query: Donnie Wahlberg is an American actor.

pos: Donnie Wahlberg Donald Edmond `` Donnie '' Wahlberg Jr. . ( born August 17 , 1969 ) is an American singer , songwriter , actor , record producer , and film producer . He is a founding member of the boy band New Kids on the Block . Outside of music , he has had roles in the Saw films , The Sixth Sense , Dreamcatcher , and Righteous Kill , also appearing in the World War II miniseries Band of Brothers as First Lieutenant Carwood Lipton . From 2002 to 2003 , he starred in the crime drama Boomtown . He has been starring in the drama series Blue Bloods as Danny Reagan with Tom Selleck ( his TV father ) and Bridget Moynahan ( his TV sister ) since 2010 , and since 2014 is an executive producer of the TNT reality television show Boston 's Finest . He was nominated for Choice Scream at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards for his work in the Saw films . He has also produced and starred in `` Rock this Boat '' , `` Donnie Loves Jenny '' and `` Return of the Mac '' on Pop TV .

neg: William O'Connell (actor) William O'Connell ( born William L. O'Connell Jr. on August 20 , 1933 ) is an American film and television actor .

neg: American Film Institute The American Film Institute ( AFI ) is an American film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the motion picture arts in the United States . AFI is supported by private funding and public membership .

neg: Bad Ass (film) Bad Ass is a 2012 American action film written and directed by Craig Moss . The film stars Danny Trejo , Charles S. Dutton , and Ron Perlman . It is loosely based on the viral AC Transit Bus fight internet video and the films Gran Torino and Harry Brown .

neg: The Happening (2008 film) The Happening is a 2008 American thriller film written , co-produced and directed by M. Night Shyamalan , and stars Mark Wahlberg , Zooey Deschanel , John Leguizamo , and Betty Buckley . The film follows a man , his wife , his best friend and his friend 's daughter as they try to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster .   The film was advertised as being Shyamalan 's first R-rated film ; it received mostly negative reviews from critics on Metacritic and grossed $ 163 million worldwide .

neg: Legend of the Wolf Legend of the Wolf , alternatively known as The New Big Boss in American and British DVD releases , is a 1997 Hong Kong action-martial arts film directed and produced by , and starring Donnie Yen . The film also marked Yen 's debut as a film director .

neg: Danny Burstein Danny Burstein ( born June 16 , 1964 ) is an American actor of stage and screen , who made his Broadway debut in 1992 . He is a six-time Tony Award nominee ; for The Drowsy Chaperone ( 2006 ) , South Pacific ( 2008 ) , Follies ( 2012 ) , Golden Boy ( 2013 ) , Cabaret ( 2014 ) and Fiddler on the Roof ( 2016 ) . He has also won two Drama Desk Awards , three Outer Critics Circle Awards , and received two Grammy Award nominations . His other Broadway credits include The Seagull ( 1992 ) , Saint Joan ( 1993 ) , and Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown ( 2010 ) .   Burstein 's television work includes a feature-length episode of the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous ( 2002 ) ; a Staten Island father in the first season of Louie ( 2010 ) ; he appeared as different characters in six episodes of the original NBC drama series Law & Order ( 1995 -- 2015 ) , and played the recurring part of Lolly Steinman on the HBO series Boardwalk Empire ( 2010 -- 11 ) . His film appearances include Transamerica ( 2005 ) , Deception ( 2008 ) , The Family Fang ( 2015 ) and Indignation ( 2016 ) .

neg: Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards 2014 The 20th Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards honoring the best in film for 2014 were announced on December 15 , 2014 . These awards `` recognizing extraordinary accomplishment in film '' are presented annually by the Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association ( DFWFCA ) , based in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex region of Texas . The organization , founded in 1990 , includes 30 film critics for print , radio , television , and internet publications based in north Texas . The Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association began presenting its annual awards list in 1993 .   Birdman was the DFWFCA 's most awarded film of 2014 , taking five top honors . Birdman won in Best Picture , Best Actor ( Michael Keaton ) , Best Director ( Alejandro G. Iñárritu ) , Best Cinematography ( Emmanuel Lubezki ) , and Best Screenplay ( Alejandro G. Iñárritu , Nicolás Giacobone , Alexander Dinelaris Jr. , and Armando Bo ) .   Another film , Boyhood , earned multiple 2014 honors from the DFWFCA . The coming-of-age tale received top honors in the Best Supporting Actress ( Patricia Arquette ) as well as being presented the Russell Smith Award as the `` best low-budget or cutting-edge independent film '' of the year . The award is named in honor of late Dallas Morning News film critic Russell Smith . Reese Witherspoon was named Best Actress for her role as Cheryl Strayed in Wild . The other films earning honors were Sweden 's Force Majeure for Best Foreign Language Film , Citizenfour as Best Documentary Film , and The Lego Movie for Best Animated Film .

neg: Rescue 911 Rescue 911 was an informational docudrama television series that premiered on CBS on April 18 , 1989 and ended on August 27 , 1996 . The series was hosted by William Shatner and featured reenactments ( and occasionally real footage ) of emergency situations that often involved calls to 911 .   Though never intended as a teaching tool , various viewers used the knowledge they obtained watching the show . Two specials , titled `` 100 Lives Saved '' and `` 200 Lives Saved , '' were dedicated to these viewers who had written to CBS with their stories on how the knowledge they obtained watching the show allowed them to save the life of someone else . At least 350 lives have been saved as a result of what viewers learned from watching it . The show 's popularity coincided with the widespread adoption of the 911 emergency system , replacing standalone police and fire numbers that would vary from municipality to municipality . The number is now universally understood in the United States and Canada to be the number dialed for emergency assistance nationwide .   At its height , the show was adapted in 45 countries ( with their own 911 equivalent showcased ) .

neg: Dallas Buyers Club Dallas Buyers Club is a 2013 American biographical drama film , co-written by Craig Borten and Melisa Wallack , and directed by Jean-Marc Vallée . The film tells the story of Ron Woodroof , an AIDS patient diagnosed in the mid 1980s when HIV/AIDS treatments were under-researched , while the disease was not understood and highly stigmatized . As part of the experimental AIDS treatment movement , he smuggled unapproved pharmaceutical drugs into Texas for treating his symptoms , and distributed them to fellow people with AIDS by establishing the `` Dallas Buyers Club '' while facing opposition from the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . Two fictional supporting characters , Dr. Eve Saks ( Jennifer Garner ) , and Rayon ( Jared Leto ) , were composite roles created from the writer 's interviews with transgender AIDS patients , activists , and doctors .   Screenwriter Borten interviewed Woodroof in 1992 and wrote the script , which he polished with writer Wallack in 2000 , and then sold to producer Robbie Brenner . Several other actors , directors , and producers who were attached at various times to the development of the film left the project . Universal Pictures also tried to make the film , but did not . A couple of screenwriters wrote drafts that were rejected . In 2009 , producer Brenner involved Matthew McConaughey , because of his Texas origins , the same as Woodroof 's . Brenner selected the first draft , written by Borten and Wallack , for the film , and then Vallée was set to direct the film . Principal photography began on November 11 , 2012 , in New Orleans , Louisiana , continuing for 25 days of filming , which also included shooting in Baton Rouge . Brenner and Rachel Winter co-produced the film . The official soundtrack album was featured by various artists , and was released digitally on October 29 , 2013 , by the Relativity Music Group .   Dallas Buyers Club premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival and was released theatrically in the United States on November 1 , 2013 , by Focus Features , strategically entering wide release on November 22 for award season . The film grossed over $ 27 million domestically and $ 27.9 million internationally , the box office revenue returned over $ 55 million against a budget of $ 5 million in 182-days of a theatrical run . It grossed over $ 4.5 million from DVD , and over $ 3 million from Blu-ray sales . The film received universal critical acclaim , resulting in numerous accolades . Most praised the performances of McConaughey and Leto , who received the Academy Award for Best Actor and for Best Supporting Actor , respectively , at the 86th Academy Awards , making this the first film since Mystic River ( 2003 ) , and only the fifth movie ever , to win both awards . The film also won the award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling , and garnered nominations for Best Picture , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Editing .

neg: Art film An art film is typically a serious , independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience . An art film is `` intended to be a serious artistic work , often experimental and not designed for mass appeal '' ; they are `` made primarily for aesthetic reasons rather than commercial profit '' , and they contain `` unconventional or highly symbolic content '' .   Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film as possessing `` formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films '' , which can include , among other elements , a sense of social realism ; an emphasis on the authorial expressiveness of the director ; and a focus on the thoughts , dreams , or motivations of characters , as opposed to the unfolding of a clear , goal-driven story . Film scholar David Bordwell describes art cinema as `` a film genre , with its own distinct conventions '' .   Art film producers usually present their films at specialty theatres ( repertory cinemas , or , in the U.S. , `` arthouse cinemas '' ) and film festivals . The term art film is much more widely used in the United States , the UK and Australia than in Europe , where the term is more associated with `` auteur '' films and `` national cinema '' ( e.g. , German national cinema ) . Because they are aimed at small niche market audiences , they can rarely get the financial backing that will permit large production budgets , expensive special effects , costly celebrity actors , or huge advertising campaigns , as are used in widely released mainstream blockbuster films . Art film directors make up for these constraints by creating a different type of film , which typically uses lesser-known film actors ( or even amateur actors ) and modest sets to make films that focus much more on developing ideas or exploring new narrative techniques or film-making conventions .   A certain degree of experience and knowledge are required to fully understand or appreciate such films . One mid-1990s art film was called `` largely a cerebral experience '' that one enjoys `` because of what you know about film '' . This contrasts sharply with mainstream `` blockbuster '' films , which are geared more towards escapism and pure entertainment . For promotion , art films rely on the publicity generated from film critics ' reviews , discussion of their film by arts columnists , commentators and bloggers , and `` word-of-mouth '' promotion by audience members . Since art films have small initial investment costs , they only need to appeal to a small portion of the mainstream viewing audiences to become financially viable .

