query: Patty Hearst was kidnapped.

pos: Patty Hearst Patricia Campbell `` Patty '' Hearst ( born February 20 , 1954 ) , now known as Patricia Hearst Shaw , is the granddaughter of American publishing magnate William Randolph Hearst . She became nationally known for events following her 1974 kidnapping while she was a 19-year-old student living in Berkeley , California . Hearst was abducted by a left-wing terrorist group known as the Symbionese Liberation Army . After being isolated and threatened with death , she became supportive of their cause , making propaganda announcements for them and taking part in illegal activities .   Hearst was found 19 months after her kidnapping , by which time she was a fugitive wanted for serious crimes . She was held in custody , despite speculation that her family 's resources would prevent her spending time in jail . At her trial , the prosecution suggested that she had joined the Symbionese Liberation Army of her own volition , and that sexual activities between her and SLA members had not amounted to rape . She was found guilty of bank robbery . Hearst 's sentence was commuted by President Jimmy Carter , and she was pardoned by President Bill Clinton .

neg: William Honan William Holmes Honan ( May 11 , 1930 -- April 28 , 2014 ) was an American journalist and author who directed coverage of the arts at The New York Times as its culture editor in the 1980s . Honan also held senior editorial positions at the New York Times Magazine , Newsweek , Saturday Review and The Villager , a weekly newspaper serving downtown Manhattan .   As a reporter , Honan set ( and continues to hold ) the record for the most stories published in the New York Times Magazine ( over 30 ) .   Honan also helped solve one of the biggest and longest unsolved art thefts of the 20th century : the disappearance of over $ 200 million worth of medieval treasures from Quedlinburg , Germany at the end of World War II . Honan was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize for his investigative reporting on this story . The quest to find the `` Quedlinburg Hoard '' later became the subject of one of Honan 's numerous critically acclaimed books .

neg: Patty (Peanuts) Patty is a fictional character featured in the long-running syndicated daily and Sunday comic strip Peanuts , created by Charles M. Schulz . A former major character that turned into a cameo-girl ( due to her supposedly lacking the distinguishing characteristics of characters like Lucy , Linus , or Sally ) , she is often confused with Peppermint Patty , a different and later character from the same strip .   Patty is best known as a girl who thinks highly of herself , and because of  her self-opinion , she often torments the hapless Charlie Brown . She often accompanies her best friend Violet and sometimes the abrasive Lucy .   The character has appeared in numerous Peanuts television specials , cinematic films , theatrical plays , and video games .   Patty 's last name was revealed to be `` Swanson '' in the 2015 film The Peanuts Movie , where her full name appears 10th on the list of test scores .

neg: Neeraj Khemlani Neeraj Khemlani is president and group head of Hearst Entertainment & Syndication , the operating group responsible for Hearst 's interests in cable television networks , including ESPN and the A+E Networks ( A&E , HISTORY , Lifetime , FYI and its investment in Vice Media ) ; digital video entertainment companies , including co-investments with Verizon in AwesomenessTV and Complex Networks ; television production studios , including NorthSouth Productions ; and comic strip newspaper syndication and merchandise licensing . He serves on the boards of A+E Networks , AwesomenessTV and Complex Networks and is a senior vice president of Hearst . He joined Hearst in 2009 after serving as a senior executive at Yahoo! News since 2006 . Prior to that , Khemlani was a producer at the CBS News 60 Minutes television news magazine , where he is responsible for researching , reporting and writing stories with various CBS News correspondents . Before joining CBS News in 1998 , Mr. Khemlani was an associate producer for ABC News anchorman Peter Jennings and also produced pieces with Robert Krulwich for Nightline as well as Good Morning America . He is a term member of the prestigious Council on Foreign Relations in New York . He graduated with a Master 's degree in Journalism from Columbia University and a 1992 undergraduate degree from Cornell University . He is married to Heather Cabot , an anchor and correspondent for ABC News . Mr. Khemlani is of Indian heritage , born in Singapore and raised in New York .   He has reported on the shadowy markets and bazaars of Pakistan 's northwest frontier , a lawless region where CBS News set up a sting operation to buy weapons of mass destruction . He also co-produced a three part series with Dan Rather that revealed what Osama bin Laden 's closest associates , advisors and comrade-in-arms were doing in Afghanistan , Pakistan and the Sudan the summer before September 11 .  He has been responsible for landing many exclusive interviews and stories around the world . A few years ago , he convinced Libya 's leader , Col. Qaddafi , to do a comprehensive interview with Charlie Rose . Mr. Khemlani also convinced the Russian government to show CBS News some of its most private nuclear facilities , including a secret city built inside a mountain in Krasnoyarsk , Siberia . It is there where the Russians explained to CBS News that they could no longer pay the salaries of the starving scientists and soldiers who live there and guard the site 's growing stockpile of plutonium .  He has also done stories on numerous conflicts , including the Afghan war , the Sudanese civil war , America 's secret war against the Cali and Medellin drug cartels , the Bosnian tragedy and the invasion of Haiti .  Mr. Khemlani has also profiled numerous scientific inventors like Dean Kamen and his Segway human transporter , musicians like Jay-Z and the Grateful Dead , actresses like Bollywood star Aishwarya Rai and businessmen like Russell Simmons and Rick Wagoner , the chairman of General Motors , who unveiled his hydrogen car on the program . He was nominated for a news Emmy Award for his 60 Minutes story on the Dinner Set Gang , the best jewel thief team in America .

neg: Reader's Digest Press Reader 's Digest Press was a United States publisher of the mid-1970s to early 1980s , owned by The Reader 's Digest Association . It published full-length , original non-fiction books , often concerning military or political topics . ( It thus differed from the better-known Reader 's Digest Condensed Books . ) Its works were sometimes distributed by Thomas Y. Crowell Co. .   Books published by Reader 's Digest Press include Secrets & Spies : Behind the Scenes Stories of World War II in 1964 . Covering the war from the Pearl Harbor attack of December 7 , 1941 , to Japan 's surrender on August 15 , 1945 , this collection of espionage accounts and anecdotes included pieces by Walter Lord , Edwin Muller , Gordon W. Prange and others , and illustrations by Paul Calle and Guy Deel . Individual stories include `` The Hunt for a Spy '' and `` Hitler 's Undercover Invasion '' , accounts of German attempts at espionage inside the United States ; `` Jungle of Hidden Friends , '' a narrative of OSS agents who coalesced native Burmese warriors against Japanese forces in Burma ; and `` The Great Ambush '' , the story of the behind-the-lines battle for Italy 's freedom from Nazi dominion . Other topics explored include Great Britain 's secret transportation of its gold reserves to Canada in the threat of a German invasion ; narrow escapes , such as the Great Escape from a German POW camp ; and the repair of a crashed fighter plane by a company of Philippines-marooned American airmen for one final mission against Japan .

neg: Katharine the Great Katharine the Great : Katharine Graham and The Washington Post is an unauthorized biography of Katharine Graham , the newspaper owner , authored by Deborah Davis , and initially released in 1979 .   The book was first published by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich ( HBJ ) , but they withdrew the book from circulation after a few weeks and returned the rights to Davis after citing that `` certain facts and circumstances have arisen since publication . '' Davis sued HBJ for $ 6 million in 1982 for breach of contract , alleging the recall came after a letter from the Washington Post 's executive editor , Benjamin C. Bradlee to the publisher ; Bradlee called the publication of the book `` completely irresponsible '' and then listed 39 errors where his name appeared . The suit was settled out of court for $ 100,000 .

