Congress . Still others agree that the Constitution requires a unitary executive , but believe this to be a bad thing , and propose its abolition by constitutional amendment .   In several states , in contrast to the federal government , executive officers such as lieutenant governor , attorney general , comptroller , secretary of state and others are elected independently of the state 's governor , with Texas being one example . This type of executive structure is known as a plural executive . Another type of plural executive , used in Japan , Israel , and Sweden , though not in any U.S. state , in which a collegial body comprises the executive branch - however , that collegial body does not comprise multiple members elected in elections , but is rather more akin to the US Cabinet in formation and structure .

neg: Confederate States Secretary of the Navy The Confederate States Secretary of the Navy was the head of the Confederate States Department of the Navy . Stephen R. Mallory held this position through the entire duration of the Confederate States of America .

neg: A Thousand Days A Thousand Days : John F. Kennedy in the White House is a nonfiction book by special assistant to the president , American historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. about the United States Presidency of John F. Kennedy ( 1961 -- 1963 ) . In that capacity , he was able to bear witness to the people and events which shaped the administration of President Kennedy . The book features the policies , politics , and personalities during Kennedy 's time in office . His cabinet is a focused aspect , as well .   It was first published by Houghton Mifflin in 1965 and won both the National Book Award in History and Biography and the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography in 1966 .

neg: Inauguration of Andrew Johnson The inauguration of Andrew Johnson as the 17th President of the United States was held on April 15 , 1865 at the Kirkwood House in Washington , D.C. , following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln . The inauguration marked the commencement of Andrew Johnson 's only term ( a partial term of ) as President . Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase administered the Oath of office . After the ceremony , President Johnson gave an impromptu inaugural address , which began with him begging the cabinet to remain with him and then attacking the Confederacy with such venom , that one witness remarked `` It would have been better had he been struck dumb . ''   As President Lincoln lay dying , Vice President Johnson visited the room where he lay , and when Mrs. Lincoln saw him , it was reported , she screamed and demanded he be removed . So he went back to his room at the Kirkwood House .   According to newspaper reports , the Vice President had gotten severely inebriated , and when aides to the now-dead president came to fetch the new President they were unable to wake him for several minutes . When he was finally awake , the accounts read , `` he had puffy eyes and his hair was caked with mud from the street , '' and that a barber and doctor were summoned to clean him up for the ten-o'clock ceremony , which most accounts agree went smoothly . However , there are other accounts , believed more reliable by some , which refute this claim .

neg: Navy Cross The Navy Cross is the United States military 's second-highest decoration awarded for valor in combat . The Navy Cross is awarded primarily to a member of the United States Navy , U.S. Marine Corps , and the U.S. Coast Guard ( when operating under the Department of the Navy ) for extraordinary heroism . The medal is equivalent to the Army 's Distinguished Service Cross , the Air Force 's Air Force Cross and the Coast Guard 's Coast Guard Cross .   The Navy Cross is bestowed by the Secretary of the Navy and may also be awarded to members of the other armed services , and to foreign military personnel while serving with the U.S. naval services . The Navy Cross was established by Act of Congress ( Public Law 65-253 ) and approved on February 4 , 1919 .

neg: John Kennedy College John Kennedy College is a boys school in Beau-Bassin , Mauritius . It is one of the largest secondary schools in Mauritius . It was founded in 1963 and inaugurated by the then Governor General Sir John Shaw Rennie .  The school is named after American president John F. Kennedy . Its students are known as `` Kennedians '' . The school 's emblem is the American bald eagle .   The main areas of focus of John Kennedy College are the sciences , technology and economics . Initially the school was more technically oriented but has since diversified .