neg: Mark Fauser Mark Fauser is an American actor , director , screenwriter , and producer who currently operates the independent film movie studio , Overlook Productions .   He has written several teleplays , plays , and movies , and has done major studio rewrites for companies such as Universal Studios , Paramount Pictures , Columbia Pictures and CBS Television . In 2002 his movie It 's All About You ( starring John D'Aquino ) was the `` Winner for Best Comedy '' at the 2001 Beverly Hills Film Festival .

neg: Houston Film Critics Society Awards 2010 The 4th Houston Film Critics Society Awards were presented on December 18 , 2010 . These awards for `` extraordinary accomplishment in film '' are presented annually by the Houston Film Critics Society ( HFCS ) based in Houston , Texas . The organization , founded in 2007 , includes 22 film critics for print , radio , television , and internet publications in the greater Houston area . The awards are co-sponsored by the Houston Film Commission , Southwest Alternate Media Project , Women in Film and Television/Houston , WorldFest , and the Houston Cinema Arts Society .   The nominations for the 2010 awards were announced on December 12 , 2010 . Eligible films do not need to have played or opened in a Houston film theater prior to the nomination deadline , merely made available to the HFCS membership at a screening or on DVD . Along with the 13 `` best of '' category awards , this year also saw the introduction of a new category for `` Worst Movies of the Year '' . The Social Network , True Grit , and 127 Hours each received six nominations , all including the Best Picture , Actor , Direction , and Original Score categories .   The Social Network was the HFCS 's most awarded film of 2010 taking top honors in the Best Picture , Best Director ( David Fincher ) , Best Actor ( Jesse Eisenberg ) , and Best Screenplay ( Aaron Sorkin ) categories . Inception was the only other film to garner multiple awards , winning both the Best Original Score ( Hans Zimmer ) and Best Cinematography ( Wally Pfister ) prizes . The other acting awards went to Natalie Portman as Best Actress for Black Swan , Hailee Steinfeld as Best Supporting Actress for True Grit , and Christian Bale as Best Supporting Actor for The Fighter . The remaining film honors went to Toy Story 3 as Best Animated Film , Restrepo as Best Documentary , and The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo as Best Foreign Language Film . `` We Are Sex Bob-Omb '' by Beck from Scott Pilgrim vs. the World was named the Best Original Song . The HFCS 's first-ever award for `` Worst Picture '' was given to Jonah Hex starring Josh Brolin .   In addition to the category awards , the HFCS presented their annual Lifetime Achievement Award to Sissy Spacek and its Humanitarian Award to George Clooney . Clooney was selected for `` selflessly using his celebrity for greater good '' . The HFCS award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinema awards were presented to Charles Dove , director of the Rice University Media Center , and Hector Luna , the founder and editor of C-47 Houston .

neg: Kings of South Beach Kings of South Beach is a film written by Nicholas Pileggi about an infamous operator of nightclubs in the South Beach section of Miami Beach , Florida . The lead character is portrayed by Jason Gedrick ; his best friend is portrayed by Donnie Wahlberg . The film premiered on March 12 , 2007 on the A&E Network .

neg: Golden Boot Awards The Golden Boot Awards is an American acknowledgment of achievement honoring actors , actresses , and crew members who have made significant contributions to the genre of Western television and movies . The award is sponsored and presented by the Motion Picture & Television Fund . Money raised at the award banquet is used to help finance various services offered by the Fund to those in the entertainment industry .   Actor Pat Buttram conceived the idea of the Golden Boot Award , and the first ones were presented in 1983 . The awards appear to have been discontinued since 2007 .

neg: Daddy's Home (film) Daddy 's Home is a 2015 American comedy film directed by Sean Anders and written by Brian Burns , Anders and John Morris . The film is about a mild-mannered step-father ( Will Ferrell ) who vies for the attention of his wife 's children ( Linda Cardellini ) when their real father ( Mark Wahlberg ) comes back .   The second collaboration between Ferrell and Wahlberg following the 2010 film The Other Guys , principal photography began on November 17 , 2014 in New Orleans , Louisiana . The film was released on December 25 , 2015 by Paramount Pictures , received mixed reviews and grossed more than $ 242 million worldwide .

neg: Goodfellas Goodfellas ( stylized as GoodFellas ) is a 1990 American crime film directed by Martin Scorsese . It is an adaptation of the 1986 non-fiction book Wiseguy by Nicholas Pileggi , who co-wrote the screenplay with Scorsese . The film narrates the rise and fall of mob associate Henry Hill and his friends over a period from 1955 to 1980 .   Scorsese initially named the film Wise Guy and postponed making it ; later , he and Pileggi changed the name to Goodfellas . To prepare for their roles in the film , Robert De Niro , Joe Pesci , and Ray Liotta often spoke with Pileggi , who shared research material left over from writing the book . According to Pesci , improvisation and ad-libbing came out of rehearsals wherein Scorsese gave the actors freedom to do whatever they wanted . The director made transcripts of these sessions , took the lines he liked best , and put them into a revised script , which the cast worked from during principal photography .   Made on a budget of $ 25 million , Goodfellas grossed $ 46.8 million . It received positive reviews from critics and was nominated for six Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Director , with Pesci winning Best Actor in a Supporting Role . The film won five awards from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts , including Best Film and Best Director . Additionally , Goodfellas was named the year 's best film by various critics ' groups .   Goodfellas is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in the crime genre . In 2000 , it was deemed `` culturally , historically , and aesthetically significant '' and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress . Its content and style have been emulated in numerous other films and television shows .

neg: David Selby David Lynn Selby ( born February 5 , 1941 ) is an American film , television and stage actor . He is most well known for playing Quentin Collins in the daytime soap opera Dark Shadows ( 1969 -- 71 ) , and Richard Channing in the prime-time soap opera Falcon Crest ( 1982 -- 90 ) . Selby has also had prominent roles in the television show Flamingo Road ( 1981 -- 82 ) , and the feature film Raise the Titanic ( 1980 ) . Also a published writer , Selby has written several books including novels , memoirs , and collections of poetry .

neg: Sunset Boulevard (film) Sunset Boulevard ( stylized onscreen as SUNSET BLVD. ) is a 1950 American film noir directed and co-written by Billy Wilder , and produced and co-written by Charles Brackett . It was named after the boulevard that runs through Los Angeles and Beverly Hills , California .   The film stars William Holden as Joe Gillis , an unsuccessful screenwriter , and Gloria Swanson as Norma Desmond , a faded silent film star who draws him into her fantasy world where she dreams of making a triumphant return to the screen , with Erich von Stroheim as Max Von Mayerling , her devoted servant . Nancy Olson , Fred Clark , Lloyd Gough and Jack Webb play supporting roles . Director Cecil B. DeMille and gossip columnist Hedda Hopper play themselves , and the film includes cameo appearances by leading silent film actors Buster Keaton , H. B. Warner and Anna Q. Nilsson .   Praised by many critics when first released , Sunset Boulevard was nominated for eleven Academy Awards ( including nominations in all four acting categories ) and won three . Deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' by the U.S. Library of Congress in 1989 , Sunset Boulevard was included in the first group of films selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . In 1998 , it was ranked number twelve on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 best American films of the 20th century , and in 2007 , it was 16th on their 10th Anniversary list .

neg: Donnie (dog) Donnie is a Doberman Pinscher dog who came to the attention of science due to his penchant for arranging his plush toys in geometric forms . His owner rescued him from an animal shelter , and at first he was slow to learn , and very reluctant to interact socially with her .

neg: Jason Wingreen Jason Wingreen ( October 9 , 1920 -- December 25 , 2015 ) was an American actor .   From the early 1960s Wingreen was a voting member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences .


query: San Francisco was founded in California.