neg: Rock Lawn and Carriage House Rock Lawn is a historic house in Garrison , New York , United States . It was built in the mid-19th century from a design by architect Richard Upjohn . In 1982 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places along with its carriage house , designed by Stanford White and built around 1880 .   It is Upjohn 's only house in the Italian villa style in the Hudson Highlands . Hamilton Fish II , a longtime member of the State Assembly and Putnam County 's Republican Party chairman and de facto political boss , owned the house and lived there during the late 19th century ; during that time sympathetic additions were made to the house by an unidentified architect . More recently it has been the home of Patty Hearst and her late husband Bernard Shaw . In the early 21st century it was renovated and remodeled .

neg: Elizabeth Banks (journalist) Elizabeth Brister Banks ( May 2 , 1872 -- July 18 , 1938 ) was an American journalist and author . Although she never renounced her American citizenship , she remained in England throughout the last forty years of her life .   Elizabeth was born in Trenton , New Jersey , the daughter of John Banks and Sarah Ann Brister . As a young child , she was raised by her aunt Elizabeth Brister and uncle Joseph Peck on `` the experimental farm '' north of Madison near Deansville , Wisconsin . She attended Milwaukee Downer Female Seminary College in Milwaukee when it was still located at Fox Lake , Wisconsin .   She became a typewriter girl in a grocery store , then worked society pages in Baltimore and Saint Paul , Minnesota . She worked as secretary at the American Counsulate in Peru , later becoming a stunt journalist when other women writers were relegated to society and fashion pages .   In London , she became a regular contributor to publications such as The Daily News , Punch , St James ' Gazette , London Illustrated , and Referee . She created a sensation in London by recording her observations on the plight of the lower classes , which she researched posing as a housemaid , street sweeper , and Covent Garden flower girl . Her journalistic writing under several pen names including pseudonyms of Mary Mortimer Maxwell and Enid , unceasingly promoted women 's right to vote and denounced prison conditions for jailed suffragettes .   Elizabeth lived in London at 17 Downing Street , close to the Prime Minister 's residence . Her neighbors and friends included George Bernard Shaw , John Galsworthy , Thomas Hardy , H. G. Wells and suffragette Henrietta Marston . She made major contributions to British Intelligence in developing strategies to help protect London from German aerial attacks and developing propaganda schemes that helped draw the United States into the first world war . According to Who 's Who in America ( volume 20 , 1938 ) `` in 1914 she founded the Authors ' Belgian Fund and Dirk 's fund for the Allies . She originated and also wrote a series of controversial essays entitled `` The Lady at the Round Table '' .   She made a trip back to the United States and became the author of an autobiographical work , The Remaking of an American . She also wrote `` Campaigns of Curiosity '' and `` Newspaper Girl '' . Careful to protect her sources in both her letters and written works , the bulk of her personal papers were destroyed upon her death . She died on Jul 18 , 1938 of arteriosclerosis and then was cremated with her ashes deposited at Golders Green Crematorium . The first in London ref : Elizabeth 's name may be found on the Mabel Spink plaque .

neg: Marion Davies Marion Cecilia Davies ( née Douras January 3 , 1897 -- September 22 , 1961 ) was an American film actress , producer , screenwriter , and philanthropist .   Davies was already building a solid reputation as a film comedian when newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst , with whom she had begun a romantic relationship , took over management of her career . Hearst financed Davies ' pictures , promoted her heavily through his newspapers and Hearst Newsreels , and pressured studios to cast her in historical dramas for which she was ill-suited . For this reason , Davies is better remembered today as Hearst 's mistress and the hostess of many lavish events for the Hollywood elite . In particular , her name is linked with the 1924 scandal aboard Hearst 's yacht when one of his guests , film producer Thomas Ince , died .   In the film Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , the title character 's second wife -- an untalented singer whom he tries to promote -- was widely assumed to be based on Davies . But many commentators , including Citizen Kane writer/director Orson Welles himself , have defended Davies ' record as a gifted actress , to whom Hearst 's patronage did more harm than good . She retired from the screen in 1937 , choosing to devote herself to Hearst and charitable work .   In Hearst 's declining years , Davies provided financial as well as emotional support until his death in 1951 . She married for the first time eleven weeks after his death , a marriage which lasted until Davies died of stomach cancer in 1961 at the age of 64 .

neg: Alien abduction The terms alien abduction or abduction phenomenon describe `` subjectively real memories of being taken secretly against one 's will by apparently nonhuman entities and subjected to complex physical and psychological procedures '' . Such abductions have sometimes been classified as close encounters of the fourth kind . People claiming to have been abducted are usually called `` abductees '' or `` experiencers '' .   Due to a lack of objective physical evidence , most scientists and mental health professionals dismiss the phenomenon as `` deception , suggestibility ( fantasy-proneness , hypnotizability , false memory syndrome ) , personality , sleep paralysis , psychopathology , psychodynamics -LSB- and -RSB- environmental factors '' . Skeptic Robert Sheaffer sees similarity between the aliens depicted in science fiction films , in particular , Invaders From Mars , and some of those reported to have actually abducted people .   Typical claims involve being subjected to forced medical examinations that emphasize abductee reproductive systems . Abductees sometimes claim to have been warned against environmental abuse and the dangers of nuclear weapons . While many of these claimed encounters are described as terrifying , some have been viewed as pleasurable or transformative .   The first alleged alien abduction claim to be widely publicized was the Betty and Barney Hill abduction in 1961 . Reports of the abduction phenomenon have been made around the world , but are most common in English speaking countries , especially the United States . The contents of the abduction narrative often seem to vary with the home culture of the alleged abductee .   Alien abductions have been the subject of conspiracy theories and science fiction storylines ( notably The X-Files ) that have speculated on stealth technology required if the phenomenon were real , the motivations for secrecy , and that alien implants could be a possible form of physical evidence .

neg: Mohawk Valley formula The Mohawk Valley formula is a plan for strikebreaking purportedly written by the president of the Remington Rand company James Rand , Jr. around the time of the Remington Rand strike at Ilion , New York in 1936/37 .   The plan includes discrediting union leaders , frightening the public with the threat of violence , using local police and vigilantes to intimidate strikers , forming puppet associations of `` loyal employees '' to influence public debate , fortifying workplaces , employing large numbers of replacement workers , and threatening to close the plant if work is not resumed .   The authenticity of the written plan has never been clearly established . Although it was allegedly published in the National Association of Manufacturers Labor Relations Bulletin , no original copy has been found , nor does NAM list it among its pamphlets from that era . Parts of the plan use language sympathetic to the views of labor organizers . The Remington Rand company did indeed ruthlessly suppress the strikes , as documented in a ruling by the National Labor Relations Board , and the plan has been accepted as a guide to the methods that were used . At least one source names the strikebreaker Pearl Bergoff and his so-called `` Bergoff Technique '' as the origin of the formula . Rand and Bergoff were both indicted by the same federal grand jury for their roles in the Remington Rand strike .   Noam Chomsky has described the formula as the result of business owners ' trend away from violent strikebreaking to a `` scientific '' approach based on propaganda . An essential feature of this approach is the identification of the management 's interests with `` Americanism , '' while labor activism is portrayed as the work of un-American outsiders . Workers are thus persuaded to turn against the activists and toward management to demonstrate their patriotism .

neg: Marti Hearst Marti Hearst is a professor in the School of Information at the University of California , Berkeley . She did early work in corpus-based computational linguistics , including some of the first work in automating  sentiment analysis , and word sense disambiguation . Word-sense disambiguation She invented an algorithm that became known as `` Hearst patterns '' which applies lexico-syntactic patterns to recognize hyponymy ( ISA ) relations with high accuracy in large text collections , including an early application of it to WordNet ; this algorithm is widely used in commercial text mining applications including ontology learning . Hearst also developed early work in automatic segmentation of text into topical discourse boundaries , inventing a now well-known approach called TextTiling .   Hearst research is on user interfaces for search engine technology and big data analytics . She did early work in user interfaces and information visualization for search user interfaces , inventing the TileBars query term visualization . Her Flamenco research project investigated and developed the now widely used faceted navigation approach for searching and browsing web sites and information collections . She wrote the first academic book on the topic of Search User Interfaces ( Cambridge University Press , 2009 ) .   Hearst is an Edge Foundation contributing author and a member of the Usage panel of the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language .   Hearst received her B.A. , M.S. , and Ph.D. in Computer Science , all from U.C. . In 2013 she became a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery .

