query: Vitamin B12 is produced by fungi.

pos: Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 , also called cobalamin , is a water-soluble vitamin that has a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system , and the formation of red blood cells . It is one of eight B vitamins . It is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body , especially affecting DNA synthesis , fatty acid and amino acid metabolism . No fungi , plants , or animals ( including humans ) are capable of producing vitamin B12 . Only bacteria and archaea have the enzymes needed for its synthesis . Some substantial sources of B12 include animal products ( shellfish , meat ) , fortified food products , and dietary supplements . B12 is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin and can be produced industrially only through bacterial fermentation synthesis , typically used to manufacture B12 for fortified foods and supplements .   Vitamin B12 consists of a class of chemically related compounds ( vitamers ) , all of which show pharmacological activity . It contains the biochemically rare element cobalt ( chemical symbol Co ) positioned in the center of a planar tetra-pyrrole ring called a corrin ring . The vitamer is produced by bacteria as hydroxocobalamin , but conversion between different forms of the vitamin occurs in the body after consumption .   Vitamin B12 was discovered as a result of its relationship to the disease pernicious anemia , an autoimmune disease in which parietal cells of the stomach responsible for secreting intrinsic factor are destroyed ; these cells are also responsible for secreting acid in the stomach . Because intrinsic factor is crucial for the normal absorption of B12 , its lack in the presence of pernicious anemia causes a vitamin B12 deficiency . Many other subtler kinds of vitamin B12 deficiency and their biochemical effects have since been elucidated . Due to impairment of vitamin B12 absorption during aging , people over age 60 are at risk of deficiency .

neg: Streptavidin Streptavidin -LSB- ˌstrɛpˈtævɪdɪn -RSB- is a 52.8 kDa protein purified from the bacterium Streptomyces avidinii . Streptavidin homo-tetramers have an extraordinarily high affinity for biotin ( also known as vitamin B7 or vitamin H ) . With a dissociation constant ( Kd ) on the order of ≈ 10 − 14 mol/L , the binding of biotin to streptavidin is one of the strongest non-covalent interactions known in nature . Streptavidin is used extensively in molecular biology and bionanotechnology due to the streptavidin-biotin complex 's resistance to organic solvents , denaturants ( e.g. guanidinium chloride ) , detergents ( e.g. SDS , Triton ) , proteolytic enzymes , and extremes of temperature and pH.

neg: Dothideomycetes Dothideomycetes is the largest and most diverse class of ascomycete fungi . It comprises 11 orders 90 families , 1300 genera and over 19,000 known species . Traditionally , most of its members were included in the loculoascomycetes , which is not part of the currently accepted classification . This indicates that several traditional morphological features in the class are not unique and DNA sequence comparisons are important to define the class .   The designation loculoascomycetes was first proposed for all fungi which have ascolocular development . This type of development refers to the way in which the sexual structure , bearing the sexual spores ( ascospores ) forms . Dothideomycetes mostly produce flask-like structures referred to as pseudothecia , although other shape variations do exist ( e.g. see structures found in Hysteriales ) . During ascolocular development pockets ( locules ) form first within the vegetative cells of the fungus and then all the subsequent structures form . These include the asci which , superficially , have a thicker outer layer through which a thinner inner layer ` bursts ' , like a jack-in-a-box to release the spores . These asci are therefore referred to as bitunicate ( superficially , two layers ) or fissitunicate ( referring to spore release ) . After several DNA sequence comparisons it is now clear that another group of fungi which share these characteristics are distantly related . These are the `` black yeasts '' in subclass Chaetothyriomycetidae ( Eurotiomycetes ) . This means that loculoascomycetes did not constitute a natural group .   The best known members of this class are several important plant pathogens ( like Phaeosphaeria nodorum and Venturia inaequalis ) . However , a majority of described species are either found as endophytes or saprobes growing on woody debris , decaying leaves or dung . A smaller number exist as lichens and a single species , Cenococcum geophilum , can form mycorrhizal associations with plant roots .

neg: Phytobiome A phytobiome is a plant ( phyto ) in a specific geophysical site ( biome ) that consists of its associated micro - and macro-organisms , other plants and animals , as well as the environment . The associated organisms , which may be inside , on the surface , adjacent to or influencing a plant , include a wide diversity of microbes ( viruses , bacteria , fungi , oomycetes , and algae ) , animals ( arthropods , worms , nematodes , and rodents , for example ) , and other plants . The environment includes the physical and chemical environment influencing plants and their associated organisms , and therefore , the soil , air , water , and climate .   Interactions within phytobiomes are dynamic and profoundly affect plant and agroecosystem health , which in turn impacts soil fertility , crop yields , and food quality and safety .   Enhanced knowledge of the networks within a phytobiome can be translated into new tools for agriculture and natural resource preservation .   The sphere of relevance of phytobiomes is broad , spanning from crops ( commodity crops , fruits , vegetables , forest , and specialty and bioenergy crops ) , rangelands , grasslands , and natural ecosystems to consumer products , including the quality , nutritional value , and safety of our foods .

neg: Sulfur Sulfur or sulphur ( see spelling and etymology ) is a chemical element with symbol S and atomic number 16 . It is abundant , multivalent , and nonmetallic . Under normal conditions , sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula S8 . Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow crystalline solid at room temperature . Chemically , sulfur reacts with all elements except for gold , platinum , iridium , tellurium , and the noble gases .   Though sometimes found in pure , native form , sulfur usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals . Being abundant in native form , sulfur was known in ancient times , being mentioned for its uses in ancient India , ancient Greece , China , and Egypt . In the Bible , sulfur is called brimstone . Today , almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and petroleum . The greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers , and other chemical processes . The element sulfur is used in matches , insecticides , and fungicides . Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous , and the smells of odorized natural gas , skunk scent , grapefruit , and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds . Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes .   Sulfur is an essential element for all life , but almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides . Three amino acids ( cysteine , cystine , and methionine ) and two vitamins ( biotin and thiamine ) are organosulfur compounds . Many cofactors also contain sulfur including glutathione and thioredoxin and iron -- sulfur proteins . Disulfides , S -- S bonds , confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the protein keratin , found in outer skin , hair , and feathers . Sulfur is one of the core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all organisms .