neg: National Underwater Reconnaissance Office The National Underwater Reconnaissance Office ( NURO ) is the `` hidden younger brother '' of the National Reconnaissance Office ( NRO ) . NRO was initiated in 1960 and developed as a common office for United States Air Force and the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) to manage satellite reconnaissance . The first revelation about NRO came in 1973 , but its very existence was not declassified until 1992 . According to Jeffrey T. Richelson , `` -LSB- m -RSB- ost often the Under Secretary of the Air Force served as a Director of the NRO '' . NURO was initiated in 1969 and developed as a common office or liaison office for the United States Navy and the CIA to manage underwater reconnaissance . NURO used `` special project submarines '' like , , and deep inside the waters of the Soviet Union to put out listening devices , tap communication cables , monitor Soviet Navy bases and record sound signatures of Soviet submarines . NURO is a little-known agency ; even its name has been secret and its very existence was first revealed in 1998 . The United States Secretary of the Navy has served as its director .   Sherry Sontag and Christopher Drew argue that the origin of NURO was the Soviet submarine K-129 that had sunk outside Hawaii in March 1968 . When USS Halibut had returned half a year later with 22,000 photos of the Soviet submarine the CIA realized the significance of underwater reconnaissance . NURO was initially formed by CIA Director Richard Helms and dominated by the CIA : `` from the day NURO was formed , the CIA -LSB- with its Deputy Director for Science and Technology Carl Duckett -RSB- took charge . -LSB- Captain James -RSB- Bradley -LSB- from U.S. Naval Intelligence -RSB- could spare only a few people for the new office . His entire staff in the undersea part of Office of Naval Intelligence numbered only about a few dozen . The CIA , however , had no such constraints . It moved in with eight permanent staffers and more consultants loyal to the agency '' . The Navy prepared to go down with a midget submarine to K-129 . However , the CIA wanted the whole submarine . They built the ship `' Glomar Explorer '' ( now GSF Explorer ) to raise K-129 , which became very expensive ( up to 500 million dollars ) . From mid-1970s , the CIA lost its day-to-day control of NURO . Captain James Bradley was able to conduct his own special project operations . Through Bradley it was a direct link to General Alexander Haig and Henry Kissinger . 1972-74 , the Secretary of Navy John Warner was the Director of NURO .   The Chief Scientist of the U.S. Navy , John Piña Craven , argues that Bradley was a Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) officer at the Office of Naval Intelligence . Craven was a close colleague of Bradley , and Craven seems to indicate that NURO actually was a liaison office not just between the CIA and the Navy but also between the CIA and the DIA using officers from Naval Intelligence . Also others indicate that NURO might have been a CIA-DIA liaison office .   NURO operations were conducted primarily in Soviet home waters using specially equipped nuclear-powered attack submarines or `` special project submarines '' , but this intelligence gathering was , according to Ola Tunander , just a part of NURO 's activity . He refers to a high-ranking CIA officer saying that NURO in the 1980s also ran operations in the waters of friendly countries , such as those of Scandinavia , penetrating into the archipelagos and naval bases of Sweden . United States Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger stated in 2000 that NURO 's submarine operations into Swedish waters in the 1980s were run as a `` routine , regular series of defense testing '' after US-Swedish Navy-to-Navy consultations . However , these operations may also have had another purpose . ABC-TV said in 1984 of the U.S. submarine intelligence gathering : `` Most of the top-secret missions are into the waters of the Soviet Union , but according to both active duty and retired military sources , some missions have been run into the territorial waters of those nations considered friendly to the U.S. Even friendly countries , sources say , sometimes do things they do n't want the U.S. to know about , things that could inadvertently threaten U.S. security . The missions are conducted by specially equipped nuclear-powered attack submarines and in some cases by a nuclear-powered mini-sub called NR-1 . '' Tunander also says that during this period ( 1981-87 ) , the Secretary of Navy John Lehman was the Director of NURO .