neg: National Digital Newspaper Program The National Digital Newspaper Program is a joint project between the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Library of Congress to create and maintain a publicly available , online digital archive of historically significant newspapers published in the United States between 1836 and 1922 . Additionally , the program will make available bibliographic records and holdings information for some 140,000 newspaper titles from the 17th century to the present . Further , it will include scope notes and encyclopedia-style entries discussing the historical significance of specific newspapers . Added content will also include contextually relevant historical information . `` One organization within each U.S. state or territory will receive an award to collaborate with relevant state partners in this effort . '' In March 2007 more than 226,000 pages of newspapers from California , Florida , Kentucky , New York , Utah , Virginia and the District of Columbia published between 1900 and 1910 were put online at a fully searchable site called `` Chronicling America . '' As of December 2007 , the total number of pages is about 413,000 . This further expanded to be 1 million pages in 2009 . Funding through the National Endowment for the Humanities is carried out through their `` We The People '' initiative .

neg: Philip Morris Playhouse Philip Morris Playhouse is a 30-minute old-time radio dramatic anthology series .   The program '' -LSB- g -RSB- enerally ... featured straight and crime drama , '' radio historian John Dunning wrote . He noted that one of the directors was William Spier , who `` had directed Suspense in its salad days and brought to The Philip Morris Playhouse the same slick production '' that was used in Suspense .   Philip Morris Playhouse was broadcast on CBS June 30 , 1939 -- February 18 , 1944 , then returned to the air ( again on CBS ) November 5 , 1948 -- July 29 , 1949 . The 1948 edition replaced a giveaway show , Everybody Wins . Its third and final incarnation on radio was a bit more complicated , as explained on The Digital Deli Too website : The emerging popularity of between three and five other popular playhouse formats of the early 1950s persuaded Philip Morris to resurrect its Philip Morris Playhouse a third time as Phillip Morris Playhouse On Broadway , beginning with its initial CBS run on March 15 , 1951 . Emphasizing Broadway productions , the subsequent series ran over CBS for twenty-six installments , only to jump to NBC on September 11 , 1951 . The series ran on NBC for the remainder of 1951 , jumping back to CBS on January 13 , 1952 . CBS aired the remainder of the canon through September 2 , 1953 .   In 1951 , a trade publication reported that the program 's annual budget was $ 1 million .

neg: Lindbergh kidnapping On March 1 , 1932 , Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. , 20-month old son of aviator Charles Lindbergh and Anne Morrow Lindbergh , was abducted from his home in Highfields , New Jersey . On May 12 , his body was discovered nearby .   In September 1934 , Richard Hauptmann was arrested and , after a trial lasting from January 2 to February 13 , 1935 , found guilty of first degree murder and sentenced to death . He was executed by electric chair at the New Jersey State Prison on April 3 , 1936 . He protested his innocence to the end .  Newspaper writer H. L. Mencken called the kidnapping and trial `` the biggest story since the Resurrection . '' Legal scholars have referred to the trial as one of the `` trials of the century '' . The crime spurred Congress to pass the Federal Kidnapping Act , commonly called the `` Lindbergh Law , '' which made transporting a kidnapping victim across state lines a federal crime .

neg: Richard Nixon Foundation The Richard Nixon Foundation is a not-for-profit organization based at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda , California . It was founded in the late 1980s by Richard Nixon , 37th President of the United States , and served as the governing body of the Nixon Library for nearly twenty years . Today it operates the Nixon Library in conjunction with the National Archives and Records Administration , which is an entity of the federal government of the United States , in addition to undertaking charitable and education-based activities .   The Nixon Foundation founded , controlled and operated the Nixon Library from the library 's dedication on July 19 , 1990 until July 11 , 2007 , at which the Foundation invited the National Archives to take control . The two entities signed a joint operating agreement which allowed the library to become officially known as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library , welcoming it into the national system of presidential libraries . This move allowed President Nixon 's White House documents to be moved to his library in Yorba Linda .   The Nixon Foundation is governed by a Board of Directors , led by former Nixon White House Director of Presidential Advance Ronald H. Walker . The board includes President Nixon 's daughters Tricia Nixon Cox and Julie Nixon Eisenhower , his brother Edward Nixon , former Ambassador George Argyros former California Governor Pete Wilson , and longest-serving Vietnam War POW Everett Alvarez , Jr. . The Foundation 's President and CEO is William Baribault .   The Foundation has hosted United States presidents , first ladies and several vice presidents . Also hosted have been public affairs commentators such as Bill O'Reilly , academics such as Doris Kearns Goodwin , and Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer .   The library includes `` Meet the Presidents , '' in which presidential impersonators speak to several hundred school-aged children . To commemorate the 10th anniversary of the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the Nixon Foundation brought 16 tons of warped steel from the World Trade Center and a damaged , first-responder FDNY firetruck to the Nixon Library for viewing .   Before the National Archives took over its management , the Nixon Library had been accused by several media outlets of glossing over Nixon 's 1974 resignation with `` whitewashed '' exhibits . In 2007 , the National Archives removed the 17 year old Watergate exhibit and , after three years , the new exhibit was scheduled to open in July 2010 . The Nixon Foundation objected to the proposed exhibit , because the Nixon Foundation was not consulted in the way that other presidential foundations had been consulted with similar situations . The Foundation filed a 158 page memorandum to the Assistant Archivist for Presidential Libraries expressing their dissatisfaction and NARA stated a committee would review the objection but gave no timeline for when that process would be concluded . The exhibit opened on March 31 , 2011 .

neg: Uniform Child Abduction Prevention Act The Uniform Child Abduction Prevention Act ( `` UCAPA '' ) is a Uniform Act drafted by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws and submitted for enactment by jurisdictions within the United States in 2006 . This uniform law originated by the parents of internationally abducted children , and parents fearing their children would be abducted .   In 2006 , NCCUSL promulgated the Uniform Child Abduction Prevention Act . The act provides States with a valuable tool for deterring both domestic and international child abductions by parents and any persons acting on behalf of the parents . Recognizing that most States have already developed substantial bodies of law regarding child custody determinations and enforcement , including specifically the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act ( UCCJEA ) , the NCCUSL drafted UCAPA to be compatible with and to augment existing state law .   Under UCAPA , an action for abduction prevention measures may be brought either by a court on its own motion , by a party to a child-custody determination or an individual with a right to seek such a determination , or by a prosecutor or public attorney . The party seeking the abduction prevention measures must file a petition with the court specifying the risk factors for abduction as well as other biographical information including the name , age and gender of the child , the current address of the child and the person against whom the measures are sought , a statement regarding any prior actions related to abduction or domestic violence , a statement addressing any prior arrests for domestic violence or child abuse by either party , and finally any additional information required by existing State child custody law including the UCCJEA .   UCAPA sets out a wide variety of factors that should be considered in determining whether there is a credible risk that a child will be abducted . These factors include overt signs such as previous abductions , attempts to abduct the child , or threats of abduction , as well as signs of general abuse including domestic violence , negligence , or refusal to obey a child-custody determination . The act also includes a wide range of activities that may indicate a planned abduction including abandoning employment , liquidating assets , obtaining travel documents or travel tickets , or requesting the child 's school or medical records .   The act also addresses the special problems involved with international child abduction by including several risk factors specifically related to international abduction . In particular , the act requires courts to consider whether the party in question is likely to take a child to a country that is n't a party to the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction , or to a country that places the child at risk , has laws that would restrict access to the child , that is on the current list of state sponsors of terrorism , or is engaged in an active military action or war . In addition , a court will consider issues related to citizenship such as a recent change in citizenship status or a denial of United States Citizenship .   If a court determines that a credible risk exists that the child will be abducted , it may then enter an order containing provisions and measures meant to prevent abduction . The act lists a number of specific measures that a court may order . These include imposing travel restrictions , prohibiting the individual from removing the child from the State or other set geographic area , placing the child 's name in the United States Department of State 's Child Passport Issuance Alert Program , or requiring the individual to obtain an order from a foreign country containing identical terms to the child-custody determination . An abduction prevention order is effective until the earliest of the order 's expiration , the child 's emancipation , the child 's 18th birthday , or until the order is modified , revoked , or vacated .   If abduction appears imminent , a court may issue a warrant to take physical custody of the child , direct law enforcement officers to take steps to locate and return the child , or exercise other appropriate powers under existing state laws . A warrant to take physical custody is enforceable in the enacting state even if issued by different state . The court may authorize law enforcement officers to enter private property , or even to make a forcible entry at any hour , if the circumstances so warrant . Nevertheless , the person on whom the warrant is being executed must be served with the warrant when or immediately after the child is taken into custody and the person must be afforded a hearing no later than the next judicial day or the next possible judicial day if the next day is impossible .   Up to date legislative activity on UCAPA can be found here .