neg: Cellulosome Cellulosomes are multi-enzyme complexes . The cellulosomes are associated with the cell surface and mediate cell attachment to the insoluble substrate and degrade it to soluble products which are then absorbed . Cellulosome complexes are intricate multi-enzyme machines produced by many cellulolytic microorganisms ( cellulosome producing bacteria are listed below ) . They are designed by the microorganisms for efficient degradation of plant cell wall polysaccharides , notably cellulose -- the most abundant organic polymer on Earth . The multiple subunits of cellulosomes are composed of numerous functional domains which interact with each other and with the cellulosic substrate . One of these subunits , a large glycoprotein , which we called `` scaffoldin '' , comprises a distinctive new class of non-catalytic scaffolding polypeptide . The scaffoldin subunit selectively integrates the various cellulases and xylanase subunits into the cohesive complex , by combining its `` cohesin '' domains with a typical `` dockerin '' domain present on each of the subunit enzymes . The scaffoldin of some cellulosomes , an example being that of Clostridium thermocellum , contains a carbohydrate-binding module that adheres cellulose to the cellulosomal complex .   Cellulosomes exist as extracellular complexes that are either attached to the cell wall of bacteria or free in solution , where the insoluble substrate can be broken down into soluble products and taken up by the cell . The large size and heterogeneity of cellulosomes from the best-characterized organisms ( i.e. , C. thermocellum , C. cellulolyticum , and C. cellulovorans ) have greatly complicated efforts to probe cellulosome structure and function . Other cellulosome systems ( such as those from Acetivibrio cellulolyticus and Ruminococcus flavefaciens ) appear to be even more intricate .   The cellulosome consists of a multi-functional integrating subunit ( called scaffoldin ) , responsible for organizing the various cellulolytic subunits ( e.g. , the enzymes ) into the complex . Within a cellulosome , multiple endoglucanases , cellobiohydrolases , xylanases and other degradative enzymes work synergistically to attack heterogeneous , insoluble cellulose substrates . This is accomplished by the interaction of two complementary classes of module , located on the two separate types of interacting subunits , i.e. , a cohesin module on the scaffoldin and a dockerin module on each enzymatic subunit . The high-affinity cohesin-dockerin interaction defines the cellulosome structure . Attachment of the cellulosome to its substrate is mediated by a scaffoldin-borne cellulose-binding module ( CBM ) that comprises part of the scaffoldin subunit . Much of our understanding of its catalytic components , architecture , and mechanisms of attachment to the bacterial cell and to cellulose , has been derived from the study of Clostridium thermocellum .   Applications : Intelligent application of cellulosome hybrids and chimeric constructs ( `` nanosomes '' ) of cellulosomal domains should enable better use of cellulosic biomass and may offer a wide range of novel applications .

neg: Human pathogen A human pathogen is a pathogen ( microbe or microorganism such as a virus , bacterium , prion , or fungus ) that causes disease in humans .   The human physiological defense against common pathogens ( such as Pneumocystis ) is mainly the responsibility of the immune system with help by some of the body 's normal flora and fauna . However , if the immune system or `` good '' microbiota are damaged in any way ( such as by chemotherapy , human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) , or antibiotics being taken to kill other pathogens ) , pathogenic bacteria that were being held at bay can proliferate and cause harm to the host . Such cases are called opportunistic infections .   Some pathogens ( such as the bacterium Yersinia pestis , which may have caused the Black Plague , the Variola virus , and the malaria protozoa ) have been responsible for massive numbers of casualties and have had numerous effects on afflicted groups . Of particular note in modern times is HIV , which is known to have infected several million humans globally , along with the influenza virus . Today , while many medical advances have been made to safeguard against infection by pathogens , through the use of vaccination , antibiotics , and fungicide , pathogens continue to threaten human life . Social advances such as food safety , hygiene , and water treatment have reduced the threat from some pathogens .

neg: Alpha defensin Alpha defensins are a family of mammalian defensin peptides .   Defensins are 2-6 kDa , cationic , microbicidal peptides active against many Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria , fungi , and enveloped viruses , containing three pairs of intramolecular disulfide bonds . On the basis of their size and pattern of disulfide bonding , mammalian defensins are classified into alpha , beta and theta categories . Alpha-defensins , which have been identified in humans , monkeys and several rodent species , are particularly abundant in neutrophils , certain macrophage populations and Paneth cells of the small intestine .   Defensins are produced constitutively and/or in response to microbial products or proinflammatory cytokines . Some defensins are also called corticostatins ( CS ) because they inhibit corticotropin-stimulated corticosteroid production . The mechanism ( s ) by which microorganisms are killed and/or inactivated by defensins is not understood completely . However , it is generally believed that killing is a consequence of disruption of the microbial membrane . The polar topology of defensins , with spatially separated charged and hydrophobic regions , allows them to insert themselves into the phospholipid membranes so that their hydrophobic regions are buried within the lipid membrane interior and their charged ( mostly cationic ) regions interact with anionic phospholipid head groups and water . Subsequently , some defensins can aggregate to form ` channel-like ' pores ; others might bind to and cover the microbial membrane in a ` carpet-like ' manner . The net outcome is the disruption of membrane integrity and function , which ultimately leads to the lysis of microorganisms . Some defensins are synthesized as propeptides which may be relevant to this process . Alpha defensins of the mouse bowel were historically called cryptdins when first discovered .