pos: San Francisco San Francisco ( initials SF ) ( -LSB- sæn_frənˈsɪskoʊ -RSB- , Spanish for Saint Francis ; Spanish : -LSB- san franˈsisko -RSB- ) , officially the City and County of San Francisco , is the cultural , commercial , and financial center of Northern California . Located at the north end of the San Francisco Peninsula , San Francisco is about 47.9 sqmi in area , making it the smallest county -- and the only consolidated city-county -- within the state of California . With a density of about 18,581 people per square mile ( 7,174 people per km2 ) , San Francisco is the most densely settled large city ( population greater than 200,000 ) in California and the second-most densely populated major city in the United States after New York City . San Francisco is the fourth-most populous city in California , after Los Angeles , San Diego , and San Jose , and the 13th-most populous city in the United States -- with a census-estimated 2016 population of 870,887 . The city and its surrounding areas are known as the San Francisco Bay Area , and are a part of the larger OMB-designated San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland combined statistical area , the fifth most populous in the nation with an estimated population of 8.7 million .   San Francisco was founded on June 29 , 1776 , when colonists from Spain established Presidio of San Francisco at the Golden Gate and Mission San Francisco de Asís a few miles away , all named for St. Francis of Assisi . The California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth , making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time . San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856 .  After three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire , San Francisco was quickly rebuilt , hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later . In World War II , San Francisco was a major port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater . It then became the birthplace of the United Nations in 1945 . After the war , the confluence of returning servicemen , massive immigration , liberalizing attitudes , along with the rise of the `` hippie '' counterculture , the Sexual Revolution , the Peace Movement growing from opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War , and other factors led to the Summer of Love and the gay rights movement , cementing San Francisco as a center of liberal activism in the United States . Politically , the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines .   A popular tourist destination , San Francisco is known for its cool summers , fog , steep rolling hills , eclectic mix of architecture , and landmarks , including the Golden Gate Bridge , cable cars , the former Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary , Fisherman 's Wharf , and its Chinatown district . San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. , Gap Inc. , Salesforce.com , Dropbox , Reddit , Square , Inc. , Dolby , Airbnb , Weebly , Pacific Gas and Electric Company , Yelp , Pinterest , Twitter , Uber , Lyft , Mozilla , Wikimedia Foundation , Craigslist and Weather Underground . It has several nicknames , including `` The City by the Bay '' , `` Fog City '' , `` San Fran '' , and `` Frisco '' , as well as older ones like `` The City that Knows How '' , `` Baghdad by the Bay '' , `` The Paris of the West '' , or simply `` The City '' . , San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings .

neg: United States Customhouse (San Francisco) The U.S. Customhouse is a historic custom house located in San Francisco , California . It was built to house offices of the United States Customs Service .

neg: Sunset District, San Francisco The Sunset District is a neighborhood located in the west-central area of San Francisco , California , United States . It is the largest neighborhood in San Francisco .

neg: Pacific Fur Company The Pacific Fur Company ( PFC ) was an American fur trade venture wholly owned and funded by John Jacob Astor that functioned from 1810 to 1813 . It was based in the Pacific Northwest , an area contested over the decades between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , the Spanish Empire , the United States of America and the Russian Empire .   Management , clerks and fur trappers were sent both by land and by sea to the Pacific Coast in the Autumn of 1810 . The base of operations was constructed at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1811 , Fort Astoria ( present-day Astoria , Oregon ) . The destruction of the company vessel the Tonquin later that year off the shore of Vancouver Island took with it the majority of the annual trading goods . Commercial competition with the NWC began soon after the foundation of Fort Astoria . The Canadian competitors maintained several stations in the interior , primarily Spokane House , Kootanae House and Saleesh House . Fort Okanogan was also opened in 1811 , the first of several PFC posts created to counter these locations . The Overland Expedition faced military hostilities from several Indigenous cultures and later had an acute provision crisis leading to starvation . Despite losing men crossing the Great Plains and later at the Snake River , they arrived in groups throughout January and February 1812 at Fort Astoria .   A beneficial agreement with the Russian-American Company was also planned through the regular supply of provisions for posts in Russian America . This was planned in part to prevent the rival Montreal based North West Company ( NWC ) to gain a presence along the Pacific Coast , a prospect neither Russian colonial authorities nor Astor favored .   The lack of military protection during the War of 1812 forced the sale of PFC assets to the NWC . While the transactions were not finalized until 1814 , due to the distance from Fort Astoria to Montreal and New York City , the company was functionally defunct by 1813 . A party of Astorians returning overland to St. Louis in 1813 made the important discovery of the South Pass through the Rocky Mountains . This geographic feature would later be used by hundreds of thousands of settlers traveling over the Oregon , California , and Mormon routes , collectively called the Westward Expansion Trails . The emporium envisioned by Astor was a failure for a number of reasons , including the loss of two supply ships , the material difficulties of crossing the North American continent and competition from the North West Company . Historian Arthur S. Morton concluded that `` The misfortunes which befell the Pacific Fur Company were great , but such as might be expected at the initiation of an enterprise in a distant land whose difficulties and whose problems lay beyond the experience of the traders . ''

neg: North Pacific Coast Railroad The North Pacific Coast Railroad ( NPC ) was a common carrier narrow gauge steam railroad begun in 1874 and sold in 1902 to new owners who renamed it the North Shore Railroad ( California ) ( NSR ) and which rebuilt the southern section into a standard gauge electric railway .   The NPC operated in the northern California counties of Marin and Sonoma that carried redwood lumber , local dairy and agricultural products , express and passengers . The NPC operated almost 93 mi of track that extended from a pier at Sausalito ( which connected the line via ferry to San Francisco ) and operated northwest to Duncans Mills and Cazadero ( also known as Ingrams ) . The NPC became the North Shore Railroad ( California ) ( NSR ) on March 7 , 1902 . In 1907 the North Shore Railroad became part of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad ( NWP ) . Southern portions of the line were standard gauged and electrified by the North Shore for suburban passenger service , though tracks north of Point Reyes Station remained narrow gauge until abandonment in the late 1930s .   All of the NPC trackage has been abandoned either by the NPC or the NWP . Some of the original right of way can be seen at the Samuel P. Taylor State Park near Fairfax , along the shore of Tomales Bay and Keyes Estuary and passenger depots remain in San Anselmo , Duncans Mills and Point Reyes Station . One NPC steam locomotive , No. 12 the `` Sonoma , '' remains as a restored static exhibit in its circa 1870s appearance at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento , while Duncans Mills hosts some decaying cars that are not being restored . A flatcar , North Shore 1725 , has been restored as a picnic car and operates at the Society for the Preservation of Carter Railroad Resources ' Railroad Museum at Ardenwood in Fremont .

neg: Founder.org Founder.org is a nonprofit foundation in San Francisco , California , United States that invests in student entrepreneurs . The organization features a company building program for student entrepreneurs at major research institutes and universities . Operated by a group of Silicon Valley entrepreneurs , Founder.org supports teams across various industries including sensors , sanitation , influencer marketing , biotechnology , health and transportation .

neg: Francisco Partners Francisco Partners is an American private equity firm focused exclusively on investments in technology and technology-enabled services businesses . Francisco Partners Management LLC was founded in August 1999 and is headquartered in San Francisco and maintains an additional office in London . Since inception , the firm has raised approximately $ 10 billion in committed capital across four funds and has built an investment portfolio including over 70 companies .

neg: Aquatic Park Historic District Aquatic Park Historic District is a National Historic Landmark and building complex located on the San Francisco Bay waterfront within San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park .   The district includes a beach , bathhouse , municipal pier , restrooms , concessions stand , stadia , and two speaker towers .   The District 's San Francisco Maritime Museum building was built as a bathhouse in 1936 by the WPA ; in Streamline Moderne style , its interior is decorated with fantastic and colorful murals . The Steamship Room illustrates the evolution of maritime technology from wind to steam , and there are displays of lithographic stones , scrimshaw , and whaling guns and photo-murals of San Francisco 's early waterfront . A visiting-attractions gallery hosts such exhibition as Sparks ( 2005 ) , which showcased shipboard radio , radiotelephone , and radioteletype equipment from over the years .   In front of the Maritime Museum is a man-made lagoon on the site of the former Black Point Cove . To the west is the horseshoe-shaped Municipal Pier , which was voted SFWeeklys Best Place to Go Fish 2009 . The lagoon is fronted by a sandy beach and a stepped concrete seawall . To the south is a grassy area known as Victorian Park , which contains the Hyde Street cable car turnaround . Hyde Street Pier , though part of the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park , is not part of Aquatic Park Historic District .   It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987 , and added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 26 , 1984 .   The park is located at the foot of Polk Street and is a minute 's walk from the visitor center and Hyde Street Pier . Its beach is one of the cleanest in the state .   Located in the park near the corner of Beach and Larkin Streets is California Historical Landmark marker No. 236 , honoring the Spanish packet San Carlos , which on August 5 , 1775 , became the first ship to enter San Francisco Bay .

neg: Alta California Territory Alta California Territory ( Upper California ) was a 19th-century federal territory formed under the Mexican Constitution of 1824 . Its boundaries corresponded with those of the preceding Spanish colonial Alta California Province . It included the territory of the present day U.S. states of California , Nevada and Utah and parts of Arizona , Wyoming , Colorado and New Mexico .

neg: Modesto, California Modesto -LSB- məˈdɛstoʊ -RSB- ( Spanish for `` modest '' ) , officially the City of Modesto , is the county seat and largest city of Stanislaus County , California , United States . With a population of approximately 201,165 at the 2010 census , it is the 18th largest city in the state of California and forms part of the Modesto-Merced combined Statistical Area . The Modesto Census County Division , which includes the cities of Ceres and Riverbank , had a population of 312,842 .   Modesto is located in the Central Valley , 90 mi north of Fresno , 40 mi north of Merced , California , 92 mi east of San Francisco , 68 mi south of the state capital of Sacramento , 66 mi west of Yosemite National Park , and 24 mi south of Stockton . Modesto has been honored as a Tree City USA numerous times . It is surrounded by rich farmland ; Stanislaus County ranks sixth among California counties in farm production . Led by milk , almonds , chickens , walnuts , and corn silage , the county grossed nearly $ 3.1 billion in agricultural production in 2011 . The farm-to-table movement plays a central role in Modesto living as in the Central Valley .   Filmmaker George Lucas , who was born in Modesto , graduated from Thomas Downey High School in 1962 and attended Modesto Junior College , immortalized the city in his award-winning 1973 film American Graffiti . Although it was not actually shot in Modesto , the film portrayed the spirit of cruising and friendship on Modesto 's 10th and 11th Streets in 1962 , and inspired a revival of interest in 1950s pop culture , including the TV show Happy Days and its spin-offs .   The city 's annual Architectural Festival honors Modesto 's history as a testing ground for mid-century modern architecture during the 1940s and '50s . Modesto 's mid-century buildings have been featured four times in Museum of Modern Art publications .   The Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index for 2011 , which interviews 1,000 participants about their jobs , finances , physical health , emotional state of mind and communities , ranked Modesto 126 out of the 190 cities surveyed . In December 2009 , Forbes ranked Modesto 48th out of 100 among `` Best Bang-for-the-Buck Cities '' . In this ranking , Modesto ranked 8th in housing affordability and travel time but also ranked 86th in job forecast growth and 99th in foreclosures .   Modesto is the home of Gallo Family Winery , the largest privately owned winery in the world .