neg: Forced confession A forced confession is a confession obtained by a suspect or a prisoner under means of torture ( including enhanced interrogation techniques ) or other forms of duress . Depending on the level of coercion used , a forced confession is not valid in revealing the truth . The person being interrogated may agree to the story presented to him or even make up falsehoods himself in order to satisfy the interrogator and discontinue his suffering .   For centuries the Latin phrase `` Confessio est regina probationum '' ( In English : Confession is the Queen of evidence ) justified the use of forced confession in the European legal system . When especially during the Middle Ages acquiring a confession was the most important thing during preparations before a trial , than the method used to get the confession seemed irrelevant , de facto sanctioning the use of torture to extract forced confession .   By the late 18th century , most scholars and lawyers thought of the forced confession not only as a relic of past times and morally wrong but also ineffective as the victim of torture may confess to anything just to ease his suffering .   Developments in the 20th century , notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , greatly reduced the legal acceptance of forced confessions . However , for most of legal history they have been accepted in most of the world , and are still accepted in some jurisdictions .

neg: Patricia McKissack Patricia L'Ann Carwell `` Pat '' McKissack ( August 9 , 1944 -- April 7 , 2017 ) was an American children 's writer . She was the author of three Dear America books : A Picture of Freedom : The Diary of Clotee , a Slave Girl , Color Me Dark : The Diary of Nellie Lee Love , The Great Migration North , and Look to the Hills : The Diary of Lozette Moreau , a French Slave Girl . She has also written a novel for The Royal Diaries series : Nzingha : Warrior Queen of Matamba . Patricia lived in St. Louis . Her husband , Fredrick McKissack , with whom she co-won the Regina Medal in 1998 , died in April 2013 at the age of 73 ; before marrying her and joining her in writing full-time , he had an accomplished career as a U.S. Marine , a civil engineer for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , and had owned a contracting business in the St. Louis area .   Patricia McKissack was also a board member of the National Children 's Book and Literacy Alliance , a national not-for-profit that actively advocates for literacy , literature , and libraries .   She was known also as L'Ann Carwell , Pat McKissack and Patricia C. McKissack .

neg: George Randolph Hearst Jr. George Randolph Hearst Jr. ( July 13 , 1927 -- June 25 , 2012 ) was chairman of the board of the Hearst Corporation from 1996 through to his death in 2012 , succeeding his uncle Randolph Apperson Hearst . He was a director at the company for over forty years .   Non-family executives are a majority on the trust that controls the corporation , and this trust will not dissolve until all grandchildren alive at the death of William Randolph Hearst have died . George Jr. was one of the oldest grandchildren . However , there are five family seats among the 13 trustees , and George represented his branch of the family .

neg: Symbionese Liberation Army The United Federated Forces of the Symbionese Liberation Army ( SLA ) was an American self-styled left-wing revolutionary organization active between 1973 and 1975 that considered itself a vanguard army . The group committed bank robberies , two murders , and other acts of violence .   The SLA became internationally notorious for the kidnapping of heiress Patty Hearst , abducting the 19-year-old from Berkeley , California . Interest increased when Hearst , in audiotaped messages delivered to ( and broadcast by ) regional news media , announced that she had joined the SLA . Hearst later said that members of the terrorist group threatened to kill her , held her in close confinement , and sexually assaulted and brainwashed her .


query: Few copies of Archimedes' written work survived through the Middle Ages.

pos: Archimedes )  | death_place = Syracuse , SicilyMagna Graecia  | field =  | known_for =  -RCB- -RCB-  Archimedes of Syracuse ( -LSB- ˌɑːkɪˈmiːdiːz -RSB- Ἀρχιμήδης ) was a Greek mathematician , physicist , engineer , inventor , and astronomer . Although few details of his life are known , he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity . Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time , Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems , including the area of a circle , the surface area and volume of a sphere , and the area under a parabola .   Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi , defining and investigating the spiral bearing his name , and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers . He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena , founding hydrostatics and statics , including an explanation of the principle of the lever . He is credited with designing innovative machines , such as his screw pump , compound pulleys , and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion .   Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed . Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes , which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder , which Archimedes had requested to be placed on his tomb , representing his mathematical discoveries .   Unlike his inventions , the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity . Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him , but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople , while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time . The relatively few copies of Archimedes ' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance , while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results .

neg: Epigenes of Byzantium Epigenes of Byzantium ( Έπιγένης unknown-circa 200 BC ) was a Greek astrologer . He seems to have been a strong supporter of astrology , which , though derided by many Greek intellectuals , had been accepted and adopted by many Greeks from the seventh century BC through commercial contact with the Chaldeans of Babylonia .   It is unclear when Epigenes lived - he may have lived about the time of Augustus ; some conjecture that he lived centuries earlier - but he is known to have refined the study of his chosen field , defining Saturn , for example , as `` cold and windy . '' Along with Apollonius of Myndus and Artemidorus of Parium , he boasted of having been instructed by the Chaldean priest-astrologers , many of whom infiltrated Greece when the ports of Egypt opened to Greek ships after 640 BC .   Epigenes ' claims to have been educated by the Chaldeans comes from the writings of Seneca . Pliny the Elder writes that Epigenes attests to the fact that the Chaldeans preserved astral observations in inscriptions upon brick tiles ( coctilibus laterculis ) extending to a period of 720 years . Pliny calls Epigenes a writer of first-rate authority ( gravis auctor imprimis ) . The 55-km lunar crater Epigenes is named after him .

neg: Encyclopedia An encyclopedia or encyclopaedia is a reference work or compendium providing a comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or from a particular field or discipline .  Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are often arranged alphabetically by article name and sometimes by thematic categories . Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries . Generally speaking , unlike dictionary entries which focus on linguistic information about words , such as their meaning , pronunciation , use , and grammatical forms , encyclopedia articles focus on factual information concerning the subject named in the article 's title .   Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years and have evolved considerably since that time as to language ( written in a major international or a vernacular language ) , size ( few or many volumes ) , intent ( presentation of a global or a limited range of knowledge ) , cultural perceptions ( authoritative , ideological , didactic , utilitarian ) , authorship ( qualifications , style ) , readership ( education level , background , interests , capabilities ) , and the technologies available for their production and distribution ( hand-written manuscripts , small or large print runs , internet production ) . As a valued source of reliable information compiled by experts , printed versions found a prominent place in libraries , schools and other educational institutions .   The appearance of digital and open-source versions in the 20th century has vastly expanded the accessibility , authorship , readership , and variety of encyclopedia entries and called into question the idea of what an encyclopedia is and the relevance of applying to such dynamic productions the traditional criteria for assembling and evaluating print encyclopedias .