neg: History of the United States National Security Council 1953–61 This article is about the history of the United States National Security Council during the Eisenhower Administration , 1953 -- 1961 .   Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower , the National Security Council system evolved into the principal arm of the President in formulating and executing policy on military , international , and internal security affairs . Where Harry S. Truman was uncomfortable with the NSC system and only made regular use of it under the pressure of the Korean War , Eisenhower embraced the NSC concept and created a structured system of integrated policy review . Eisenhower had a penchant for careful staff work , and believed that effective planning involved a creative process of discussion and debate among advisers compelled to work toward consensus recommendations .   The genesis of the new NSC system was a report prepared for the President in March 1953 by Robert Cutler , who became the President 's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs . Cutler proposed a systematic flow of recommendation , decision , and implementation that he later described as the `` policy hill '' process . At the bottom of the hill , concerned agencies such as State and Defense produced draft policy recommendations on specific topics and worked for consensus at the agency level . These draft NSC papers went up the hill through the Planning Board , created to review and refine the recommendations before passing them on for full NSC consideration . The NSC Planning Board met on Tuesday and Friday afternoons and was composed of officials at the Assistant Secretary level from the agencies with permanent or standing representation on the Council , as well as advisers from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Central Intelligence Agency . Hundreds of hours were spent by the Board reviewing and reconstructing proposed papers for the NSC . Cutler resigned in 1958 in exhaustion . The top of the foreign policy-making hill was the NSC itself , chaired by the President , which met regularly on Thursday mornings .   The Council consisted of the five statutory members : the President , Vice President , Secretaries of State and Defense , and Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization . Depending on the subject under discussion , as many as a score of other senior Cabinet members and advisers , including the Secretary of the Treasury , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and the Director of Central Intelligence , attended and participated . The agenda included regular briefings by the Director of Central Intelligence on worldwide developments affecting U.S. security , and consideration of the policy papers advanced by the Planning Board . The upshot of the discussions were recommendations to the President in the form of NSC Actions . The President , who participated in the discussion , normally endorsed the NSC Action , and the decision went down the hill for implementation to the Operations Coordinating Board .   President Eisenhower created the Operations Coordinating Board ( OCB ) to follow up on all NSC decisions . The OCB met regularly on Wednesday afternoons at the Department of State , and was composed of the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs , Deputy Secretary of Defense , the Directors of the CIA , the United States Information Agency , and ICA , and the Special Assistants to the President for National Security Affairs and Security Operations Coordination . The OCB was the coordinating and implementing arm of the NSC for all aspects of the implementation of national security policy . NSC action papers were assigned to a team from the OCB for follow-up . More than 40 interagency working groups were established with experts for various countries and subjects . This 24-person staff of the OCB supported these working groups in which officials from various agencies met each other for the first time .   The President 's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs , a post held under Eisenhower by Cutler , Dillon Anderson , William Harding Jackson , and finally Gordon Gray , oversaw the flow of recommendations and decisions up and down the policy hill , and functioned in Council meetings to brief the Council and summarize the sense of discussion . The Special Assistant was an essential facilitator of the decision-making system , but , unlike the National Security Adviser created under Kennedy , had no substantive role in the process . The NSC staff managed by the Special Assistant grew during the Eisenhower years , but again had no independent role in the policy process .   President Eisenhower had great confidence in the efficacy of covert operations as a viable supplement or alternative to previous normal foreign policy initiatives . The seeming clear success of the operations to overthrow Iranian populist leader Mossadegeh in 1953 , and overthrow the democratically elected , left-leaning President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán in Guatemala in 1954 was not without their crisis moments in the White House . In 1954 NSC 5412 provided for the establishment of a panel of designated representatives of the President and the Secretaries of State and Defense to meet regularly to review and recommend covert operations . Gordon Gray assumed the chairmanship of the `` 5412 Committee '' as it was called , and all succeeding National Security Advisers have chaired similar successor committees , variously named `` 303 '' , `` 40 '' , `` Special Coordinating Committee , '' which , in later Presidential administrations , were charged with the review of CIA covert operations .   President Eisenhower also created the position of staff secretary with the responsibility to screen all foreign policy and military documents coming to the President . While Colonel Andrew Goodpaster held this position , he tended to eclipse the Special Assistant for National Security .   The strength of the NSC system under Eisenhower was that it provided for regular , fully staffed , interagency review of major foreign and national security issues , culminating in discussion and decision at the highest level of government . The resulting Presidentially approved NSC papers provided policy guidance at every level of implementation . Eisenhower felt that the regular policy discussions kept his principal advisers fully informed , in step with one another , and prepared to react knowledgeably in the event of crisis . His commitment to the system was such that he chaired every Council meeting he could attend ( 329 of a total of 366 ) . The NSC meetings , including prior briefings and subsequent review of NSC Actions , constituted the largest single item on his weekly agenda .   Secretary of State John Foster Dulles , on the other hand , had reservations about the NSC system . He was the strongest personality in the Eisenhower Cabinet and jealously guarded his role as principal adviser to the President on foreign policy . He had constant , direct access to the President and did not feel that some of the most sensitive issues should be discussed in groups as large as were involved in most NSC meetings . He drew a sharp line between the NSC policy review process and the day-to-day operations of foreign policy , which he maintained were the province of the Department of State . Dulles and his deputies also were not comfortable with the scope the NSC review system gave to Secretary of the Treasury George Humphrey , another strong figure in the Cabinet , to intrude budgetary limitations into policy considerations . Dulles successfully resisted a proposal to substitute the Vice President for the Under Secretary of State as chairman of the OCB , arguing that such a change would impinge on his role as principal adviser to the President on foreign policy .   Critics of the Eisenhower NSC system have argued that it was inflexible , overstaffed , unable to anticipate and react to immediate crises , and weighed down by committees reporting in great detail on long checklists of minor policy concerns . The most thorough critique of the system emerged from the hearings conducted in 1960 ( 1961 by the Senate Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery , known as the Jackson Subcommittee for its chairman , Senator Henry Jackson . Cutler and NSC Executive Secretary James Lay testified in support of the effectiveness of the system , but their testimony was offset by that of former Truman administration officials such as George Kennan , Paul Nitze , and Robert Lovett . They argued that foreign policy was being made by a passive President influenced by a National Security Council rendered virtually useless by ponderous , bureaucratic machinery . Basically , they argued , the NSC was a huge committee , and suffered from all the weaknesses of committees . Composed of representatives of many agencies , its members were not free to adopt the broad , statesmanlike attitude desired by the President , but , rather , were ambassadors of their own departments , clinging to departmental rather than national views . To make matters worse , critics added , the NSC system by its very nature was restricted to continuing and developing already established policies and was incapable of originating new ideas or major innovations . The critics suggested replacement of the formal , `` over-institutionalized '' NSC structure with a smaller , less formal NSC which would offer the President a clear choice of alternatives on a limited number of major problems .   Eisenhower was certainly not a passive President , dominated by his Secretary of State on foreign policy and national security issues . In fact , Eisenhower was actively in command of his administration 's foreign policy , and the established NSC system met his instincts and requirements to the extent he used them . Although there is substance in the criticism that the Eisenhower NSC became to some extent the prisoner of a rigidly bureaucratic process , the criticism misses the point that Eisenhower and Dulles did not attempt to manage fast-breaking foreign policy crises or day-to-day operation through the NSC apparatus . An examination of several of the major foreign policy decisions that confronted the Eisenhower administration reveals that the NSC system was used to manage some , but was essentially bypassed in others . The established NSC process was used when the question involved a policy debate between departments with strongly held , contending positions , as it did in the case of the debate between the Departments of State and Defense in 1956/1957 over whether to introduce a more modern generation of weapons into Korea , where it focused debate and produced the necessary agreed-upon decision after discussion of three draft policy papers .   In fast-breaking crisis situations however , including the concurrent Suez crisis and Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , the first and Second Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1955 and 1958 , and the 1958 Lebanon crisis , these were typically managed through small meetings with the President in the White House , normally involving Dulles and other concerned advisers , and through telephone conversations between Eisenhower , Dulles , and other principal advisers . Eisenhower sometimes used trusted NSC staffers to serve as an intermediary to gain information outside the chain of command as he did with Colonel Goodpaster during the straits crisis in 1955 . There was great similarity between this process of crisis management and that adopted by subsequent Presidents , such as Kennedy , Johnson , and Nixon , except for the fact that the ad hoc meetings in the Eisenhower White House did not involve a National Security Adviser as a substantive participant . And in the event that aspects of crisis management depended on contact with the critical man-on-the-spot , as it did in 1958 when Deputy Under Secretary of State Robert Murphy was dispatched to Lebanon to attempt to defuse the crisis , his instructions came from the Department of State and he reported to the Secretary of State rather than directly to the White House , as became the practice during the height of the Vietnam War .   When Eisenhower briefed President-elect Kennedy on the NSC system , as when Gordon Gray briefed his successor McGeorge Bundy , they both emphasized the importance of the established NSC machinery in the management of foreign policy and national security affairs . They might have been more persuasive in maintaining the system had they pointed to the fact that the NSC apparatus was essentially limited to policy review , but was not used by them to manage foreign policy crises or day-to-day decisions .