neg: 1st California Mountaineers Battalion 1st Battalion California Volunteer Mountaineers was an infantry battalion in the Union Army during the American Civil War . It spent its entire term of service in the western United States , attached to the Department of the Pacific . It was organized from men from the counties of Humboldt , Mendocino , Trinity , Klamath , Siskiyou , and Del Norte , and other parts of California , between May 30 , 1863 , and March 16 , 1864 , for special service in the redwood forests and mountains that was being fought over in the Bald Hills War in Humboldt County within the Humboldt Military District . The Battalion mustered out June 14 , 1865 .   In a report to Lieut. Col. R. C. Drum , Assistant Adjutant-General , Department of the Pacific on October 13 , 1862 , following the escape of Lassic and several hundred other warriors from the Smith River Reservation , Col. Francis J. Lippitt , Commander of the Humboldt Military District :  `` In short , the state of things is far worse than when we arrived . My previous reports will suffice , I think , to show that for this result neither I nor my officers and men are responsible . The truth is , two companies of State volunteers could be raised here , consisting of old hunters and mountaineers familiar with the habits of the Indians and accustomed to hunt them , that would be of far more service than a whole regiment of the finest troops in the world , no matter how active and zealous they might be . '' .   Governor Stanford called for the organization of the Mountaineer Battalion on the recommodation General Wright on February 7 , 1863 , in the following proclamation :   PROCLAMATION .   Whereas , Brigadier-General Wright , of the U. S. Army , commanding the Department of the Pacific , has called upon me for a battalion of six Companies of troops ( infantry ) for special service against the Indians in the Humboldt District , in this State , to serve until discharged by him :   Now , therefore , I , Leland Stanford , Governor of the State of California and commander-in-chief of the militia thereof do call upon the citizens of the frontier counties of Humboldt , Mendocino , Trinity , Klamath , Siskiyou , and Del Norte , of this State , as many as shall be necessary to fill up the foregoing requisition , to organize themselves into companies , to be mustered into the service of the United States as hereby required . The requisite officers for this force will be commissioned by the Governor .   Done at Sacramento , Cal. , this 7th day of February , in the year of our Lord 1863 .   LELAND STANFORD , Governor .  Attest :  WM. H. WEEKS , Secretary of State .  By A. A. H. TUTTLE , Deputy .  EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT , Sacramento , February 7 , 1863 .

neg: History of Oakland, California The history of Oakland , a city in the county of Alameda , California , can be traced back to the founding of a settlement by Horace Carpentier , Edson Adams , and Andrew Moon in the 19th century . The area now known as Oakland had seen human occupation for thousands of years , but significant growth in the settlements that are now incorporated into the city did not occur until the Industrial Revolution . Oakland was first incorporated as a town in 1852 .

neg: San Francisco Motorcycle Club The San Francisco Motorcycle Club ( SFMC ) was founded in San Francisco , California in 1904 . It has been in continuous operation since its inception . This makes it the second oldest motorcycle club in the United States , preceded only by the Yonkers MC of Yonkers , New York , founded in 1903 .   The SFMC has been a member of the American Motorcyclist Association since 1924 . Members are not limited to riding any particular make or model of motorcycle and include males and females .

neg: Western Addition, San Francisco The Western Addition is a neighborhood in San Francisco , California , United States .

neg: California Code of Civil Procedure The California Code of Civil Procedure ( commonly abbreviated to Code Civ . Proc . in formal legal citations or just CCP in treatises and other less formal contexts ) was enacted by the California State Legislature in March 1872 as the general codification of the law of civil procedure in the U.S. state of California , along with the three other original California Codes . It contains most California statutes that govern the filing and litigation of lawsuits in the Superior Courts of California , as well as legal notices that must be given in a variety of circumstances . It also includes statutes of limitations that control the period of time during which a lawsuit must be commenced . It also contained some statutes governing the legal profession , but those were later relocated into the Business and Professions Code .   Originally , the CCP was the codification of the Practice Act of 1851 , as amended and revised . In turn , the Practice Act had been modeled after the New York Code of Civil Procedure of 1850 , which was largely drafted by the law reformer David Dudley Field II . Hence , California is considered to be a `` Field Code '' state .   The CCP also partially codified the law of evidence , but in 1965 , the evidentiary provisions were repealed and replaced by the new California Evidence Code , which unlike the CCP , was deliberately intended to displace and supersede the common law of evidence .   Like the 28 other California Codes , the CCP is frequently amended by the Legislature . Unlike most other states , California never followed the federal trend towards transferring authority over procedural law to the courts through statutes like the federal Rules Enabling Act . Instead , the California Rules of Court ( CRC ) cover only relatively minor matters such as the formatting of court papers and case management rules implementing the Trial Court Delay Reduction Act of 1986 .   Nearly all important procedural provisions ( i.e. , the ones that can make or break a case ) continue to exist in the form of CCP sections . As a result , whenever the Judicial Council of California identifies a major defect in California civil procedure , it can not fix it by promulgating a new court rule , but must instead lobby the Legislature and Governor to amend the CCP .   Today , the CCP is comprehensive only with regard to trial court procedure . As a result of a bill pushed through the Legislature at the suggestion of Chief Justice Phil S. Gibson in 1941 , appellate procedure in California is governed primarily by the CRC .   As a Field Code state , California continues to subscribe to the `` primary right '' or `` ultimate fact '' theory of pleading ( also known as `` fact pleading '' ) which has been traditionally followed by Field Code states . This means that California adheres to an arcane distinction between what constitutes pleading of a mere `` fact , '' versus an `` ultimate fact , '' versus a `` conclusion of law . '' Also , California is one of two states , along with Virginia , which uses the demurrer as the primary pre-answer attack on the complaint . Most states and the federal courts have switched to modern `` notice pleading '' and use the motion to dismiss for failure to state a cause of action instead of the demurrer .

neg: Elmer Robinson Elmer Edwin `` Rob-Rob '' Robinson ( October 3 , 1894 -- June 9 , 1982 ) was the 33rd mayor of San Francisco , California . A Republican , he served as San Francisco 's mayor from January 1948 until January 1956 .   Robinson was born in the Richmond District of San Francisco , but primarily grew up in the northern California town of Fort Bragg . He moved back to San Francisco to attend night law school , after which he was admitted to the bar in 1915 . He served as a deputy district attorney of San Francisco County , 1915 to 1921 . He worked for 15 years , as a civil and criminal attorney in private practice .   In 1933 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Robinson to direct adjustment of claims of World War I veterans , at the request of the Disabled American Veterans .   In January 1935 , he became a Municipal Court judge , nine months later a Superior Court judge . Elected to two six-year terms on the San Francisco County Superior bench , 1936 and 1942 .   During World War II , Judge Robinson served as California State Chairman of a national salvage committee .   Elmer Robinson was elected mayor of San Francisco in November 1947 , taking office the following January . He was reelected to another four-year term as mayor in 1951 .   While Robinson was mayor , he promoted and oversaw numerous development projects , including an expansion of San Francisco International Airport and the construction of new schools , libraries , police stations , parking garages , and the modernization of the San Francisco Municipal Railway . San Francisco , although relatively prosperous in the boom years after World War II , experienced some population loss to outlying suburban areas during Robinson 's terms in office .   He returned to his law practice and served as president and general manager of Woodlawn Memorial Park .   While a resident of San Francisco , Judge Robinson died in Paradise , Butte County , California , on June 8 , 1982 at age 87 .   Category :1894 births  Category :1982 deaths  Category : Mayors of San Francisco  Category : California lawyers  Category : American Episcopalians  Category : People from Fort Bragg , California  Category : California Republicans  Category :20 th-century American politicians

neg: History of Newport Beach, California The recorded history of the Newport Beach , California , region began when the area was first explored by Europeans in the 1500s . Prior to that time , Native Americans such as the Tongva and Juaneño / Luiseño people had been living in the area for thousands of years . Explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo mapped the coastline in 1542 , but it was 200 years before Europeans settled the area . In 1769 , Newport was a small portion of the land grant of Don José Antonio Yorba I , first under Spanish and then Mexican rule . After the Civil War , the land was developed by American settlers : for ranching by James Irvine and for shipping by James McFadden . A small settlement was built around McFaddens ' Wharf ( at the location where the Newport Pier is today ) and it became the largest business of Orange County , California . Following the opening of the San Pedro Harbor in Los Angeles in 1899 , the commercial shipping industry in Newport declined . Newport Beach developed into a tourist and recreational boating community . in August 1906 , Newport Beach became incorporated as a city .