neg: Laurentius Corvinus Laurentius Corvinus ( Laurentius Rabe Wawrzyniec Korwin 1465 -- 1527 ) was a Silesian scholar who lectured as an `` extraordinary '' ( i.e. untenured ) professor at the University of Krakow when Nicolaus Copernicus began to study there . He also attracted a reputation as one of the finest Silesian poets of the early Renaissance and as an important agent for cultural and religious change in his adopted home of Breslau ( now Wrocław ) .   Laurentius Corvinus was born as Laurentius Rabe in Neumarkt ( now Środa Śląska ) in Lower Silesia , about 30 km east of Legnica west of Vrotzuav , son of Barthel Rabe , a furrier and member of the local council . As a student at Kraków , he Latinized his name , possibly under the influence of Conrad Celtis , and became known as Corvinus ( a Latin translation of his German name Rabe , or raven ) . After receiving his M.A. at the University of Kraków , Corvinus lectured on `` De ente et essentia '' ( 1492 ) and Aristotle 's Libri Posteriorum ( 1493 ) ; the young Nicolaus Copernicus was probably one of his students during this time . Corvinus later helped to publish Copernicus ' Latin translation of the Letters of the Byzantine Greek poet Theophylactus Simocatta by sending Copernicus 's translation to the printer Johann Haller in Kraków to be published in 1509 . He also supplied the printed edition of Copernicus ' translation with two poems , one of which describes the journey of Corvinus and his wife Anna back to Breslau , and also makes reference to Copernicus ' interest in astronomy . It is not entirely clear whether or not Corvinus ' poem actually refers to Copernicus ' heliostatic theory , but in any case it is important as a very early witness for Copernicus ' involvement in astronomical speculation .   Corvinus was also close friend to another Silesian , Johannes Sommerfeld , who also taught at Kraków while Copernicus was there . He was influenced by Conrad Celtis and Copernicus befriended the group of humanists . As a student and later magister at the University of Krakow he was acquainted with astronomy ; as magister he lectured at the faculty for several years , including the first years of Copernicus ' studies in Kraków .   After leaving Kraków , Corvinus worked as school rector and then city secretary ( Stadtschreiber ) at Schweidnitz ' ( now Świdnica ) ( 1494 -- 1497 ) . He then moved to Breslau to work as rector of St Elisabeth 's school ( 1497 -- 1503 ) and then as one of the senior city secretaries ( 1503 -- 1506 ) , before moving to a position as city secretary of Toruń ( 1506 -- 1508 ) . He and his wife then moved back to Breslau in 1508 , where he resumed his position as senior city secretary ; they remained in Breslau , living in a house near the Siebenradmühle ( near the present site of the university library ) , for the rest of their lives .   Corvinus published humanistic writings and poems , many of them religious and philosophical in nature . He was greatly influenced by the Franciscan spirituality of St Bonaventure and the Neoplatonism of Marsilio Ficino . In the spirit of Italian and German humanists he described his adopted home of Breslau in terms borrowed from classical mythology as the new home of the Muses . He was also involved in the introduction of the Lutheran Reformation to Breslau , and personally took part in Johann Heß 's disputation in 1524 , where he declaimed a poem celebrating Martin Luther as a hero of religion . He was also involved in an epistolary exchange on religious matters with Stanisław Byliński , canon at Przemyśl , published by Byliński in 1531 .

neg: Old master print An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition . The term remains current in the art trade , and there is no easy alternative in English to distinguish the works of `` fine art '' produced in printmaking from the vast range of decorative , utilitarian and popular prints that grew rapidly alongside the artistic print from the 15th century onwards . Fifteenth-century prints are sufficiently rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality . A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term .   The main techniques used , in order of their introduction , are woodcut , engraving , etching , mezzotint and aquatint , although there are others . Different techniques are often combined in a single print . With rare exceptions printed on textiles , such as silk , or on vellum , old master prints are printed on paper . This article is concerned with the artistic , historical and social aspects of the subject ; the article on printmaking summarizes the techniques used in making old master prints , from a modern perspective .   Many great European artists , such as Albrecht Dürer , Rembrandt , and Francisco Goya , were dedicated printmakers . In their own day , their international reputations largely came from their prints , which were spread far more widely than their paintings . Influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints ( and sometimes drawings ) , for the same reason . Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history . Today , thanks to colour photo reproductions , and public galleries , their paintings are much better known , whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited , for conservation reasons . But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection , sometimes only by appointment .

neg: Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : ελληνικά -LSB- eliniˈka -RSB- , elliniká , `` Greek '' , ελληνική γλώσσα -LSB- eliniˈci ˈɣlosa -RSB- , ellinikí glóssa , `` Greek language '' ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages , native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any living language , spanning 34 centuries of written records . Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history ; other systems , such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary , were used previously . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Armenian , Coptic , Gothic and many other writing systems .   The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world and Christianity ; the canon of ancient Greek literature includes seminal works in the Western canon such as the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science , especially astronomy , mathematics and logic , and Western philosophy , such as the Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle , are composed ; the New Testament of the Christian Bible was written in Koiné Greek . Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of Classics .   During antiquity , Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond . It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire and develop into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , the Greek language is the official language in two countries , Greece and Cyprus , a recognised minority language in seven other countries , and is one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . The language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece , Cyprus , Italy , Albania , Turkey , and the Greek diaspora .   Greek roots are often used to coin new words for other languages ; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary .

neg: Euclid Euclid ( -LSB- ˈjuːklᵻd -RSB- Εὐκλείδης , Eukleidēs -LSB- eu̯.klěː.dɛːs -RSB- ; fl . 300 BCE ) , sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclides of Megara , was a Greek mathematician , often referred to as the `` father of geometry '' . He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I ( 323 -- 283 BCE ) . His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics , serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics ( especially geometry ) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century . In the Elements , Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms . Euclid also wrote works on perspective , conic sections , spherical geometry , number theory , and rigor .   Euclid is the anglicized version of the Greek name Εὐκλείδης , which means `` renowned , glorious '' .

neg: Epimenides Epimenides of Knossos ( Crete ) ( -LSB- ɛpᵻˈmɛnᵻdiːz -RSB- Ἐπιμενίδης ) was a semi-mythical 7th or 6th century BC Greek seer and philosopher-poet .

neg: Ludolph Küster Ludolf Küster ( Ludolph Küster ) ( 1670 -- 1716 ) was a Westphalian scholar , philologist , textual critic , palaeographer , and editor of Greek ancient texts .   Küster was born in Blomberg , Westphalia . He was friends with , and a correspondent of , Richard Bentley , master of Trinity College , Cambridge , who assisted him in the production of a hasty edition of the works of Aristophanes . Thomas de Quincey was later to say that Bentley 's contributions -- including epistles on The Clouds and Plutus -- were `` mangled '' by Küster and incompetent printers . Some of these letters still survive . Bentley also assisted Küster , among other editors , with an edition of Suidae Lexicon Graece et Latine ( 1705 ) .   In Utrecht , from 1697 to 1699 , Küster published the journal Bibliotheca Librorum novorum under the pseudonym `` Neocorus '' ( a Greek word that translates as roughly equivalent to the German word `` Küster '' , that is , `` sexton '' or `` sacristan '' ) . Several times , Küster came into professional conflict with Dutch classical scholar Jakob Gronovius .   In 1710 , he made a reprint , or rather revision , of John Mill 's Novum Testamentum Graecum ( 1707 ) , with prolegomena and with collations of 12 more manuscripts . It was published in Amsterdam and Rotterdam . Kuster 's reprint also appeared , in Leipzig in 1723 and again in Amsterdam in 1746 . He used 12 more manuscripts than Mill 's original edition . Nine of these 12 codices were collated for Küster by the abbé de Louvois : codex 285 , M , 9 , 11 , 119 , 13 , 14 , 15 , and Codex Ephraemi . Currently they are housed in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris . Codex 78 was collated by Boerner , codex 42 , and Codex Boernerianus by Küster himself . In this edition , Küster published his own notes separate from Mill 's by prefixing and affixing the marks , and his collations both of his own codices and of early editions will be found more complete than his predecessor 's . Mill 's dedication was omitted .   Küster was the first to recognize the 9th century date of Codex Boernerianus .   In 1713 , Küster traveled to Paris and spoke against the Protestant religion . There he was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres , and received a pension from the crown of 2000 pounds .   He is mentioned by name in Alexander Pope 's satirical Dunciad , in the company of other notable classicists of his day .