neg: Charls Walker Charls Edward Walker ( December 24 , 1923 -- June 2 , 2015 ) was Under Secretary of the United States Department of the Treasury from 1969 to 1972 , and Deputy Secretary of the Treasury in 1973 under John Connally .

neg: Democrats for Nixon Democrats for Nixon was a campaign to promote Democratic support for the then-incumbent Republican President Richard Nixon in the 1972 presidential election . The campaign was led by the former Democratic governor of Texas , John Connally .   Connally , who was serving as the United States Secretary of the Treasury , announced that he would be supporting Nixon for re-election and would spend his time until the elections working on behalf of the incumbent .   A Democrat who had been Governor of Texas and United States Secretary of the Navy under John F. Kennedy , Connally formally announced the formation of the organization in August 1972 . Polling cited by Connally indicated that as many as 20 million Democrats would cross over to vote for Nixon and invited `` all those millions of Democrats who realize that in this Presidential election President Nixon is simply the better choice '' . Connally stated that he was troubled by Senator George McGovern 's campaign and felt that the Democratic party `` is becoming an ideological machine closed to millions who have been the party 's most loyal and steadfast members '' under McGovern 's leadership . The committee included Mayor Beverly Briley of Nashville , Tennessee , former Governor of Florida Farris Bryant , Mayor of Boston John F. Collins , Mayor Thomas G. Dunn of Elizabeth , New Jersey , Teamsters president Frank Fitzsimmons , Governor of Virginia Mills E. Godwin , Jr. , Mayor of Miami , Florida David T. Kennedy and Leonard Marks who had previously headed the United States Information Agency . A fundraising target of as much as $ 3 million was set for the organization . Connally also announced that Jeno Paulucci , a frozen food distributor who had been closely involved as a fundraiser for Hubert H. Humphrey in his presidential bids , would serve as head of a group encouraging independent voters to choose Nixon .   In a September 1972 article in The New York Times , Connally was quoted as saying that increasing numbers of traditionally Democratic voters were leaving the fold because they `` are afraid of George McGovern '' because of his proposals for major cutbacks in defense spending and in the number of U.S. troops serving in Europe . Connally insisted that `` it is in the best interests of this country that the president be re-elected this year '' .

neg: Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Navy The Judge Advocate General 's Corps also known as the `` JAG Corps '' or `` JAG '' is the legal arm of the United States Navy . Today , the corps consists of a worldwide organization of more than 730 Judge Advocates , 30 limited duty officers ( law ) , 500 enlisted members and nearly 275 civilian personnel , serving under the direction of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy .   The headquarters of the Judge Advocate General 's Corps of the United States Department of the Navy is located at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington , D.C.

neg: Secretary Kerry Secretary Kerry may refer to :  John Kerry , the 68th U.S. Secretary of State  Cameron Kerry , brother of John Kerry and acting U.S. Secretary of Commerce from June 1 , 2013 to June 26 , 2013 .

neg: Robert B. Anderson Robert Bernard Anderson ( June 4 , 1910 August 14 , 1989 ) was an American administrator and businessman . He served as the Secretary of the Navy between February 1953 and March 1954 . He also served as the Secretary of the Treasury from 1957 until 1961 , and was one of President Eisenhower 's closest confidants . Two years before his death from cancer , he was disbarred for illegal banking operations and tax evasion .