neg: Xenobiotic A xenobiotic is a foreign chemical substance found within an organism that is not normally naturally produced by or expected to be present within . It can also cover substances that are present in much higher concentrations than are usual . Specifically , drugs such as antibiotics are xenobiotics in humans because the human body does not produce them itself , nor are they part of a normal food .   Natural compounds can also become xenobiotics if they are taken up by another organism , such as the uptake of natural human hormones by fish found downstream of sewage treatment plant outfalls , or the chemical defenses produced by some organisms as protection against predators .   The term xenobiotics , however , is very often used in the context of pollutants such as dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls and their effect on the biota , because xenobiotics are understood as substances foreign to an entire biological system , i.e. artificial substances , which did not exist in nature before their synthesis by humans . The term xenobiotic is derived from the Greek words ξένος ( xenos ) = foreigner , stranger and βίος ( bios , vios ) = life , plus the Greek suffix for adjectives - τικός , - ή , - ό ( tic ) .   Xenobiotics may be grouped as carcinogens , drugs , environmental pollutants , food additives , hydrocarbons , and pesticides .

neg: Saprotrophic nutrition Saprotrophic nutrition -LSB- sæprəˈtrɒfɪk , _ - proʊ - -RSB- or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of dead or decayed organic matter . It occurs in saprotrophs or heterotrophs , and is most often associated with fungi ( for example Mucor ) and soil bacteria . Saprotrophic microscopic fungi are sometimes called saprobes ; saprotrophic plants or bacterial flora are called saprophytes ( sapro - + - phyte , `` rotten material '' + `` plant '' ) . The process is most often facilitated through the active transport of such materials through endocytosis within the internal mycelium and its constituent hyphae .   Various word roots relating to decayed matter ( detritus , sapro ) , eating and nutrition ( - vore , - phage ) , and plants or life forms ( - phyte , - obe ) produce various terms , such as detritivore , detritophage , saprotroph , saprophyte , saprophage , and saprobe ; their meanings overlap , although technical distinctions ( based on physiologic mechanisms ) narrow the senses . For example , usage distinctions can be made based on macroscopic swallowing of detritus ( as an earthworm does ) versus microscopic lysis of detritus ( as a mushroom does ) .   A facultative saprophyte appears on stressed or dying plants and may combine with the live pathogens .

neg: Coprococcus eutactus Coprococcus ( ATCC 27759 ) is a genus of anaerobic cocci which are all part of the human faecal flora , but rarely seen in human clinical specimens . `` Coprococcus includes those gram-positive , anaerobic cocci that actively ferment carbohydrates , producing butyric and acetic acids with formic or propionic and/or lactic acids . Fermentable carbohydrates are either required or are highly stimulatory for growth and continued subculture . '' - Lillian V. Holdeman & W. E. C. Moore . The genus is bio-chemically closely related to Ruminococcus , and phylogenetically to the genus Lachnospira .   Coprococcus eutactus is an obligately anaerobic , nonmotile , gram-positive coccus occurring in pairs or chains of pairs . Cells may lose colour readily and acquire a slightly elongate shape in a medium containing a fermentable carbohydrate , but are normally round , and 0.7 to 1.3 µm in diameter .   Coprococcus may be used as a microbial biomarker to assess the health of the human gastro-intestinal tract . Gut microorganisms maintain gastro-intestinal health and the mounting evidence of gastro-intestinal problems in autistic children makes a link between autism and intestinal microbiota highly probable , but the paucity of data on intestinal microflora means a definite link has not yet been demonstrated . Early studies overlooked potentially beneficial gut flora missing in autistic children .

neg: Blastomyces dermatitidis Blastomyces dermatitidis is the causal agent of blastomycosis , an invasive and often serious fungal infection found occasionally in humans and other animals in regions where the fungus is endemic . The causal organism is a fungus living in soil and wet , decaying wood , often in an area close to a waterway such as a lake , river or stream . Indoor growth may also occur , for example , in accumulated debris in damp sheds or shacks . The fungus is endemic to parts of eastern North America , particularly boreal northern Ontario , southeastern Manitoba , Quebec south of the St. Lawrence River , parts of the U.S. Appalachian mountains and interconnected eastern mountain chains , the west bank of Lake Michigan , the state of Wisconsin , and the entire Mississippi Valley including the valleys of some major tributaries such as the Ohio River . In addition , it occurs rarely in Africa both north and south of the Sahara Desert , as well as in the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent . Though it has never been directly observed growing in nature , it is thought to grow there as a cottony white mold , similar to the growth seen in artificial culture at 25 C . In an infected human or animal , however , it converts in growth form and becomes a large-celled budding yeast . Blastomycosis is generally readily treatable with systemic antifungal drugs once it is correctly diagnosed ; however , delayed diagnosis is very common except in highly endemic areas .

neg: Castle factors Castle ( gastric ) factors , named after the American physician and physiologist W. B. Castle , are biologically active chemical compounds which stimulate haematopoiesis ( formation of blood cellular components ) . There are two distinct factors :  Extrinsic factor , much more commonly known as vitamin B12  Intrinsic factor , a glycoprotein produced by the parietal cells of the stomach , which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12

neg: Megavitamin therapy Megavitamin therapy is the use of large doses of vitamins , often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance ( RDA ) in the attempt to prevent or treat diseases . Megavitamin therapy is typically used in alternative medicine by practitioners who call their approach `` orthomolecular medicine '' , but also used in mainstream medicine for `` exceedingly rare '' genetic conditions that respond to megadoses of vitamins .   Nutrients may be useful in preventing and treating some illnesses , but the conclusions of medical research are that the broad claims of disease treatment by advocates of megavitamin therapy are unsubstantiated by the available evidence . It is generally accepted that doses of any vitamin greatly in excess of nutritional requirements , will result either in toxicity or in the excess simply being metabolised - evidence in favour of vitamin supplementation supports only doses in the normal range . Critics have described some aspects of orthomolecular medicine as food faddism or even quackery . Research on nutrient supplementation in general suggests that some nutritional supplements might be beneficial , and that others might be harmful ; several specific nutritional therapies are associated with an increased likelihood of the condition they are meant to prevent .