neg: Financial District, San Francisco The Financial District is a neighborhood in San Francisco , California , that serves as its main central business district . It is home to the city 's largest concentration of corporate headquarters , law firms , insurance companies , real estate firms , banks , savings and loans , and other financial institutions . All six San Francisco Fortune 500 companies -- McKesson , Wells Fargo , PG&E , Gap , Charles Schwab , and Salesforce.com -- are located in the district .   The area is marked by the cluster of high-rise towers in the triangular area east of Kearny Street , south of Washington Street , west of the Embarcadero that rings the waterfront , and north of Market Street . The city 's tallest buildings , including 555 California Street and the Transamerica Pyramid , and many other tall buildings , such as 101 California Street and 345 California Street are located there . Montgomery Street ( sometimes called `` Wall Street of the West '' ) is the traditional heart of the district .   Since the 1980s , restrictions on high rise construction have shifted new development to the adjacent South of Market area surrounding the Transbay Transit Center . This area is sometimes called the South Financial District by real estate developers , or simply included as part of the Financial District itself .

neg: Maritime history of California In the California coast , the use of ships and the Pacific Ocean has historically included water craft ( such as dugouts , canoes , sailing ships , and steamships ) , fisheries , shipbuilding , Gold Rush shipping , ports , shipwrecks , naval ships and installations , and lighthouses . The maritime history of California can be divided into several periods : the Native American period ; European exploration period from 1542 to 1769 ; the Spanish colonial period , 1769 to 1821 ; the Mexican period , 1821 to 1847 ; and United States statehood period , which continues to the present day .

neg: Bay Area Open Space Council The Bay Area Open Space Council is a network of 65 nonprofits and public agencies that serve tens of millions of people each year in the San Francisco Bay Area . Founded in 1990 by a group of land conservation practitioners , the Open Space Council provides information , tools , and connections for its members . Examples of member organizations include land conservation organizations , land trusts , water districts , and park districts .   The Open Space Council holds an annual conference - typically in May - where over 400 people gather to discuss current events and topics in land conservation . They also hold smaller gatherings four times a year on topics relevant to land conservation in the Bay Area .  Though the Open Space Council 's office is located in Berkeley , California , member organizations represent all nine counties of the San Francisco Bay Area plus Santa Cruz County .

neg: Alameda County, California Alameda County ( -LSB- ˌælə ` mi :d ə -RSB- ) is a county in the state of California in the United States . As of the 2010 census , the population was 1,510,271 , making it the 7th-most populous county in the state . Its county seat is Oakland . Alameda County is included in the San Francisco Bay Area , occupying much of the East Bay region .


query: The plays of William Shakespeare have been translated into every major living language.

pos: William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( -LSB- ˈʃeɪkspɪə -RSB- 26 April 1564 ( baptised ) -- 23 April 1616 ) was an English : poet , : playwright , and actor , widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world 's pre-eminent dramatist . He is often called England 's national poet , and the `` Bard of Avon '' . His extant works , including collaborations , consist of approximately 38 plays , 154 sonnets , two long narrative poems , and a few other verses , some of uncertain authorship . His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright .   Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon , Warwickshire . At the age of 18 , he married Anne Hathaway , with whom he had three children : Susanna , and twins Hamnet and Judith . Sometime between 1585 and 1592 , he began a successful career in London as an actor , writer , and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , later known as the King 's Men . He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 , at age 49 , where he died three years later . Few records of Shakespeare 's private life survive , which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance , sexuality , and religious beliefs and whether the works attributed to him were written by others .   Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613 . His early plays were primarily comedies and histories , which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres . He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608 , including Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , and Macbeth , considered some of the finest works in the English language . In his last phase , he wrote tragicomedies , also known as romances , and collaborated with other playwrights .   Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime . In 1623 , however , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare , published a more definitive text known as the First Folio , a posthumous collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare 's . It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson , in which Shakespeare is hailed , presciently , as `` not of an age , but for all time '' .   In the 20th and 21st centuries , his works have been repeatedly adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance . His plays remain highly popular and are constantly studied , performed , and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world .

neg: A Mad World, My Masters A Mad World , My Masters is a Jacobean stage play written by Thomas Middleton , a comedy first performed around 1605 and first published in 1608 . The title is proverbial , and was used by a pamphleteer , Nicholas Breton , in 1603 . The title later became the basis for the title of Stanley Kramer 's 1963 film , `` It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World '' .   The play was entered into the Stationers ' Register on 4 October 1608 , and first published in quarto later that year by the bookseller Walter Burre . In the play 's final two Acts in the 1608 text , some characters have different names than in the prior three Acts ( Penitent Brothel is Penitent Once-Ill ; Harebrain is Hargrave , or Shortrod ) -- which suggests that the extant text is a revised version . A second quarto appeared in 1640 , issued by the bookseller James Becket ; the title page of Q2 states that the play had been `` often acted '' by Queen Henrietta 's Men at the Salisbury Court Theatre . The play was revived at least twice in the Restoration era ( 1661 -- 2 ) , and was adapted for other productions in the later 18th century .

neg: Theatre of the United Kingdom Theatre of United Kingdom plays an important part in British culture , and the countries that constitute the UK have had a vibrant tradition of theatre since the Renaissance with roots doing back to the Roman occupation .

neg: Stratford Shakespeare Festival production history This page describes the production history of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival .   The Stratford Shakespeare Festival ( formerly known as the Stratford Shakespearean Festival and the Stratford Festival of Canada ) is a summer-long celebration of theatre held each year in Stratford , Ontario . Theatre-goers , actors , and playwrights flock to Stratford to take part -- many of the greatest Canadian , American and British actors have played roles at Stratford . It was one of the first and is still one of the most prominent arts festivals in Canada .   The Festival 's primary mandate is to present productions of Shakespeare 's plays , but it also produces a wide variety of theatre from Greek tragedy to Broadway musicals to contemporary works . By 2017 , only three of the 14 productions were based on Shakespeare 's works . The following is a chronological list of the productions that have been staged as part of the Stratford Festival since its inception .   On February 17 , 2015 , AP News reported that the Stratford Shakespeare Festival plans to film all of Shakespeare 's plays .

neg: List of titles of works taken from Shakespeare The following is a partially complete list of titles of works taken from Shakespearean phrases . It is organized by type of work . Some titles appear in multiple categories and are marked with + + . Note that this is not the place to list film or television adaptations of Shakespeare 's plays ; the List of William Shakespeare screen adaptations exists for that purpose .

neg: Theatre World Theatre World is the only ( first published in 1945 ) , comprehensive , annual pictorial and statistical record of American theatre in print publication , including Broadway , Off-Broadway , Off-Off-Broadway , and regional theatre , as well as a complete national theatrical awards section and obituaries . Including over 750 photographs , it is the definitive pictorial and statistical reference to each American theatrical season , and is referenced daily by industry professionals , students , historians , and theatre fans worldwide .   Until 1998 , the Theatre World editorial staff administered the Theatre World Awards for Outstanding Broadway and off-Broadway debuts . First under the supervision of Theatre World founder Daniel Blum and then under John Willis , who took over the production of the Awards following Blum 's death in 1964 , the Theatre World Awards were first given to those recipients considered `` Promising Personalities . '' In 1998 , the Theatre World Awards were incorporated as a 501 ( c ) 3 nonprofit organization and are currently overseen by a board of directors independent of `` Theatre World . ''   Theatre World is the recipient of a 2001 Tony Honor for Excellence in Theatre , presented by the American Theatre Wing , and on behalf of the publication , longtime editor-in-chief John Willis ( 1916-2010 ) accepted honors including the first Special Lucille Lortel Award , a Special Drama Desk Award , and the Broadway Theatre Institute ( now The Theatre Museum ) Lifetime Achievement Award .   Theatre World is published annually by Theatre World Media and distributed by Applause Theatre and Cinema Books . The permanent editorial staff currently consists of Ben Hodges , editor in chief , and coeditor Scott Denny . Current editorial staff includes Adam Feldman of Time Out New York ( Broadway ) , Linda Buchwald TDF Stages ( Off-Broadway ) , Shay Gines New York Innovative Theatre Awards ( Off-Off-Broadway ) , and Diep Tran American Theatre Magazine ( Regional theatre ) .