neg: Presidency of John F. Kennedy The presidency of John F. Kennedy began on January 20 , 1961 , when he was inaugurated as the 35th President of the United States , and ended on November 22 , 1963 , upon his assassination and death , a span of days . A Democrat , he took office following the 1960 presidential election , in which he narrowly defeated Richard Nixon . He was succeeded by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson .   Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president , and , at age 43 , the youngest person elected to the office . He was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency . Kennedy played an important role in bringing American politics into the modern communications age , as his use of television provided a campaign model that spoke to voters directly , and his media presidency greatly weakened the power of political machines in party politics .   Kennedy 's time in office was marked by Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and especially with Cuba . In Cuba , a failed attempt was made in April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro . Kennedy 's administration subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain public approval for a war against Cuba . In October 1962 , it was discovered that Soviet ballistic missiles had been deployed in Cuba ; the resulting period of unease , termed the Cuban Missile Crisis , is seen by many historians as the closest the human race has ever come to nuclear war between nuclear-armed belligerents .   To contain Communist expansion in Asia , Kennedy increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over his predecessor , Dwight D. Eisenhower ; a further escalation of the American role in the Vietnam War took place after Kennedy 's death . In domestic politics Kennedy made bold proposals in his New Frontier agenda , but few were passed by Congress . He did establish of the Peace Corps , and intensify the Space Race . Kennedy took steps to support the Civil Rights Movement , and after his death his proposed civil rights bill was passed as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 .

neg: NSC Working Group on South Vietnam The National Security Council Working Group on South Vietnam/Southeast Asia was founded in the wake of the election Lyndon B. Johnson 's election campaign against Barry Goldwater to explore the different options LBJ could take in Vietnam . William Bundy would later note that this group was '' ` the most comprehensive ' Vietnam policy review ` of any in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations . ' ''

neg: Donald Regan Donald Thomas `` Don '' Regan ( December 21 , 1918 -- June 10 , 2003 ) was the 66th United States Secretary of the Treasury , from 1981 to 1985 , and White House Chief of Staff from 1985 to 1987 in the Ronald Reagan Administration , where he advocated `` Reaganomics '' and tax cuts to create jobs and stimulate production . Before serving in the Reagan administration , Regan served as Chairman and CEO of Merrill Lynch from 1971 to 1980 . He had worked at Merrill Lynch since 1946 and before this he had studied at Harvard University and served in the United States Marine Corps , achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel .

neg: Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935 The Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935 was enacted in the wake of the Supreme Court 's decision to strike down Section 9 ( c ) of the National Industrial Recovery Act ( NIRA ) in Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan , which gave the President authority `` to prohibit the transportation in interstate and foreign commerce of petroleum ... produced or withdrawn from storage in excess of the amount permitted ... by any State law . '' The act was named after Senator Tom Connally .   It revived the provisions of Section 9 ( c ) of the NIRA and added procedural safeguards , which , the Supreme Court argued , were constitutional . Ostensibly enacted to protect the industry from `` contraband oil , '' it was mainly a way of cartelizing the industry to stabilize falling prices . The new law reestablished the NIRA 's original provision that violators would receive a maximum jail sentence of six months but also increased the maximum fine penalty from $ 1000-which was enacted in the NIRA - to $ 2000 .   Though the legislation was intended to expire on June 16 , 1937 , it was maintained afterwards as a permanent law . There was some debate as to the law 's effects on the transport of other fuels such as coal and timber , and many independent oil producers vehemently opposed the government regulations .   However , in 1937 , four federal courts upheld the Connally Act , which was later administered by the Federal Petroleum Board that was also created by the law ; the Petroleum Board was a part of the Department of the Interior .