neg: Casimir Funk Kazimierz Funk ( -LSB- ka ' źimjesz - ` fuŋk -RSB- February 23 , 1884 -- November 19 , 1967 ) , commonly anglicized as Casimir Funk , was a Polish biochemist , generally credited with being among the first to formulate ( in 1912 ) the concept of vitamins , which he called `` vital amines '' or `` vitamines '' .

neg: Folate Folate , forms of which are known as folic acid and vitamin B9 , is one of the B vitamins . The recommended daily intake level of folate is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements . Folic acid is used to treat anemia caused by folic acid deficiency . It is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects ( NTDs ) in the baby . Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with neural tube defects . More than 50 countries use fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs in the population . Long term supplementation is also associated with small reductions in the risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease . It may be taken by mouth or by injection .   There are no common side effects . It is not known whether high doses over a long period of time are of concern . There are concerns that large amounts of folic acid might hide vitamin B12 deficiency . Folic acid is essential for the body to make DNA , RNA , and metabolise amino acids which are required for cell division . As humans can not make folic acid , it is required from the diet , making it an essential vitamin .   Not consuming enough folate can lead to folate deficiency . This may result in a type of anemia in which low numbers of large red blood cells occur . Symptoms may include feeling tired , heart palpitations , shortness of breath , open sores on the tongue , and changes in the color of the skin or hair . Deficiency in children may develop within a month of poor dietary intake . In adults normal total body folate is between 10,000 -- 30,000 micrograms ( µg ) with blood levels of greater than 7 nmol/L ( 3 ng/mL ) .   Folic acid was discovered between 1931 and 1943 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost of supplements in the developing world is between 0.001 and 0.005 USD per dose as of 2014 . The term `` folic '' is from the Latin word folium , which means leaf . Folates occur naturally in many foods especially dark green leafy vegetables and liver .

neg: Chanoclavine II Chanoclavine II is an ergoline compound produced by certain fungi .

neg: Penicillium roqueforti Penicillium roqueforti is a common saprotrophic fungus from the family Trichocomaceae . Widespread in nature , it can be isolated from soil , decaying organic matter , and plants .   The major industrial use of this fungus is the production of blue cheeses , flavouring agents , antifungals , polysaccharides , proteases and other enzymes . The fungus has been a constituent of Roquefort , Stilton , Danish blue , Cabrales , Gorgonzola and other blue cheeses that humans are known to have eaten since approximately AD 50 ; blue cheese is mentioned in literature as far back as AD 79 , when Pliny the Elder remarked upon its rich flavour .

neg: Verticillium dry bubble Verticillium dry bubble , recently named Lecanicillium fungicola , is a mycoparasite that attacks white button mushrooms ( Agaricus bisporus ) , among other hosts , during its generative period . L. fungicola infects the casing layer on the cap structure of several edible mushrooms . This fungal pathogen does not typically infect wild mushrooms , but more commonly cultivated mushrooms are infected such as A. bisporus , which are typically grown in large quantities . Severity of disease depends on several factors , including timing of infection and environmental conditions . Dry bubble follows the typical verticillium life cycle , although insect vectors play a large role in the spread of this disease . Control for L. fungicola is limited , and strict measures must be taken to prevent the spread of infection . L. fungicola is a devastating pathogen in the mushroom industry and causes significant losses in the commercial production of its main host A. bisporus . Annual costs for mushroom growers are estimated at 2 -- 4 % of total revenue .

neg: Cruciferous vegetables Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae ( also called Cruciferae ) with many genera , species , and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower , cabbage , garden cress , bok choy , broccoli , brussels sprouts and similar green leaf vegetables . The family takes its alternate name ( Cruciferae , New Latin for `` cross-bearing '' ) from the shape of their flowers , whose four petals resemble a cross .   Ten of the most common cruciferous vegetables eaten by people , known colloquially in North America as cole crops and in Britain and Ireland as `` brassicas '' , are in a single species ( Brassica oleracea ) ; they are not distinguished from one another taxonomically , only by horticultural category of cultivar groups . Numerous other genera and species in the family are also edible . Cruciferous vegetables are one of the dominant food crops worldwide . They are high in vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain multiple nutrients and phytochemicals .

neg: Microorganism A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism , which may be single-celled or multicellular . The study of microorganisms is called microbiology , a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek . Robert Hooke coined the term `` cell '' after viewing plant cells under his microscope . Later , in the 19th century , Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage , debunking the theory of spontaneous generation . In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases .   Microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria , archaea and most protozoa . This group also contains some fungi , algae , and some micro-animals such as rotifers . Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages . Some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms , but others consider these as nonliving . In July 2016 , scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor of all life , including microorganisms , living on Earth .   Microorganisms live in every part of the biosphere , including soil , hot springs , inside rocks at least 12 mi deep underground , the deepest parts of the ocean , and at least 40 mi high in the atmosphere . Microorganisms , under certain test conditions , have been observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space . Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined . The mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon , out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons . Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench , the deepest spot in the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to 580 m below the sea floor under 2590 m of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States , as well as 2400 m beneath the seabed off Japan . In August 2014 , scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica . According to one researcher , `` You can find microbes everywhere -- they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . ''   Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers . As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen , they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle , and recent studies indicate that airborne microorganisms may play a role in precipitation and weather . Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology , both in traditional food and beverage preparation , and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering . A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic , causing disease and even death in plants and animals .