neg: Cancionero de la Colombina The Cancionero de la Colombina or Cancionero Musical de la Colombina ( CMC ) is a Spanish manuscript ( Ms. 7-1-28 ) containing Renaissance music from the second half of the 15th century .   The manuscript was copied during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs , possibly between the 1460s and the 1480s . Therefore , it predates the more famous Cancionero de Palacio . The first half of the manuscript is the work of two main scribes , and the second half was completed by six other scribes . It originally comprised 106 folios , 8 of which are lost . The general condition of the remaining folios is less than satisfactory . A title added on a later period reads `` Cantilenas vulgares puestas en musica por varios Españoles '' ( Popular melodies set to music by various Spaniards ) .   In 1534 it was bought by the second son of Christopher Columbus , the bibliophile Ferdinand Columbus , who added it to his rich Sevillian library of more than 15,000 volumes known by the name of `` Columbine Library '' ( in Spanish , `` Biblioteca Colombina '' ) . After his death , the library was transferred to the Seville Cathedral , where it remained up to these days .   The Cancionero currently contains 95 musical settings , some of which are incomplete . Of this total , 53 remain anonymous . The authorship of several works could be established because they had been properly attributed in other cancioneros , especially the Cancionero de Palacio and the Cancionero de Montecassino .   The repertory in the manuscript is varied . Among the musical genres can be found canciones , villancicos , romances and ensaladas . Many of the villancicos and canciones are sacred , mostly Marian . Two of the works are in French and 12 are liturgical compositions in Latin . There are also two short versions in Castilian of the Song of the Sibyl ( `` El Cant de la Sibil · la '' ) , nos. 73 and 91 ( `` Juysio fuerte será dado '' ) .

neg: Runic inscriptions A runic inscription is an inscription made in one of the various runic alphabets . The body of runic inscriptions falls into the three categories of Elder Futhark ( some 350 items , dating to between the 2nd and 8th centuries AD ) , Anglo-Frisian Futhorc ( some 100 items , 5th to 11th centuries ) and Younger Futhark ( close to 6,000 items , 8th to 12th centuries ) .   The total 350 known inscriptions in the Elder Futhark script fall into two main geographical categories , North Germanic ( Scandinavian , c. 267 items ) and Continental or South Germanic ( `` German '' and Gothic , c. 81 items ) . These inscriptions are on many types of loose objects , but the North Germanic tradition shows a preference for bracteates , while the South Germanic one has a preference for fibulae . The precise figures are debatable because some inscriptions are very short and/or illegible so that it is uncertain whether they qualify as an inscription at all .   The division into Scandinavian , North Sea ( Anglo-Frisian ) , and South Germanic inscription makes sense from the 5th century . In the 3rd and 4th centuries , the Elder Futhark script is still in its early phase of development , with inscriptions concentrated in what is now Denmark and Northern Germany .   The tradition of runic literacy continues in Scandinavia into the Viking Age , developing into the Younger Futhark script . Close to 6,000 Younger Futhark inscriptions are known , many of them on runestones .

neg: Pantheon (book) The Liber universalis ( `` universal book '' ) is a work of Gottfried von Viterbo ( c. 1120 -- c. 1196 ) . In this work , completed in 1185 , he chronicles world history from the creation of the world to the time of Heinrich VI ( Henry VI ) . The liber was written around 1185 and is an extended version of the previous Memoria seculorum ( `` remembrance of the ages '' ) by the same author which again builds on the Speculum regum ( `` mirror for kings/princes '' ) dated to around 1185 . It is subdivided into 20 „ particulae '' ( '' ( small ) parts '' ) , the last of which is the so-called Gesta Friderici ( `` Frederics achievements '' ) first dedicated to Heinrich VI but ultimately to Pope Gregory VIII . The famous prosimetrum Pantheon '' '' ' builds upon the liber universalis and exists in 3 editions ( 1187,1188,1191 ) . The Pantheon manuscript enjoyed a wide distribution in the late middle ages .

neg: Erasmus Reinhold Erasmus Reinhold ( October 22 , 1511 -- February 19 , 1553 ) was a German astronomer and mathematician , considered to be the most influential astronomical pedagogue of his generation . He was born and died in Saalfeld , Saxony .   He was educated , under Jacob Milich , at the University of Wittenberg , where he was first elected dean and later became rector . In 1536 he was appointed professor of higher mathematics by Philipp Melanchthon . In contrast to the limited modern definition , `` mathematics '' at the time also included applied mathematics , especially astronomy . His colleague , Georg Joachim Rheticus , also studied at Wittenberg and was appointed professor of lower mathematics in 1536 .   Reinhold catalogued a large number of stars . His publications on astronomy include a commentary ( 1542 , 1553 ) on Georg Purbach 's Theoricae novae planetarum . Reinhold knew about Copernicus and his heliocentric ideas prior to the publication of De revolutionibis and made a favourable reference to him in his commentary on Purbach . However , Reinhold ( like other astronomers before Kepler and Galileo ) translated Copernicus ' mathematical methods back into a geocentric system , rejecting heliocentric cosmology on physical and theological grounds .   Duke Albert of Brandenburg Prussia supported Reinhold and financed the printing of Reinhold 's Prutenicae Tabulae or Prussian Tables . These astronomical tables helped to disseminate calculation methods of Copernicus throughout the Empire , however , Gingerich notes that they showed a `` notable lack of commitment '' to heliocentricity and were `` carefully framed '' to be independent of the movement of the Earth . Both Reinholds 's Prutenic Tables and Copernicus ' studies were the foundation for the Calendar Reform by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 .   It was Reinhold 's heavily annotated copy of De revolutionibus in the Royal Observatory , Edinburgh , that started Owen Gingerich on his search for copies of the first and second editions which he describes in The Book Nobody Read . In Reinhold 's unpublished commentary on De revolutionibus , he calculated the distance from the Earth to the sun . He `` massaged '' his calculation method in order to arrive at an answer close to that of Ptolemy .   His name has been given to a prominent lunar impact crater that lies to the south-southwest of the crater Copernicus , on the Mare Insularum .