neg: United States presidential election in Massachusetts, 1960 The 1960 United States presidential election in Massachusetts took place on November 8 , 1960 as part of the 1960 United States presidential election , which was held throughout all 50 states . Voters chose 16 representatives , or electors to the Electoral College , who voted for President and Vice President .   Massachusetts voted overwhelmingly for the Democratic nominee , Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts , over the Republican nominee , Vice President Richard Nixon of California . Kennedy ran with Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas , while Nixon 's running mate was Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr. of Massachusetts .   Kennedy carried his home state of Massachusetts in a landslide , taking 60.22 % of the vote to Nixon 's 39.55 % , a Democratic victory margin of 20.67 % . This made it the third most Democratic state in the nation , after Rhode Island and Georgia .   As Kennedy narrowly defeated Nixon nationally to win the presidency , Massachusetts weighed in for this election as about 21 % more Democratic than the national average .   Massachusetts had been a Democratic-leaning state since 1928 , when the Democratic Party had nominated the first Roman Catholic nominee for president , Al Smith . While Smith lost nationally in a landslide , partially due to anti-Catholic prejudice in much of the country , he won Massachusetts due to the massive turnout and support of the many Irish Catholics in the state . In 1960 , John F. Kennedy would be the second Roman Catholic to be nominated for president by a major party , and again his religion became an issue in some regions of the country . However , there was little doubt that Kennedy , an Irish Catholic born in Brookline , Massachusetts , would be able to carry Massachusetts in his presidential run .   Prior to 1960 , Massachusetts had been a swing state , having voted for Democrats Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman in the 1930s and 1940s , but voting for Republican Dwight Eisenhower in the 1950s . In 1956 , Eisenhower had carried the state by 19 points . The 21 point margin by which Kennedy won the state four years later thus represented a massive 40 point swing toward the Democrats between the 1956 and 1960 elections . Kennedy 's landslide victory in 1960 finally solidified the transformation of Massachusetts into a Democratic stronghold in the modern era . 1960 was the first election ever in which a Democrat had broken 60 % of the vote in Massachusetts , and thus Kennedy 's 60.22 % was the highest percentage of the vote any Democrat had ever received in the state up to that point .   Religion was a major dividing factor in shaping the vote in 1960 . Nixon 's running mate , Henry Cabot Lodge , was also from Massachusetts , and had served the state as a Republican Senator , but was a Protestant , and represented traditional Protestant Yankee Republicanism in Massachusetts . Kennedy , an Irish Catholic Democrat , represented an entirely different strain of Massachusetts politics , the emerging majority coalition of urban and ethnic immigrant voters . In 1952 , Kennedy had first defeated Lodge to take the latter 's U.S. Senate seat , symbolizing this new Democratic coalition 's rise in the state . The residual Yankee Republicanism combined with the popularity of the Republican incumbent Eisenhower allowed Nixon to take a decent 39.55 % of the vote , but by 1960 , the ethnic Catholic vote held a decisive majority in Massachusetts , and turnout among Catholic voters reached record highs in 1960 .   Kennedy carried nine of the state 's fourteen counties , including the most heavily populated parts of the state surrounding the large cities of Boston , Worcester , and Springfield . Nixon carried only five counties , three of them island or peninsula counties . Nixon 's most significant win was Plymouth County , which he won narrowly with 51 percent of the vote .   Kennedy put in an historically strong performance in the state 's capital and largest city , Boston , home to many Catholics of Irish and Italian immigrant heritage . In Suffolk County , where Boston is located , Kennedy won a landslide with 74.4 percent of the vote to Nixon 's 25 percent , the first time in history that a presidential candidate had received more than 70 percent of the vote in the county . Kennedy was also the first Democrat to carry Norfolk County since Martin van Buren in 1836 .   The decisive Democratic win in 1960 would foreshadow the political direction Massachusetts would take in the years to come , as it would become one of the most Democratic states in the nation in the elections that followed . In 1964 and 1968 , Democrats would even outperform Kennedy , and in 1972 it would be the only state in the nation to vote for Democrat George McGovern , ultimately making it the only state that Richard Nixon would never win in any of his three presidential campaigns .   The 1960 election was also the last time a candidate who declared Massachusetts as his home state won the presidency regardless of his performance in the state . The next three presidential candidates whose home state was Massachusetts , Michael Dukakis , John Kerry , and Mitt Romney , all lost their presidential bids .


query: Oliver Reed is English.

pos: Oliver Reed Robert Oliver Reed ( 13 February 1938 -- 2 May 1999 ) was an English actor known for his upper-class , macho image , hellraiser lifestyle , and `` tough guy '' roles . Notable films include The Trap ( 1966 ) , Oliver ! ( 1968 ) , Women in Love ( 1969 ) , Hannibal Brooks ( 1969 ) , The Devils ( 1971 ) , The Three Musketeers ( 1973 ) , Tommy ( 1975 ) , Lion of the Desert ( 1981 ) , Castaway ( 1986 ) , The Adventures of Baron Munchausen ( 1988 ) and Funny Bones ( 1995 ) . For Gladiator ( 2000 ) , his final film , Reed was posthumously nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role .   At the peak of his career , in 1971 , British exhibitors voted Reed 5th most popular star at the box office .

neg: Rex Reed Rex Taylor Reed ( born October 2 , 1938 ) is an American film critic and former co-host of the syndicated television show At the Movies . He currently writes the column `` On the Town with Rex Reed '' for The New York Observer .