neg: List of Oxfordian theory supporters This is a list of confirmed public supporters of the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship , which was first promulgated in 1920 .   Percy Allen -- journalist , theatre historian  Mark Anderson -- journalist , researcher , author , astrophysicist  Charles Wisner Barrell -- researcher , author  Chris Barron -- American musician , singer , song writer and poet  Charles Beauclerk , Earl of Burford -- writer  Charles Sidney Beauclerk -- Jesuit priest  Louis P. Bénézet -- American school reformer  Harry Blackmun -- U.S. Supreme Court Justice  Marjorie Bowen -- British historian , biographer , novelist  Gelett Burgess -- author , critic , poet , artist  John Byrne -- British-born Canadian-American comic book artist and writer  Michael Chiklis -- actor  Montagu William Douglas -- soldier and colonial administrator .  Roland Emmerich -- film director , screenwriter , producer ; producer and director of Anonymous ( 2011 )  William Farina -- biographer , nonfiction researcher and author , essayist  Bert Fields -- lawyer and writer  Sigmund Freud -- pioneer of psychoanalysis  Sir John Gielgud -- Shakespearean actor , president of the International Shakespeare Association 1974 -- 2000  Michael H. Hart -- astrophysicist , author of The 100 : A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History  Warren Hope -- academic , university English professor , author  Christmas Humphreys -- British barrister , judge , author , Buddhist scholar  Jeremy Irons -- actor  Sir Derek Jacobi -- Shakespearean actor , director  Richard Kennedy -- American children 's book writer  J. Thomas Looney -- British school teacher , researcher , author  David McCullough -- historian , author , biographer  Paul Nitze -- longtime high-ranking U.S. government official and Presidential advisor , ambassador  Charlton Greenwood Ogburn -- lawyer  Charlton Ogburn -- investigative journalist , researcher , author  John Orloff -- screenwriter  Gerald Henry Rendall -- professor of Greek  Mark Rylance -- Shakespearean actor and director , director of Shakespeare 's Globe Theatre 1995 -- 2005  Antonin Scalia -- U.S. Supreme Court Justice  Joseph Sobran -- journalist , author , researcher  John Paul Stevens -- U.S. Supreme Court Justice  Roger Stritmatter -- Professor of Humanities at Coppin State University and the general editor of Brief Chronicles  Peter A. Sturrock -- British astrophysicist , Stanford University professor of applied physics , Arctowski Medalist , author of AKA Shakespeare : A Scientific Approach to the Authorship Question  Bernard Mordaunt Ward -- military officer , author  Alexander Waugh -- writer  Michael York -- actor

neg: The Taming of the Shrew The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy by William Shakespeare , believed to have been written between 1590 and 1592 .   The play begins with a framing device , often referred to as the induction , in which a mischievous nobleman tricks a drunken tinker named Christopher Sly into believing he is actually a nobleman himself . The nobleman then has the play performed for Sly 's diversion .   The main plot depicts the courtship of Petruchio and Katherina , the headstrong , obdurate shrew . Initially , Katherina is an unwilling participant in the relationship ; however , Petruchio `` tames '' her with various psychological torments , such as keeping her from eating and drinking , until she becomes a desirable , compliant , and obedient bride . The subplot features a competition between the suitors of Katherina 's younger sister , Bianca , who is seen as the `` ideal '' woman . The question of whether the play is misogynistic or not has become the subject of considerable controversy , particularly among modern scholars , audiences , and readers .   The Taming of the Shrew has been adapted numerous times for stage , screen , opera , ballet , and musical theatre ; perhaps the most famous adaptations being Cole Porter 's Kiss Me , Kate and the 1967 film of the play , starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton . The 1999 high school comedy film 10 Things I Hate About You is also loosely based on the play .

neg: Genre Genre ( -LSB- ˈʒɒ̃rə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈʒɒnrə -RSB- or -LSB- ˈdʒɒnrə -RSB- from French genre -LSB- ʒɑ̃ʁ -RSB- , `` kind '' or `` sort '' , from Latin genus ( stem gener - ) , Greek γένος , génos ) is any form or type of communication in any mode ( written , spoken , digital , artistic , etc. ) with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time . Genre is most popularly known as a category of literature , music , or other forms of art or entertainment , whether written or spoken , audio or visual , based on some set of stylistic criteria , yet genres can be aesthetic , rhetorical , communicative , or functional . Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented and the use of old ones is discontinued . Often , works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions . Stand alone texts , works , or pieces of communication may have individual styles , but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed upon or socially inferred conventions . Some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible .   Genre began as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature . Poetry , prose , and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story . Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy , and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best .  In later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators . Genre became a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art . Because art is often a response to a social state , in that people write/paint/sing / dance about what they know about , the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings .   Genre suffers from the same ills of any classification system . Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized and to weigh works on their unique merit . It has been suggested that genres resonate with people because of the familiarity , the shorthand communication , as well as the tendency of genres to shift with public mores and to reflect the zeitgeist . While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions , admiration has grown . Proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation , recombination , and evolution of the codes .

neg: Old English literature Old English literature or Anglo-Saxon literature , encompasses literature written in Old English , in Anglo-Saxon England from the 7th century to the decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066 . `` Cædmon 's Hymn '' , composed in the 7th century , according to Bede , is often considered the oldest extant poem in English , whereas the later poem , The Grave is one of the final poems written in Old English , and presents a transitional text between Old and Middle English . The Peterborough Chronicle can also be considered a late-period text , continuing into the 12th century .   The poem Beowulf , which often begins the traditional canon of English literature , is the most famous work of Old English literature . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has also proven significant for historical study , preserving a chronology of early English history .   In descending order of quantity , Old English literature consists of : sermons and saints ' lives ; biblical translations ; translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers ; Anglo-Saxon chronicles and narrative history works ; laws , wills and other legal works ; practical works on grammar , medicine , geography ; and poetry . In all there are over 400 surviving manuscripts from the period , of which about 189 are considered `` major '' .   Besides Old English literature , Anglo-Saxons wrote a number of Anglo-Latin works .

neg: Shakespeare's editors Shakespeare 's editors were essential in the development of the modern practice of producing printed books and the evolution of textual criticism .   The 17th-century folio collections of the plays of William Shakespeare did not have editors in the modern sense of the term . In the best understanding of contemporary consensus scholarship , the plays to be included in the First Folio ( 1623 ) were gathered together or `` compiled '' by John Heminges and Henry Condell , two long-time colleagues of Shakespeare in the King 's Men . The play manuscripts may have been proofread and prepared for printing by Edward Knight , the `` book-keeper '' or prompter of the company . The task of proofreading and correcting the actual printed pages of the Folio was left to the compositors and printers in the print-shop , yielding the uneven and often defective text that is the First Folio .   Even less is known about the creation of the Second ( 1632 ) , Third ( 1663 -- 64 ) , and Fourth Folios ( 1685 ) than about the First ; see Folios and Quartos ( Shakespeare ) .   In the 18th century , however , interested individuals made the first concerted efforts to bring order to the tangle of textual difficulties that the Folios of the previous century presented . The list below gives the date of each edition of Shakespeare 's plays , the editor , the format of the collection , and pertinent specific information .   1709 , Nicholas Rowe ; octavo , 6 volumes . Rowe was the first person to attempt a clean and fully comprehensible text of the plays ; but he depended upon a copy of the Fourth Folio and made generally conjectural emendations . He also added full stage directions ( he was a playwright himself ) and full lists of Dramatis personae , and wrote the first biographical sketch of the poet .  1725 , Alexander Pope ; quarto , 6 volumes . Pope was the first to attempt a collation of the quarto texts of the plays , yet he produced what was basically a reprint of Rowe that added little of value .  1733 , Lewis Theobald ; octavo , 7 volumes . Theobald has been called `` the first Shakespeare scholar '' ; he carried forward the task of collating the quartos , and began the study of Shakespeare 's sources and the order of the plays ' composition . ( See Chronology of Shakespeare 's plays . )  1744 , Thomas Hanmer ; quarto , 6 volumes . Hanmer relied on Theobald 's text , and made guesswork corrections . His edition was reprinted in 1770 .  1747 , William Warburton ; octavo , 8 volumes . Warburton built upon Pope 's edition ; indeed , Warburton placed Pope 's name before his own on the title pages of his edition . In his preface , Warburton wrote that his friend Pope `` was desirous I should give a new Edition of this Poet , as he thought it might contribute to put a stop to a prevailing folly of altering the Text of celebrated Authors without Talents or Judgment . And he was willing that his Edition should be melted down into mine , as it would , he said , afford him ( so great is the modesty of an ingenuous temper ) a fit opportunity of confessing his Mistakes . '' The phrase `` without Talents or Judgment '' refers to Theobold and Hanmer . However , Warburton did allow , rather begrudgingly , some corrections put forward by Theobold and Hanmer : `` For the rest , all the Corrections which these two Editors have made on any reasonable Foundation , are here admitted into the Text ; and carefully assigned to their respective Authors . A piece of Justice which the Oxford Editor never did ; and which the Other was not always scrupulous in observing towards me . ''  In 1748 Thomas Edwards published his Supplement to Warburton 's Edition of Shakespeare , in later editions called The Canons of Criticism -- a satirical but spot-on analysis of Warburton 's editorial emendations , some of which are truly silly . Samuel Johnson had this to say : `` Soon after Edwards 's Canons of Criticism came out , Johnson was dining at Tonson the Bookseller 's , with Hayman the Painter and some more company . Hayman related to Sir Joshua Reynolds , that the conversation having turned upon Edwards 's book , the gentlemen praised it much , and Johnson allowed its merit . But when they went farther , and appeared to put that authour upon a level with Warburton , `` Nay , ( said Johnson , ) he has given him some smart hits to be sure ; but there is no proportion between the two men ; they must not be named together . A fly , Sir , may sting a stately horse and make him wince ; but one is but an insect , and the other is a horse still . ''  1765 , Samuel Johnson , The Plays of William Shakespeare ; octavo , 8 volumes . Johnson in turn relied upon Warburton ; his edition is noteworthy mainly for its famous Preface .  1768 , Edward Capell ; octavo , 10 volumes . Appalled by the undisciplined emendations of Hanmer and Warburton , Capell spent three decades collecting and collating the quartos . He was also the first to exploit the Stationers ' Register and Francis Meres 's Palladis Tamia , and to explore Shakespeare 's use of Raphael Holinshed 's Chronicles and Sir Thomas North 's translation of Plutarch 's Parallel Lives .  1773 , George Steevens ; octavo , 10 volumes . Steevens employed Johnson 's text , but continued Capell 's trend of adding new material . Steevens revised and re-issued his edition in 1778 ; in 1780 Edmond Malone added another 2 volumes that contained Shakespeare 's non-dramatic poems and other material . Isaac Reed revised the Steevens edition again in 1785 , and Steevens himself produced one final , 15-volume revision in 1793 .  1790 , Edmond Malone ; octavo , 10 volumes . Malone , often considered the best of the century 's editors of Shakespeare , wrote the first general consideration of English Renaissance theatre , utilizing resources like the records of the Master of the Revels and Edward Alleyn 's papers at Dulwich College . He is also noted for his work on the problem of chronology .   The early 19th century saw the first Variorum editions of Shakespeare 's works , editions that collated and synthesized the efforts of the editors of the previous century :   1803 , the First Variorum edition , edited by Isaac Reed ; 21 volumes .  1813 , the Second Variorum , a reprint of the First ; 21 volumes .  1821 , the Third Variorum , edited by James Boswell ; 21 volumes .   These massive editions laid the foundation for modern textual scholarship on Shakespeare 's works , and by extension on works of literature in general . In the 19th century the text , drawn primarily from Malone and Steevens , was `` monumentalized '' in the Cambridge edition ( 1863-6 ) and its single-volume companion , the Globe edition ( 1864 ) . It was followed by the New Cambridge edition in 1921 , and all modern standard editions inherit primarily from this edition .   As for the personalities involved : some of these men were friends , like Steevens , Reed , and Malone ; acquaintances called them the Shakespeare Gang . Others nourished spirits of competitiveness and resentment . Pope made Theobald the first hero of The Dunciad . Warburton belittled Rowe 's `` Account of the Life '' of Shakespeare -- but he reprinted it in his own edition , without change or improvement . Despite his friendship with Malone and Reed , Steevens was famous for his irascibility ; in notes to his 1793 edition of Shakespeare , he concocted obscene interpretations of some passages and attributed those readings to people he did n't like .   The next major edition , the Cambridge Shakespeare ( 1863 -- 66 ) , moved away from the practice of a single editor following his own sometimes capricious instincts and judgments . The first volume of the Cambridge Shakespeare was edited by William George Clark and John Glover , and the subsequent eight volumes by Clark and William Aldis Wright . Clark and Wright also produced the single-volume Globe Shakespeare ( 1864 ) using their Cambridge texts ; together , these became the standard for the remainder of the century .   The most radical edition in the twentieth century was the Oxford Shakespeare , prepared under the general editorship of Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor . It aims to present the texts as they were originally performed , which results in numerous controversial choices , including presenting multiple texts of King Lear , a text of Hamlet in which the scenes presumably cut by Shakespeare are relegated to an appendix , and an emphasis on the collaborative nature of several of the plays .