neg: Konstantinos Staikos Konstantinos Staikos ( born 1943 ) is a Greek architect and book historian . He was born in Athens . He studied interior architecture and design in Paris , and has been practicing in that field since the 1960s . In the early 1970s he started to take a serious interest in the history of Greek books during the period of the Greek diaspora ( from the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 to about 1830 ) . In his professional capacity he was commissioned to redesign and reorganize two historic libraries of the Christian world : those of the Monastery of St John on Patmos ( founded in 1089 ) , completed in 1989 , and of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in the Phanar , Constantinople ( dating from 353 , soon after the city 's official inauguration as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire ) , completed in 1993 .  Towards the end of the 1980s he embarked on a systematic study of the history of libraries in the countries of the Mediterranean Basin and the Near East , from earliest antiquity to the Renaissance ( about 3000 BC to AD 1600 ) . This took him to all the most important monastic and secular libraries in Europe , to gather material about their founders and their history , and necessitated a great deal of research to discover what could be learnt from ancient Greek and Latin and other early sources about the methods of book distribution , the book trade and book-collecting -- from the papyrus roll to the codex and the printed book -- , as well as the evolution of library architecture over those four and a half millennia .   Among his publications are The Great Libraries ( 2000 ) , the five volumes History of the Library in Western Civilization , Oak Knoll Press ( 2001-2013 ) and the Books and Ideas . The Library of Plato and of the Academy , Oak Knoll Press ( 2013 ) .   The Konstantinos Staikos ' book collection was acquired by the Onassis Foundation in 2010 to be preserved as perpetual property of the Greek Nation , to make these books accessible to researchers , being gradually uploaded on the Internet so that they may be reached by as many people as possible . The Konstantinos Staikos ' book collection was renamed to `` Hellenic Library of the Onassis Foundation '' and is housed in the neoclassical building at 56 Amalias Avenue Plaka , Athens , Greece .

neg: On Spirals On Spirals is a treatise by Archimedes , written around 225 BC . Although Archimedes did not discover the Archimedean spiral , he employed it in this book to square the circle and trisect an angle .

neg: Book of Fixed Stars The Book of Fixed Stars is an astronomical text written by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi ( Azophi ) around 964 . The book was written in Arabic , although the author himself was Persian . It was an attempt to create a synthesis of the comprehensive star catalogue in Ptolemy 's Almagest ( books VII and VIII ) with the indigenous Arabic astronomical traditions on the constellations .   The book was thoroughly illustrated along with observations and descriptions of the stars , their positions ( copied from Ptolemy 's Almagest with the longitudes increased by 12 ° 42 ' to account for the precession ) , their magnitudes ( brightness ) and their color . His results , as in Ptolemy 's Almagest , were set out constellation by constellation . For each constellation , he provided two drawings , one from the outside of a celestial globe , and the other from the inside .   The work was highly influential and survives in numerous manuscripts and translations . The oldest manuscript , kept in the Bodleian Library , dates to 1009 and is the work of the author 's son . There is a thirteenth-century copy in the British Library ( Or . 5323 ) .   He has the earliest known descriptions and illustrations of what he called `` a little cloud '' , which is actually the Andromeda Galaxy . He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish , an Arabic constellation . This `` cloud '' was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers , very probably before 905 .  The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given in the Book of Fixed Stars . These were the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth . The Great Andromeda Nebula he observed was also the first true nebula to be observed , as distinct from a star cluster .   He probably also cataloged the Omicron Velorum star cluster as a `` nebulous star '' , and an additional `` nebulous object '' in Vulpecula , a cluster now variously known as Al-Sufi 's Cluster , the `` Coathanger asterism '' , Brocchi 's Cluster or Collinder 399 . Moreover , he mentions the two Magellanic Clouds , and that they are not visible from Iraq nor Najd , but visible from Tihama , and that they are called al-Baqar ( the cows ) .   There has not been a published English translation of the book , though it was translated into French by Hans Schjellerup in 1874 . As of March 2012 , one is in preparation by Ihsan Hafez of James Cook University , Townsville .

neg: Early Islamic philosophy Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar ( early 9th century CE ) and lasting until the 6th century AH ( late 12th century CE ) . The period is known as the Islamic Golden Age , and the achievements of this period had a crucial influence in the development of modern philosophy and science ; for Renaissance Europe , the influence represented `` one of the largest technology transfers in world history . '' . This period starts with al-Kindi in the 9th century and ends with Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ) at the end of 12th century . The death of Averroes effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the Peripatetic Arabic School , and philosophical activity declined significantly in Western Islamic countries , namely in Islamic Spain and North Africa , though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries , in particular Persia and India where several schools of philosophy continued to flourish : Avicennism , Illuminationist philosophy , Mystical philosophy , and Transcendent theosophy .   Some of the significant achievements of early Muslim philosophers included the development of a strict science of citation , the isnad or `` backing '' ; the development of a method of open inquiry to disprove claims , the ijtihad , which could be generally applied to many types of questions ( although which to apply it to is an ethical question ) ; the willingness to both accept and challenge authority within the same process ; recognition that science and philosophy are both subordinate to morality , and that moral choices are prior to any investigation or concern with either ; the separation of theology ( kalam ) and law ( shariah ) during the early Abbasid period , a precursor to secularism ; the distinction between religion and philosophy , marking the beginning of secular thought ; the beginning of a peer review process ; early ideas on evolution ; the beginnings of the scientific method , an important contribution to the philosophy of science ; the introduction of temporal modal logic and inductive logic ; the beginning of social philosophy , including the formulation of theories on social cohesion and social conflict ; the beginning of the philosophy of history ; the development of the philosophical novel and the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa ; and distinguishing between essence and existence .   Saadia Gaon , David ben Merwan al-Mukkamas , Maimonides , and Thomas Aquinas , were influenced by the Mutazilite work , particularly Avicennism and Averroism , and the Renaissance and the use of empirical methods were inspired at least in part by Arabic translations of Greek , Jewish , Persian and Egyptian works translated into Latin during the Renaissance of the 12th century , and taken during the Reconquista in 1492 .   Early Islamic philosophy can be divided into clear sets of influences , branches , schools , and fields , as described below .

neg: Oxyrhynchus Papyri The Oxyrhynchus Papyri are a group of manuscripts discovered during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by archaeologists including Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt at an ancient rubbish dump near Oxyrhynchus in Egypt ( , modern el-Bahnasa ) . The manuscripts date from the 1st to as late as the 7th century AD . They include thousands of Greek and Latin documents , letters and literary works . They also include a few vellum manuscripts , and more recent Arabic manuscripts on paper ( for example , the medieval P. Oxy . VI 1006 ) .   The Oxyrhynchus Papyri are currently housed in institutions all over the world . A substantial number are housed in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University .   Although the initial hope of finding many of the lost literary works of antiquity at Oxyrhynchus was not realized , many important Greek texts were found at the site . These include poems of Pindar , fragments of Sappho and Alcaeus , along with larger pieces of Alcman , Ibycus , and Corinna .   There were also extensive remains of the Hypsipyle of Euripides , fragments of the comedies of Menander , and a large part of the Ichneutae of Sophocles . Also found were the oldest and most complete diagrams from Euclid 's Elements . Fragments of Euclid discovered lead to a re-evaluation of the accuracy of ancient sources for The Elements , revealing that the version of Theon of Alexandria has more authority than previously believed , according to Thomas Little Heath . Another important find was the historical work known as the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia , whose author is unknown but may be Ephorus or , as many currently think , Cratippus . A life of Euripides by Satyrus the Peripatetic was also unearthed , while an epitome of seven of the 107 lost books of Livy was the most important literary find in Latin .   The classical author who has most benefited from the finds at Oxyrhynchus is the Athenian playwright Menander ( 342 -- 291 BC ) , whose comedies were very popular in Hellenistic times and whose works are frequently found in papyrus fragments . Menander 's plays found in fragments at Oxyrhynchus include Misoumenos , Dis Exapaton , Epitrepontes , Karchedonios , Dyskolos and Kolax . The works found at Oxyrhynchus have greatly raised Menander 's status among classicists and scholars of Greek theatre .   There is an on-line table of contents briefly listing the type of contents of each papyrus or fragment .