query: Vladimir Putin was the head of the Italian government.

pos: Vladimir Putin Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin ( ˈ ; born 7 October 1952 ) is the current President of the Russian Federation , holding the office since 7 May 2012 . He was Prime Minister from 1999 to 2000 , President from 2000 to 2008 , and again Prime Minister from 2008 to 2012 . During his second term as Prime Minister , he was the Chairman of the ruling United Russia Party .   Born in Leningrad ( now Saint Petersburg ) , Putin studied German in high school and speaks the language fluently . He studied Law at the Saint Petersburg State University , graduating in 1975 . Putin was a KGB Foreign Intelligence Officer for 16 years , rising to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel before retiring in 1991 to enter politics in Saint Petersburg . He moved to Moscow in 1996 and joined President Boris Yeltsin 's administration , rising quickly through the ranks and becoming Acting President on 31 December 1999 , when Yeltsin resigned . Putin won the subsequent 2000 Presidential election by a 53 % to 30 % margin , thus avoiding a runoff with his Communist Party of the Russian Federation opponent , Gennady Zyuganov . He was re-elected President in 2004 with 72 % of the vote .   During Putin 's first presidency , the Russian economy grew for eight straight years , and GDP measured in purchasing power increased by 72 % . The growth was a result of the 2000s commodities boom , high oil prices , and prudent economic and fiscal policies . Because of constitutionally mandated term limits , Putin was ineligible to run for a third consecutive presidential term in 2008 . The 2008 Presidential election was won by Dmitry Medvedev , who appointed Putin Prime Minister , beginning what has been called a period of `` tandemocracy '' . In September 2011 , after presidential terms were extended from four to six years , Putin announced he would seek a third term as president . He won the March 2012 presidential election with 64 % of the vote , a result which aligned with pre-election polling . Falling oil prices coupled with international sanctions imposed at the beginning of 2014 after Russia 's annexation of Crimea and military intervention in Eastern Ukraine led to GDP shrinking by 3.7 % in 2015 , though the Russian economy rebounded in 2016 with 0.3 % GDP growth and is officially out of the recession .   Under Putin 's leadership , Russia has scored poorly on both the Economist Intelligence Unit 's Democracy Index and Transparency International 's Corruption Perceptions Index . Putin has enjoyed high domestic approval ratings during his career , and received extensive international attention as one of the world 's most powerful leaders . In 2007 , he was the Time Person of the Year . In 2015 , he was # 1 on the Time 's Most Influential People List . Forbes ranked him the World 's Most Powerful Individual every year from 2013 to 2016 .

neg: Governor (Russia) The highest official of the subject of the Russian Federation or the holder of the highest office of subject of the Russian Federation or the head of the highest executive body of state power of the subject of the Russian Federation , colloquially and collectively referred to as the title governor ( губернатор - gubernator ) or head of region ( глава региона - glava regiona ) , is the head and the chief executive of each the federal subjects of Russia , not directly subordinate to the federal authorities , but the political and ceremonial head of the federal subject , all of which are equal constituent entities of Russia .   The office is defined by the Constitution of Russia and Chapters 1 , 3 and 4 of Russia 's Federal Law No. 184-FZ `` On the General Principles of the Organization Of the Legislative ( Representative ) and Executive Organs Of State Power of the Subjects of the Russian Federation '' which came into force in 1999 . According to the current revision of the Russian Constitution , the Russian Federation consists of 85 federal subjects therefore there are 85 offices of head of region in Russia ( see List of current heads of federal subjects of Russia ) .   The certain title of office is defined by the federal subject 's Constitution or Charter . The names include : governor , president ( президент - president ) , head of administration ( глава администрации - glava administratsii ) , head of republic ( глава республики - glava respubliki ) , mayor ( мэр - mer ) , non-officially and collectively referred to as governors for short . The official title governor is most used in Russia and traditionally it is used in Oblasts of Russia . Presidents of Russia 's republics , mayor of Moscow and mayor of St. Petersburg are also governors in this sense .   A head of the subject in Russia is said to serve a administration or executive office , colloquially referred to as gubernatorial administration .

neg: Patriarch Kirill of Moscow Kirill or Cyril ( Кирилл , secular name Vladimir Mikhailovich Gundyayev , Владимир Михайлович Гундяев born 20 November 1946 ) is a Russian Orthodox bishop . He became Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus ' and Primate of the Russian Orthodox Church on 1 February 2009 . The Orthodox Christians most often regard the Patriarch of Moscow as the `` highest authority in the Orthodox Church '' , esepcially among the Russians , Bosnians and even Armenians , despite the latter are Oriental and not Eastern Orthodox .   Prior to becoming Patriarch , Kirill was Archbishop ( later Metropolitan ) of Smolensk and Kaliningrad beginning on 26 December 1984 , and also Chairman of the Russian Orthodox Church 's Department for External Church Relations and a permanent member of the Holy Synod beginning in 1989 .   In cultural and social affairs the Church under Kirill has collaborated closely with the Russian state under President Vladimir Putin . Patriarch Kirill has backed the expansion of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine .

neg: Vladimir Anatolyevich Yakovlev Vladimir Anatolyevich Yakovlev ( -LSB- Влади́мир Анато́льевич Я́ковлев , p = vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr ɐnɐˈtolʲɪvʲɪtɕ ˈjakəvlʲɪf -RSB- born November 25 , 1944 , in Olyokminsk , Yakutia , Soviet Union ) is a Russian politician , currently retired .   In 1996 -- 2003 , he was the Governor of Saint Petersburg . In 2003-2004 , prior to the Beslan school hostage crisis , he was Presidential Plenipotentiary Envoy to the Southern Federal District . On September 13 , 2004 , - September 24 , 2007 , he was Russia 's Minister for Regional Development in Mikhail Fradkov 's Second Cabinet .