neg: Eli "Paperboy" Reed Eli `` Paperboy '' Reed ( born Eli Husock ) is an American singer and songwriter . After graduating from Brookline -LSB- Massachusetts -RSB- High School in 2002 he moved to Clarksdale , Mississippi and immersed himself in the juke joint culture of the Deep South . After spending a year in Clarksdale he enrolled at The University of Chicago to study sociology . While in Chicago he hosted a radio show called `` We Got More Soul '' on the college station WHPK and played organ and piano in the South Side Chicago church of the famed Soul/Gospel singer Mitty Collier . After one year of study in Chicago he returned home to Boston to focus on music , recording his first album Sings Walkin ' & Talkin ' & Other Smash Hits !   The local success of that album and his frenzied live show brought him to the attention of Somerville , Massachusetts based record label , Q Division Records . He recorded his first album of original material , Roll With You , in late 2007 with Q Division producer Ed Valauskas at the helm . That album was released in 2008 and the next two years saw Reed garner a national and international following . His success overseas in particular sparked his signing to Virgin before later switching to their parent label Capitol Records in 2009 .   Come And Get It ! , Reed 's major label debut , was produced by Mike Elizondo . Speaking in March 2010 to British soul writer Pete Lewis , Reed stated the album was strongly influenced musically by the late 1960s/early 1970s Chicago soul music recordings of artists such as Tyrone Davis and Mel & Tim .   Reed was nominated for Breakthrough Artist of the Year at the 2009 MOJO Awards .   Reed signed to Warner Bros. . Records in late 2012 and released a 45 RPM single featuring a vinyl only version of a new song , `` WooHoo '' , on Record Store Day ( April 20 ) 2013 . His fourth album was released in 2014 , and My Way Home followed in 2016 .   Reed 's song `` Your Sins Will Find You Out '' was featured in Episode 4 of the first season of `` Preacher . ''

neg: Alan Reed (artist) Alan Reed ( born 1961 in Corbridge , Northumberland , England ) is a UK watercolour artist . He began painting at an early age , winning a prize at the age of 10 for his painting of ` Bamburgh Castle at sunset ' . He had his first exhibition at the age of 18 , at the local library in his home town , Ponteland , and has been taking commissions ever since . His watercolour paintings have been exhibited world wide in the UK , Italy , the US and the Middle East .

neg: Oliver Irving Oliver Irving is a British film director . He directed and wrote How To Be starring Robert Pattinson . Based in New York , he is currently in post-production on the feature comedy-thriller Ghost Team , which stars Jon Heder , David Krumholtz , Melonie Diaz , Paul W. Downs with Justin Long and Amy Sedaris and is set for release in fall 2016 .

neg: Oliver Bailey Oliver James Bailey ( born 25 April 1982 ) is an English cricketer . Bailey is a right-handed batsman who bowls right-arm medium-fast . He was born at Plymouth , Devon .   Bailey represented the Somerset Cricket Board in a single List A match against Norfolk in the 2nd round of the 2002 Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy , which was held in 2001 at Manor Park , Horsford . In his only List A match , he was n't required to bat or bowl , but he did take a single catch in the field .

neg: Royal Shakespeare Company The Royal Shakespeare Company ( RSC ) is a major British theatre company , based in Stratford-upon-Avon , Warwickshire , England . The company employs over 1000 staff and produces around 20 productions a year . The RSC plays regularly in London , Newcastle upon Tyne and on tour across the UK and internationally .   The company 's home is in Stratford-upon-Avon , where it has recently redeveloped its Royal Shakespeare and Swan theatres as part of a # 112.8-million `` Transformation '' project . The theatres re-opened in November 2010 , having closed in 2007 . The new buildings attracted 18,000 visitors within the first week and received a positive media response both upon opening , and following the first full Shakespeare performances . Performances in Stratford-upon-Avon continued throughout the Transformation project at the temporary Courtyard Theatre .   As well as the plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries , the RSC produces new work from living artists and develops creative links with theatre-makers from around the world , as well as working with teachers to inspire a lifelong love of William Shakespeare in young people and running events for everyone to explore and participate in its work .   The RSC celebrated its fiftieth birthday season from April -- December 2011 , with two companies of actors presenting the first productions designed specifically for the new Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatre stages . The 2011-season began with performances of Macbeth and a re-imagined lost play The History of Cardenio . The fiftieth birthday season also featured The Merchant of Venice with Sir Patrick Stewart and revivals of some of the RSC 's greatest plays , including a new staging of Marat/Sade .   For the London 2012 Festival as part of the Cultural Olympiad , the RSC produced the World Shakespeare Festival , featuring artists from across the world performing in venues around the UK .   In 2013 the company began live screenings of its Shakespeare productions -- called Live from Stratford-upon-Avon -- which are screened around the world . In 2016 , the company collaborated with Intel and The Imaginarium Studios to stage The Tempest , bringing performance capture to the Royal Shakespeare Theatre for the very first time .

neg: Oliver James Oliver James may refer to :   Oliver James ( psychologist ) ( born 1953 ) , psychologist , journalist , author and television presenter  Oliver James ( actor ) ( born 1980 ) , English musician , singer , songwriter and actor  Oliver James ( footballer ) ( born 1987 ) , English professional footballer  Oliver James ( cricketer ) ( born 1990 ) , Welsh cricketer  Ollie Murray James ( 1871-1918 ) , American politician