neg: Gerald Eades Bentley Gerald Eades Bentley ( September 15 , 1901 -- July 25 , 1994 ) was an American academic and literary scholar , best remembered for his seven-volume work , The Jacobean and Caroline Stage , published by Oxford University Press between 1941 and 1968 . That work , modeled on Edmund Kerchever Chambers ' classic four-volume The Elizabethan Stage , has itself become a standard and essential reference work on English Renaissance theatre .   Bentley was born in Brazil , Indiana , the son of a Methodist clergyman . Originally intending to be a creative writer , he changed his career to literary scholarship during his graduate studies . He earned his B.A. at DePauw University ( 1923 ) , his M.A. in English at the University of Illinois ( 1926 ) , and his Ph.D. at the University of London ( 1929 ) , studying under Allardyce Nicoll . Bentley taught at the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1945 before accepting a position as Murray Professor of English at Princeton University in 1945 , where he served until his retirement in 1970 . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1975 .   In addition to his Jacobean and Caroline Stage , Bentley wrote a wide range of works on Shakespeare and other figures of the English Renaissance . His essay `` Shakespeare and the Blackfriars Theatre , '' originally published in the inaugural issue of the Shakespeare Survey in 1948 , has been widely reprinted . Bentley edited several works for modern editions , including Othello , and The Alchemist .   In his obituary , the New York Times noted that he raised a literary stir in 1956 when he edited and wrote the preface to a hitherto unknown 1577 text called The Arte of Angling in which he noted several passages that reminded him of Isaac Walton 's later The Compleat Angler . The Times quotes D. E. Rhodes , a British authority on fishing literature , who defended Walton , saying , `` It seems to me unjust to accuse Izaak Walton of plagiarism , because plagiarism did not exist in the 17th century . All authors of that and earlier ages read what they liked and used what they liked of it without acknowledgment . ''   Bentley was married first to Esther Felt , a significant colleague in his scholarly work , from 1927 until her death in 1961 . In 1965 , he married Ellen Voigt Stern , who died in 1990 . Bentley 's son and namesake from his first marriage , Gerald Eades Bentley Jr. , became a noted literary scholar in his own right , specializing in the career and works of William Blake . He spent most of his career at the University of Toronto .

neg: Themes in Titus Andronicus Although traditionally Titus Andronicus has been seen as one of Shakespeare 's least respected plays , its fortunes have changed somewhat in the latter half of the twentieth century , with numerous scholars arguing that the play is more accomplished than has hitherto been allowed for . In particular , scholars have argued that the play is far more thematically complex than has traditionally been thought , and features profound insights into Ancient Rome , Elizabethan society , and the human condition . Such scholars tend to argue that these previously unacknowledged insights have only become apparent during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as only now has the ultraviolent content of the play achieved a sense of relevance . For example , in his 1987 edition of the play for the Contemporary Shakespeare series , A.L. Rowse writes ; `` in the civilised Victorian age the play could not be performed because it could not be believed . Such is the horror of our own age , with the appalling barbarities of prison camps and resistance movements paralleling the torture and mutilation and feeding on human flesh of the play , that it has ceased to be improbable . '' Similarly , director Julie Taymor , who staged a production Off-Broadway in 1994 and directed a film version in 1999 , says she was drawn to the play because she found it to be the most `` relevant of Shakespeare 's plays for the modern era ; '' She feels that the play has more relevance for us than it had for the Victorians ; `` it seems like a play written for today , it reeks of now . '' Because of this new found relevance , previously unrecognised thematic strands have thus come to the forefront .   This article presents an overview of four of the most prominent themes in the play .

neg: The Great Duke of Florence The Great Duke of Florence is an early Caroline era stage play , a tragicomedy written by Philip Massinger , and first published in 1636 . It has been called `` one of Massinger 's best dramas , '' and `` a masterpiece of dramatic construction . ''   A play titled The Great Duke was licensed for performance by Sir Henry Herbert , the Master of the Revels , on 5 July 1627 ; the scholarly consensus interprets this as referring to Massinger 's play . Topical allusions in the text have been read as indicating a date of authorship between October 1623 and March 1625 . The play was acted by Queen Henrietta 's Men at the Cockpit Theatre , and was published in quarto in 1636 by the bookseller John Marriot ; Massinger dedicated the work to one of his patrons , Sir Robert Wiseman , in gratitude for his `` supportment and protection . '' The quarto includes two commendatory poems , one by John Ford .   Massinger is thought to have based his plot on the traditional story of Ethelwald and Elfrida , available to him in several versions ; he may also have been influenced by an earlier play , A Knack to Know a Knave .   The play had no other publications or revival productions in its own era or in subsequent generations -- somewhat surprisingly , since critics have tended to regard it highly . Algernon Charles Swinburne called it `` remarkable even among Massinger 's works for elegance and grace of execution ; '' William Gifford , in his edition of Massinger 's works , wrote that `` It is impossible not to be charmed with the manner in which this play is written . '' In the play , Massinger exploits the richness of a courtly style , full of `` gay flourishes of language '' ( Act IV , scene ii ) , perhaps more successfully than in any other of his works . Though generally classified as a tragicomedy , there is nothing tragic and little serious in it ; the play can just as correctly be called a comedy of manners .

neg: Character (arts) A character ( sometimes known as a fictional character ) is a person or other being in a narrative work of art ( such as a novel , play , television series , or film ) . The character may be entirely fictional or based on a real-life person , in which case the distinction of a `` fictional '' versus `` real '' character may be made . Derived from the ancient Greek word χαρακτήρ , the English word dates from the Restoration , although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749 . From this , the sense of `` a part played by an actor '' developed . Character , particularly when enacted by an actor in the theatre or cinema , involves `` the illusion of being a human person . '' In literature , characters guide readers through their stories , helping them to understand plots and ponder themes . Since the end of the 18th century , the phrase `` in character '' has been used to describe an effective impersonation by an actor . Since the 19th century , the art of creating characters , as practiced by actors or writers , has been called characterisation .   A character who stands as a representative of a particular class or group of people is known as a type . Types include both stock characters and those that are more fully individualised . The characters in Henrik Ibsen 's Hedda Gabler ( 1891 ) and August Strindberg 's Miss Julie ( 1888 ) , for example , are representative of specific positions in the social relations of class and gender , such that the conflicts between the characters reveal ideological conflicts .   The study of a character requires an analysis of its relations with all of the other characters in the work . The individual status of a character is defined through the network of oppositions ( proairetic , pragmatic , linguistic , proxemic ) that it forms with the other characters . The relation between characters and the action of the story shifts historically , often miming shifts in society and its ideas about human individuality , self-determination , and the social order .