neg: Luigi Albertini Luigi Albertini ( 19 October 1871 -- 29 December 1941 ) was an influential Italian newspaper editor , Member of Parliament , and historian of the First World War .   As editor of one of Italy 's best-known newspapers , Corriere della Sera of Milan , he was a champion of liberalism . He was a vigorous opponent of socialism and clericalism , and of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti who was willing to compromise with those forces . Albertini 's opposition to the Fascist regime forced the owners to fire him in 1925 .   Albertini was an outspoken antifascist , even though at one time he did support the National Fascist Party in their opposition to the Left . From 1914 until Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome in 1922 , he was a member of parliament in the Italian Senate , where he was a key intellectual and moderating force .

neg: Vladimir Litvinenko Vladimir Stefanovich Litvinenko ( Влади́мир Стефа́нович Литвине́нко , born 14 August 1955 ) is a Russian academic , businessman and Vladimir Putin 's campaign manager . He is also rector of the National Mineral Resources University in St. Petersburg .

neg: Stanislav Belkovsky Stanislav Alexandrovich Belkovsky ( Станисла́в Алекса́ндрович Белко́вский , born 7 February 1971 , Moscow , USSR ) is a Russian political analyst and communication specialist . He is a founder and director of the National Strategy Institute .   Belkovsky is a commentator on a variety of political issues , including Russian oligarchs , such as Mikhail Khodorkovsky He has published allegations about Vladimir Putin 's personal wealth , according to which Putin `` controls a 4.5 % stake in Gazprom , 37 % in Surgutneftegaz '' as well as 50 % in the oil-trading company Gunvor run by his close friend Gennady Timchenko . He authored the journalistic cliché `` Puting '' , derived from the name of Russia 's president from 2000-2008 and 2012 -- present , to denote the process of the renationalisation of Russia 's oil industry assets .

neg: Government of Russia The Government of the Russia ( exercises executive power in the Russian Federation . The members of the government are the Prime Minister , the deputy prime ministers , and the federal ministers . It has its legal basis in the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal constitutional law `` On the Government the Russian Federation '' .   According to the 1991 amendment to the 1978 Russian Constitution , the President of Russia was the head of the executive branch and headed the Council of Ministers of Russia . According to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia , the President is not a part of the Government of Russia , which exercises executive power . But , the President does appoint the Prime Minister . The Chapter 6 of the Constitution of Russia says , that `` The Government of the Russian Federation consists of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation ( Prime Minister ) , Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation and federal ministries '' .

neg: Pier Carlo Padoan Pier Carlo Padoan ( -LSB- pjɛr ˈkarlo ˈpadoan -RSB- ; born 19 January 1950 , Rome ) is an Italian economist who has been the Minister of Economy and Finances of Italy since 2014 .   Padoan had been also director of the International Monetary Fund for Italy from 2001 to 2005 . On 1 June 2007 , he became vice-secretary general of the OECD .

neg: Figurehead In politics , a figurehead is a person who holds de jure ( in name or by law ) an important title or office ( often supremely powerful ) , yet de facto ( in reality ) executes little actual power . The metaphor derives from the carved figurehead at the prow of a sailing ship . Commonly cited figureheads include Queen Elizabeth II , who is Queen of sixteen Commonwealth realms and head of the Commonwealth , but has no power over the nations in which she is not head of state and does not exercise power in her own realms on her own initiative . Other figureheads are the Emperor of Japan , the King of Sweden , or presidents in majority of parliamentary republics , such as the President of India , President of Israel , President of Bangladesh , President of Greece , President of Germany , President of Pakistan , and President of China ( when not simultaneously holding the CPC General Secretary and Chairman of CMC posts ) .   During the crisis of the March on Rome in 1922 , King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy , though a figurehead , played a key role in handing power to Benito Mussolini . More than 20 years later , the same King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy played a key role in the dismissal of Benito Mussolini in 1943 .  Since the abolition of monarchy in Italy and the establishment of a republic in 1946 , the Italian President assumed most of the ceremonial functions of the previous kings ; however , the Italian President retains large powers in appointing a prime minister of his choice when in parliament there 's no clear majority government , creating a so-called `` president 's cabinet '' ( a technocratic cabinet ) . For example , the former Prime Minister of Italy , Sen Mario Monti , was appointed by the Italian President Giorgio Napolitano as a lifetime-senator and then as Prime Minister of the country , not after a new election . Italian President 's powers and influence are so much stronger is the weaker political parties ' leadership . This system is called `` accordion '' .   Conversely , King Juan Carlos I of Spain , also largely considered a figurehead , had in 1981 a key role in defending the newborn Spanish democracy and foiling the attempted coup d'état , known as `` 23-F '' .

neg: Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia Vladimir Kirillovich , Grand Duke of Russia ( Cyrillic : Влади́мир Кири́ллович Рома́нов ; 21 April 1992 ) was the Head of the Imperial Family of Russia , a position which he claimed from 1938 to his death .

neg: Ministry of Interior (Italy) The Ministry of Interior ( Ministero dell ` Interno ) is a government agency of Italy , headquartered in Rome . It is cabinet-level ministry of the Italian Republic . As of 12 December 2016 , Marco Minniti is the minister .