neg: Reed's School Reed 's School is an independent day and boarding school for boys located in Cobham , Surrey , England , founded by Rev. Andrew Reed , D.D. in 1813 and incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1845 under the presidency of the Archbishop of Canterbury , the Duke of Wellington and the Marquis of Salisbury . It is boys only until Year 11 , but admits girls in Years 12 & 13 . There are currently around 660 day pupils ( 600 boys , 60 girls ) and 100 full-time boarders ( 80 boys , 20 girls ) . The school has historical links with the City of London Corporation and the British Royal Family , a member of which has acted as patron from the school 's earliest days . Since 1951 , Queen Elizabeth II has acted as the school 's 15th patron and has visited the school twice as the reigning monarch ( she also visited as Princess Elizabeth in 1946 ) , once in March 1997 and most recently in March 2014 ( along with Prince Philip ) as part of the school 's bicentennial celebrations . During the 2014 visit , the Queen unveiled a new stained glass window , designed by the artist Helen Whittaker , in the Chapel . Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother opened a new wing in 1959 ( this currently houses the 6th form boarders ) and planted a tulip tree in the school 's grounds . She had previously opened a library in 1939 at the school 's former site at Watford . Since 1966 , the school 's headmasters have been members of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference ( HMC ) . Former pupils are known as `` Old Reedonians '' .

neg: Oliver! (song) `` Oliver ! '' is the title song from the 1960s original West End and Broadway musical Oliver ! and the 1968 film of the same name .

neg: The Living Reed The Living Reed is an historical novel by Pearl S. Buck in which life in Korea , from the latter part of the nineteenth century to the end of the Second World War , is described through the viewpoints and lives of several members of four generations of a prominent aristocratic family .

neg: Gordon Oliver Gordon Oliver ( April 27 , 1910 -- January 26 , 1995 ) was an American actor and film producer . He appeared in more than 45 films and television shows between 1933 and 1972 .

neg: Oliver Emanuel __ NOTOC __ Oliver Emanuel ( born 4 April 1980 ) is a British playwright and radio dramatist . His play Dragon won Best Show For Children and Young People at the UK Theatre Awards in 2014 . His English version of Titus won the People 's Choice Victor Award in 2015 at IPAY   Oliver Emanuel was born in Kent , attended St Gregory 's Catholic Comprehensive School in Tunbridge Wells , studied English and Theatre Studies at University of Leeds ( 1998 -- 2001 ) before going on to take the Masters in Creative Writing at the University of East Anglia ( 2001 -- 02 ) . His late mother was a drama teacher and his father is a lawyer . He was Writer-on-Attachment at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in 2006 and Writer-in-Residence for BBC Radio 4 Children in Need in 2010 . He has lived in Glasgow since 2006 .

neg: Robert Hardy Timothy Sydney Robert Hardy , CBE , FSA ( born 29 October 1925 ) is an English actor with a long career in the theatre , film and television .

neg: Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre . The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976 , and , renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier . The Olivier Awards are the most prestigious theatrical awards in the United Kingdom and are the UK equivalent of the Tony Awards .   Until 2015 , the Olivier Awards did not honour supporting musical performances separately and was therefore a unisex category , honouring both male and female actors . Starting with the 2015 ceremony , the awards have been separated into Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical and Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical

neg: Stan Laurel Stan Laurel ( born Arthur Stanley Jefferson ; 16 June 1890 -- 23 February 1965 ) was an English comic actor , writer and film director , most famous for his role in the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy . He appeared with his comedy partner Oliver Hardy in 107 short films , feature films , and cameo roles .   Laurel began his career in music hall , where he appropriated a number of his standard comic devices : the bowler hat , the deep comic gravity and the nonsensical understatement . His performances polished his skills at pantomime and music hall sketches . Laurel was a member of `` Fred Karno 's Army , '' where he was Charlie Chaplin 's understudy . With Chaplin , the two arrived in the United States on the same ship from the United Kingdom with the Karno troupe . Laurel began his film career in 1917 and made his final appearance in 1951 . From 1928 onwards , he appeared exclusively with Oliver Hardy . Laurel officially retired from the screen following his comedy partner 's death in 1957 .   In 1961 , Laurel was given a Lifetime Achievement Academy Award for his pioneering work in comedy . He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7021 Hollywood Blvd. . Laurel and Hardy ranked top among best double acts and seventh overall in a 2005 UK poll to find the Comedians ' Comedian . In 2009 , a bronze statue of the duo was unveiled in Laurel 's home town of Ulverston .

neg: John Reed (American football) John Reed was an American football coach in the United States .

neg: Robert Oliver (chef) Robert Oliver is a chef , author and TV presenter .

neg: Eric Porter Eric Richard Porter ( 8 April 192815 May 1995 ) was an English actor of stage , film and television .

neg: Roland Oliver Roland Anthony Oliver FBA ( 30 March 1923 -- 9 February 2014 ) was an Indian-born English academic and Emeritus Professor of African history at the University of London .   Throughout a long career he was an eminent researcher , writer , teacher , administrator and organiser , who had a profound effect on the development of African Studies in the United Kingdom .

neg: Oliver Twist (1912 film) Oliver Twist is a 1912 British silent drama film directed by Thomas Bentley and starring Ivy Millais , Alma Taylor and Harry Royston . It is an adaptation of the 1838 novel Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens . It was the directorial debut of Bentley who went on to become a leading British director . It was the first in a series of Dickens adaptations by Bentley .