neg: Timeline of Shakespeare criticism Timeline of Shakespeare criticism is an informal term that presents a chronological collection of critical quotations about William Shakespeare and his works , which illustrate the article Shakespeare 's reputation .   Shakespeare enjoyed recognition in his own time , but in the 17th century , poets and authors began to consider him as the supreme dramatist and poet of all times of the English language . In fact , even today , no other dramatist has been performed even remotely as often on the British ( and later the world ) stage as Shakespeare   Since then , several editors and critics of theater began to focus on the dramatic text and the language of Shakespeare , creating a study that focused on extracting all the power of his literary texts , being used in studies on the printed page rather than in the theater . This attitude reached a high point with the Romantics , which saw his figure as a genius , prophet , and Bard -- and continued important in the last century , receiving analysis not only by poets and authors , but also by psychoanalysts , psychologists and philosophers .

neg: Essay of Dramatick Poesie Essay of Dramatic Poesy by John Dryden was published in 1668 . It was probably written during the plague year of 1666 . Dryden takes up the subject that Philip Sidney had set forth in his Defence of Poesie ( 1580 ) and attempts to justify drama as a legitimate form of `` poetry '' comparable to the epic , as well as defend English drama against that of the ancients and the French .   The treatise is a dialogue between four speakers : Eugenius , Crites , Lisideius , and Neander . The four speakers represented , respectively Charles Sackville ( Lord Buchhurst and later sixth Earl of Dorset ) , Sir Robert Howard -LSB- playwright and Dryden 's brother-in-law -RSB- , Sir Charles Sedley ( Edward Malone identified him as Lisideius ) and Dryden himself ( neander means `` new man '' and implies that Dryden , as a respected member of the gentry class , is entitled to join in this dialogue on an equal footing with the three older men who are his social superiors ) . On the day that the English fleet encounters the Dutch at sea near the mouth of the Thames , the four friends take a barge downriver towards the noise from the battle . Rightly concluding , as the noise subsides , that the English have triumphed , they order the bargeman to row them back upriver as they begin a dialogue on the advances made by modern civilization . They agree to measure progress by comparing ancient arts with modern , focusing specifically on the art of drama ( or `` dramatic poesy '' ) . The four men debate a series of three topics : ( 1 ) the relative merit of classical drama ( upheld by Crites ) vs. modern drama ( championed by Eugenius ) ; ( 2 ) whether French drama , as Lisideius maintains , is better than English drama ( supported by Neander , who famously calls Shakespeare `` the greatest soul , ancient or modern '' ) ; and ( 3 ) whether plays in rhyme are an improvement upon blank verse drama -- a proposition that Neander , despite having defended the Elizabethans , now advances against the skeptical Crites ( who also switches from his original position and defends the blank verse tradition of Elizabethan drama ) . Invoking the so-called unities from Aristotle 's Poetics ( as interpreted by Italian and refined by French scholars over the last century ) , the four speakers discuss what makes a play `` a just and lively imitation '' of human nature in action . This definition of a play , supplied by Lisideius/Orrery ( whose rhymed plays had dazzled the court and were a model for the new drama ) , gives the debaters a versatile and richly ambiguous touchstone . To Crites ' argument that the plots of classical drama are more `` just , '' Eugenius can retort that modern plots are more `` lively '' thanks to their variety . Lisideius shows that the French plots carefully preserve Aristotle 's unities of action , place , and time ; Neander replies that English dramatists like Ben Jonson also kept the unities when they wanted to , but that they preferred to develop character and motive . Even Neander 's final argument with Crites over whether rhyme is suitable in drama depends on Aristotle 's Poetics : Neander says that Aristotle demands a verbally artful ( `` lively '' ) imitation of nature , while Crites thinks that dramatic imitation ceases to be `` just '' when it departs from ordinary speech -- i.e. prose or blank verse . A year later , the two brothers-in-law quarreled publicly over this third topic . See Dryden 's `` Defense of An Essay of Dramatic Poesy '' ( 1669 ) , where Dryden tries to persuade the rather literal-minded Howard that audiences expect a play to be an imitation of nature , not a surrogate for nature itself .

neg: Language Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication , particularly the human ability to do so , and a language is any specific example of such a system . The scientific study of language is called linguistics . Questions concerning the philosophy of language , such as whether words can represent experience , have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece . Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought . 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language . Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky .   Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000 . However , any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects . Natural languages are spoken or signed , but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory , visual , or tactile stimuli -- for example , in whistling , signed , or braille . This is because human language is modality-independent . Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning , when used as a general concept , `` language '' may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication , or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems , or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules . All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings . Oral , manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes , and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances .   Human language has the properties of productivity and displacement , and relies entirely on social convention and learning . Its complex structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication . Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems , acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality . This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume , and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions . Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain , but especially in Broca 's and Wernicke 's areas . Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood , and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old . The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture . Therefore , in addition to its strictly communicative uses , language also has many social and cultural uses , such as signifying group identity , social stratification , as well as social grooming and entertainment .   Languages evolve and diversify over time , and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur . A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family . The Indo-European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages as diverse as English , Russian and Hindi ; the Sino-Tibetan family , which includes Mandarin , Bodo and the other Chinese languages , and Tibetan ; the Afro-Asiatic family , which includes Arabic , Somali , and Hebrew ; the Bantu languages , which include Swahili , and Zulu , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa ; and the Malayo-Polynesian languages , which include Indonesian , Malay , Tagalog , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific . The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu . Academic consensus holds that between 50 % and 90 % of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100 .

neg: The Jew (play) The Jew is a comedy written by playwright Richard Cumberland and first presented at the Drury Lane Theatre in London in May 1794 . The play is notable as the first play in the English theatre to portray a Jewish moneylender as the hero of a stage production . An adaptation of the original play along with a facsimile copy of The Jew was published in 2012 as Sheva , the Benevolent .   The anti-Jewish tradition on the English stage dates back at least to the expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290 and is exemplified by the characters of Shylock in William Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice and Barabas in Christopher Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta . In a series of articles called Observer , first published in 1785 , Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams who would later serve as a template for Sheva , the title character in The Jew . In one instalment of Observer , Abrahams is quoted as saying , `` I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us , poor scattered sons of Abraham , than the Inquisition itself . '' A decade later , in writing The Jew , Cumberland sought to create a positive image of a Jewish man that would counteract centuries of anti-Semitic portraits . The tremendous success of the initial production prompted Cumberland to later write , `` The benevolence of the audience assisted me in rescuing a forlorn and persecuted character , which till then had only been brought upon the stage for the unmanly purpose of being made a spectacle of contempt , and a butt for ridicule . In the success of this comedy I felt of course a greater gratification , than I had ever felt upon a like occasion . ''   Shortly after its London premiere , the play began to be performed in the United States , first in Boston , Philadelphia , and New York City and , later , in Richmond , Charleston , and many other cities and towns . The play was also translated into numerous languages including German , French , Hebrew , Yiddish , and Russian . The last known New York production under its original title was presented at the Bronx Free Synagogue in 1919 .

neg: Chivalric romance As a literary genre of high culture , romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe . They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures , often of a knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities , who goes on a quest , yet it is `` the emphasis on love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic , in which masculine military heroism predominates . '' Popular literature also drew on themes of romance , but with ironic , satiric or burlesque intent . Romances reworked legends , fairy tales , and history to suit the readers ' and hearers ' tastes , but by c. 1600 they were out of fashion , and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote . Still , the modern image of `` medieval '' is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre , and the word medieval evokes knights , distressed damsels , dragons , and other romantic tropes .   Originally , romance literature was written in Old French , Anglo-Norman , Occitan , and Provençal , and later in Portuguese , in Castilian , in English , in Italian ( particularly with the Sicilian poetry ) and German . During the early 13th century , romances were increasingly written as prose . In later romances , particularly those of French origin , there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love , such as faithfulness in adversity .

neg: Edward Blount Edward Blount ( or Blunt ) ( 1562 -- 1632 ) was a London publisher of the Elizabethan , Jacobean , and Caroline eras , noted for his publication , in conjunction with William and Isaac Jaggard , of the First Folio of Shakespeare 's plays in 1623 .   He was baptised in London on 31 January 1562 ; the Stationers ' Register states that he was the son of Ralph Blount or Blunt , merchant tailor of London , and apprenticed himself in 1578 for ten years to the stationer William Ponsonby . Blount became a `` freeman '' ( a full member ) of the Stationers ' Company on 25 June 1588 .   Among the most important of his publications are Giovanni Florio 's Italian-English dictionary and his translation of Montaigne , plus Marlowe 's Hero and Leander ( 1598 ) , and the Six Court Comedies of John Lyly ( 1632 ) . He himself translated Ars Aulica , or the Courtier 's Arte ( 1607 ) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci , and Christian Policie ( 1632 ) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa María .   Though best remembered for the First Folio , Blount also published works by Miguel de Cervantes , Ben Jonson , Samuel Daniel , William Camden , José de Acosta and other important authors . Blount has been described as `` a genuine lover of literature , with discriminating and generous taste . '' Beyond the Folio , Blount had other minor connections with the Shakespearean canon . In 1601 he published Robert Chester 's Love 's Martyr , the volume that contained The Phoenix and the Turtle ; he entered both Antony and Cleopatra and Pericles , Prince of Tyre in the Stationers ' Register in 1608 , though he published neither . Blount was also a close friend and professional colleague of Thomas Thorpe , the publisher of Shakespeare 's sonnets . He was dead by October 1632 .