neg: Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy The Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy , also known in Italy as 25 Luglio ( Venticinque Luglio , -LSB- ˌventiˈtʃiŋkwe ˈluʎʎo -RSB- ; Italian for `` 25 July '' ) denotes the events in spring and summer 1943 in Italy , which culminated with the meeting of the Grand Council of Fascism on 24 -- 25 July 1943 , the passing of a vote of no confidence against Benito Mussolini , and the change of the Italian government . These events were the result of parallel plots led respectively by Count Dino Grandi and King Victor Emmanuel III : their final outcome was the fall from power of the Italian Fascist government after 21 years and the arrest of Mussolini .

neg: Vito Roberto Palazzolo Vito Roberto Palazzolo ( born July 31 , 1947 ) is an Italian businessman previously living in South Africa . Born in Terrasini , he moved to South Africa in the mid-1980s . He also goes by the name Robert von Palace Kolbatschenko . He is alleged to be a member of the Sicilian Mafia , an allegation he denies . In March 2009 , the highest court in Italy confirmed a 2006 nine-year sentence for association with the Mafia . He is alleged to be a Mafia treasurer linked to Bernardo Provenzano , the Mafia boss arrested in April 2006 in Corleone , Sicily , and his predecessor Salvatore Riina , both serving life sentences in Italian jails . Palazzolo maintains his innocence and claims that he has been persecuted by the Italian government , the press , lawyers , politicians , and `` opportunists '' for the last 19 years . On March 30 , 2012 Palazzolo was arrested by Interpol at Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok , Thailand .

neg: Sino-Russian relations since 1991 Diplomatic relations between the People 's Republic of China and the Russian Federation dramatically improved after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the establishment of the Russian Federation in 1991 . American scholar Joseph Nye argues :  With the collapse of the Soviet Union , that de facto US-China alliance ended , and a China-Russia rapprochement began . In 1992 , the two countries declared that they were pursuing a `` constructive partnership '' ; in 1996 , they progressed toward a `` strategic partnership '' ; and in 2001 , they signed a treaty of `` friendship and cooperation . ''   The two countries share a long land border which was demarcated in 1991 , and they signed a Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation in 2001 . On the eve of a 2013 state visit to Moscow by Chinese President Xi Jinping , Russian President Vladimir Putin remarked that the two nations were forging a special relationship .

neg: Kingdom of Italy The Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ) was a state founded from 1861 , when King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy , to 1946 , when a constitutional referendum led civil discontent to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic . The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia , which can be considered its legal predecessor state .   Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866 and received the region of Veneto following their victory . Italian troops entered Rome in 1870 , ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power . Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882 , following strong disagreements with France about the respective colonial expansions . However , even if relations with Berlin became very friendly , the alliance with Vienna remained purely formal , as the Italians were keen to acquire Trentino and Trieste , corners of the Austria-Hungary populated by Italians . So , in 1915 , Italy accepted the British invitation to join the Allies in World War I because the western allies promised territorial compensation ( at the expense of Austria-Hungary ) for participation that were more generous than Vienna 's offer in exchange for Italian neutrality . Victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations .   `` Fascist Italy '' is the era of National Fascist Party government from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government . The fascists imposed authoritarian rule and crushed the political and intellectual opposition , while promoting economic modernization , traditional social values , and a rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church . According to Payne ( 1996 ) , '' -LSB- the -RSB- Fascist government passed through several relatively distinct phases '' . The first phase ( 1923 -- 1925 ) was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system , albeit with a `` legally-organized executive dictatorship '' . Then came the second phase , `` the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper , from 1925 to 1929 '' . The third phase , with less activism , was 1929 to 1934 . The fourth phase , 1935 -- 1940 , was characterized by an aggressive foreign policy ; war against Ethiopia , which was launched from Eritrea and Italian Somaliland ; confrontations with the League of Nations sanctions ; growing economic autarchy ; and semi-National Socialization . The war itself ( 1940 -- 1943 ) was the fifth phase with its disasters and defeats , while the rump Salò government under German control was the final stage ( 1943 -- 1945 ) .   Italy was allied with National Socialist Germany in World War II until 1943 . It switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas ( south of Rome ) controlled by the Allied invaders . The remnant fascist state in northern Italy that continued fighting against the Allies was a puppet state of Germany , the `` Italian Social Republic '' , still led by Mussolini and his Fascist loyalists . Shortly after the war , civil discontent led to the constitutional referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic . Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic , the present-day Italian state .

neg: Mikhail Kasyanov's Cabinet Mikhail Kasyanov 's Cabinet ( May 2000 - March 2004 ) was a cabinet of the government of the Russian Federation during most of Vladimir Putin 's first presidential term . It followed Vladimir Putin 's Cabinet after Vladimir Putin became President of Russia and was replaced with Mikhail Fradkov 's First Cabinet shortly before the presidential election of 2004 . It was led by Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov , proposed by President Vladimir Putin after his inauguration on May 7 and approved by the State Duma and appointed Prime Minister by the President on May 17 , 2000 . Prior to this , Kasyanov was the Finance Minister in Vladimir Putin 's Cabinet , and as Putin was promoted to acting President on December 31 , 1999 , de facto had led his cabinet since January 10 , when he was appointed also First Deputy Prime Minister . Other 28 ministers were appointed by the President on May 18 -- 20 . Only six of them were new to the government : Gennady Bukaev , Alexander Dondukov , Alexander Gavrin , German Gref , Alexey Kudrin and Igor Shuvalov .

neg: Putinland Putinland is a political neologism which appeared in the international media following the 2006 murder of Anna Politkovskaya and Alexander Litvinenko . The term has been used in various contexts , from portraying Russia as a corrupt and murderous regime where the line between the security forces and organised crime is blurred to an oil and gas powered state that is ready to swat away criticism at home , squash troublesome neighbours and sacrifice personal freedoms in the name of a strong centralised state .