neg: Stone Tower (Ptolemy) Ptolemy , the Greco-Egyptian geographer of Alexandria , wrote about a `` Stone Tower '' ( λίθινος πύργος in Greek , Turris Lapidea in Latin ) which marked the mid-point on the ancient Silk Road -- the network of overland trade routes taken by caravans between Europe and Asia . It was the most important landmark on this route , where caravans stopped on their difficult and dangerous journeys to allow travellers to take on provisions , rest , and trade goods before continuing on .   Ptolemy 's famous treatise on cartography , Geography , written around 140 CE , is the only book on this subject to have survived from classical antiquity , and has had a profound influence right through the ages . In it , he set the coordinates of the Stone Tower at longitude135 and latitude 43 degrees north on his gradation system , but its actual location has been vigorously debated by researchers and historians over the centuries . This is because the information that he , and other scholars from his era , left behind is simply not precise enough ( despite his coordinates ) , due to the rudimentary methods caravans employed while route surveying distant lands from which ancient cartographers drew their maps . If the Stone Tower could be pin-pointed then not only would this be of great significance in the study of ancient geography , but it would allow other important landmarks in this region , similarly ( and imprecisely ) detailed by Ptolemy , to be more closely located also .   A brief survey of literature reveals the long-standing disagreements by geographers and historians to locate the Stone Tower : As far back as the 11th century Al-Biruni suggested it was the city of Tashkent ( which means `` castle of stone '' ) . In the 19th century , Hagar too maintained it was Tashkent , partly based on the striking coincidence of the city being on the same latitude of 43 degrees north ; while d'Anville identified it with the fortress of Aatas , 7 degrees northwest of Kashgar ; and Bell argued it was near the Pass of Chiltung in the Pamirs . Yule located it nearby at Daraut-Kurgan , while Bevan & Smith thought the Stone Tower was probably the same as the `` Hormeterium '' ( or `` merchants ' station '' which Ptolemy also writes about ) and located it near the Sulaiman-Too mountain in Osh . Bunbury thought the information given was too vague to precisely determine its location .   In the 20th century , Hackin travelled there and thought it was at Tashkurgan , while Hermann placed it in the vicinity of Daraut-Kurgan . Stein , who perhaps most extensively travelled this region , suggested the valley of Karategin was the area Ptolemy referred to `` when the traveller ascended the ravine '' and so proposed a site near Daraut-Kurgan , and Thomson agrees it should be nearby .   From the turn of this century , Rapin ( 2001 ) has suggested it is Sulaiman-Too ; while Bernard ( 2005 ) , by carefully tracing the route taken by the caravan of Maes Titianos , locates the Stone Tower near Daraut-Kurgan ; and P'iankov ( 2014 ) , after also considering information drawn from contemporary sailors , agrees with him . Tupikova et al ( 2014 ) , following `` the application of spherical trigonometry for the recalculation of Ptolemy 's coordinates '' , concluded that it `` can with great probability be identified as Tashkurgan '' . Dean ( 2015 ) also uses a new methodology , by proposing a set of three criteria to help locate this landmark , and identifies it as Sulaiman-Too .   All in all , there are four sites that are most often identified as the likely location of the Stone Tower : ( i ) the city of Tashkent , in Uzbekistan ; ( ii ) the Sulaiman-Too mountain in Osh , Kyrgyzstan ; ( iii ) the town of Daraut-Kurgan in south-western Kyrgyzstan ; and ( iv ) the town of Tashkurgan , in Xinjiang , China . However , some historians also consider the Hormeterium , located nearby in the mountains close to the crossover point with China , to be one and the same as the Stone Tower ; and believe this landmark to be the settlement of Irkeshtam .   All four sites mentioned above , as well as Irkeshtam , can be seen on the Map of Silk Roads over the Roof of Asia .

neg: Ancient Egyptian literature Ancient Egyptian literature was written in the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt 's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination . It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature . Along with Sumerian literature , it is considered the world 's earliest literature .   Writing in ancient Egypt -- both hieroglyphic and hieratic -- first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of predynastic Egypt . By the Old Kingdom ( 26th century BC to 22nd century BC ) , literary works included funerary texts , epistles and letters , hymns and poems , and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials . It was not until the early Middle Kingdom ( 21st century BC to 17th century BC ) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created . This was a `` media revolution '' which , according to Richard B. Parkinson , was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of scribes , new cultural sensibilities about individuality , unprecedented levels of literacy , and mainstream access to written materials . However , it is possible that the overall literacy rate was less than one percent of the entire population . The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise , monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling pharaoh . However , there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ancient Egyptian literature on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts .   Middle Egyptian , the spoken language of the Middle Kingdom , became a classical language during the New Kingdom ( 16th century BC to 11th century BC ) , when the vernacular language known as Late Egyptian first appeared in writing . Scribes of the New Kingdom canonized and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian , which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts . Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature , such as `` teachings '' and fictional tales , remained popular in the New Kingdom , although the genre of prophetic texts was not revived until the Ptolemaic period ( 4th century BC to 1st century BC ) . Popular tales included the Story of Sinuhe and The Eloquent Peasant , while important teaching texts include the Instructions of Amenemhat and The Loyalist Teaching . By the New Kingdom period , the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature , yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres . The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres , while texts of the `` teaching '' genre were pseudonymous and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures .   Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media . This includes papyrus scrolls and packets , limestone or ceramic ostraca , wooden writing boards , monumental stone edifices and coffins . Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material . The area of the floodplain of the Nile is under-represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions . On the other hand , hidden caches of literature , buried for thousands of years , have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization .

neg: Mensural notation Mensural notation is the musical notation system used for European vocal polyphonic music from the later part of the 13th century until about 1600 . The term `` mensural '' refers to the ability of this system to describe precisely measured rhythmic durations in terms of numerical proportions between note values . Its modern name is inspired by the terminology of medieval theorists , who used terms like musica mensurata ( `` measured music '' ) or cantus mensurabilis ( `` measurable song '' ) to refer to the rhythmically defined polyphonic music of their age , as opposed to musica plana or musica choralis , i.e. , Gregorian plainchant . With mensural notation being employed principally for compositions in the tradition of vocal polyphony , plainchant retained its own , older system of neume notation throughout the period , while some purely instrumental music could be written in various forms of instrument-specific tablature notation .   Mensural notation grew out of an earlier , more limited method of notating rhythms in terms of fixed repetitive patterns , the so-called rhythmic modes , which were developed in France around 1200 . An early form of mensural notation was first described and codified in the treatise Ars cantus mensurabilis ( `` The art of measured chant '' ) by Franco of Cologne . A much expanded system allowing for greater rhythmic complexity was introduced in France with the stylistic movement of the Ars nova in the 14th century , while Italian 14th-century music developed its own , somewhat different variant . Around 1400 , the French system was adopted across Europe , and became the standard form of notation of the Renaissance music of the 15th and 16th centuries . After around 1600 , mensural notation gradually evolved into modern measure ( or bar ) notation .   The decisive innovation of mensural notation was the systematic use of different note shapes to denote rhythmic durations that stood in well-defined , hierarchical numerical relations to each other . Mensural notation differed from the modern system in that the values of each note were more strongly context-dependent . In particular , a note could have the length of either two or three units of the next smaller order , whereas in modern notation these relations are invariably binary . Whether a note was to be read as ternary ( `` perfect '' ) or binary ( `` imperfect '' ) was a matter partly of context rules and partly of a system of mensuration signs comparable to modern time signatures . There was also a complex system of temporarily shifting note values by proportion factors like 2:1 or 3:2 . Mensural notation used no bar lines , and it sometimes employed special connected note forms ( ligatures ) inherited from earlier medieval notation . Unlike in the earliest beginnings of the writing of polyphonic music , and unlike in modern practice , mensural notation was usually not written in a score arrangement but in individual parts .   Mensural notation was extensively described and codified by contemporary theorists . As these writings , like all academic work of the time , were usually in Latin , many features of the system are still conventionally referred to by their Latin terms .