neg: Pietro Grasso Pietro Grasso ( -LSB- ˈpjɛːtro ˈɡrasso -RSB- ; born 1 January 1945 ) , also known as Piero Grasso , is an Italian anti-mafia magistrate and politician who has been President of the Italian Senate since 16 March 2013 . Grasso became Acting President of Italy on 14 January 2015 , upon the resignation of President Giorgio Napolitano . He served as Acting President until the swearing in of Sergio Mattarella on 3 February , as the new President .

neg: Years of Mud The expression Years of Mud ( Anni di fango ) is used to identify a period of Italian history that coincides roughly with the 1980s .   This expression is now entered the common language to describe a long period of time marked by particularly adverse events .   It underpins a strong negative opinion of a decade in which the Italian companies , despite their economic prosperity and the beginning of the technological development that took place in those years , begins a steady decline due to a particularly corrupt political class , and sometimes colluding with criminal organizations such as Cosa Nostra ( the Sicilian Mafia ) .   At that time he was also discovered the Propaganda Due , a masonic organization reserved .   The expression owes its success primarily to the Italian journalist Indro Montanelli , which he called L'Italia degli anni di fango ( Italy of the Years of Mud ) the volume of Storia d'Italia dedicated to the years 1978-1993 , a period that begins roughly with the election of Sandro Pertini as President of the Italian Republic and ends with the discovery and the start of Tangentopoli .   The book is the sequel to L'Italia degli anni di piombo ( Italy of the Years of Lead ) , dedicated to the 1970s .   Both volumes were written in collaboration with journalist Mario Cervi .

neg: Viktor Zubkov Viktor Alekseyevich Zubkov ( -LSB- Ви́ктор Алексе́евич Зубко́в , p = ˈvʲiktər ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ zʊpˈkof -RSB- born 15 September 1941 ) is a Russian politician and businessman who served as the Prime Minister of Russia from September 2007 to May 2008 . He was Vladimir Putin 's First Deputy Prime Minister during the Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev .   Zubkov was a financial crime investigator until 12 September 2007 , when he was nominated by President Vladimir Putin to replace Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov , who had resigned earlier that day . The nomination was approved in the Duma on 14 September 2007 . On 7 May 2008 Zubkov 's cabinet was automatically dismissed . This procedure , following an inauguration of the President of Russia is required by the Russian Constitution . After Putin became Prime Minister , Zubkov was appointed First Deputy Prime Minister .   Zubkov is also the current chairman of the board of directors of Gazprom , Russia 's largest corporation and one of the largest oil and natural gas companies in the world .


query: The US Atlantic coast is where the Tidewater region is located.

pos: Tidewater region The Tidewater region is a geographic area of southeast Virginia and northeastern North Carolina , part of the Atlantic coastal plain in the United States of America . Portions of Maryland facing the Chesapeake Bay are also given this designation . The area gains its name because of the effects of the changing tides on local rivers , sounds , and the ocean . The area is generally flat and low and composed of tidal marsh and large expanses of swamp . Much of the area is covered with pocosin and the higher areas are used for agricultural farmlands . Geographically , in North Carolina and Virginia the Tidewater area is the land between the Suffolk Scarp and the Atlantic Ocean . The Hampton Roads area of Virginia is considered to be in the Tidewater . Extreme Southern Maryland and parts of the lower Eastern Shore round out the northern fringe of the region on the Chesapeake Bay .   The term tidewater may be correctly applied to all portions of any area , including Virginia , where the water level is affected by the tides ( more specifically , where the water level rises when the tide comes in ) . In the case of Virginia , the Tidewater region includes the land east of the Fall Line , the natural border with the Piedmont Region . It includes Hampton Roads , the rest of the Virginia Peninsula , the Middle Peninsula , the Northern Neck , and the Eastern Shore .   Planters in the early American colonies extended their tobacco productions above the `` fall line , '' where waterfalls or rapids mark the end of the Tidewater and the beginning of the foothill region known as the Piedmont .   Tidewater is host to flora commonly associated with the South Atlantic pine forests and lower Southeast Coastal Plain maritime flora , the latter found primarily in southeastern Virginia .

neg: Clearwater Beach Clearwater Beach includes a resort area and a residential area on the Gulf of Mexico in Pinellas County on the west central coast of Florida . Located just west over the Intracoastal Waterway by way of the Clearwater Memorial Causeway from the city of Clearwater , Florida , of which it is part , Clearwater Beach is at a geographic latitude of 27.57 N and longitude 82.48 W.   Clearwater Beach is characterized by white sand beaches stretching for 2.5 mi along the Gulf and sits on a barrier island . It has a full marina on the Intracoastal Waterway side and is linked on the south by a short bridge to another barrier island called Sand Key , where Sand Key Park is located .   The area offers shopping , restaurants , and activities such as parasailing , jet ski rentals , boat tours ( with a common sighting of dolphins in the Gulf waters ) , miniature golf , fishing charters , and `` pirate ship '' cruises .   Clearwater has frequently been ranked one of the best beaches in the United States . Its Sandpearl resort was named one of the best beach resorts in the U.S. . In 2009 an episode of Brooke Knows Best was shot on the beach . In January 2013 , Clearwater Beach was awarded the designation of Florida 's Best Beach Town by a USA Today reader poll ranking 10 Florida beach destinations .

neg: Pelagic zone Any water in a sea or lake that is neither close to the bottom nor near the shore can be said to be in the pelagic zone . The word `` pelagic '' is derived . The pelagic zone can be thought of in terms of an imaginary cylinder or water column that goes from the surface of the sea almost to the bottom . Conditions differ deeper in the water column such that as pressure increases with depth , the temperature drops and less light penetrates . Depending on the depth , the water column , rather like the Earth 's atmosphere , may be divided into different layers .   The pelagic zone occupies 1,330 million km3 ( 320 million mi3 ) with a mean depth of 3.68 km and maximum depth of 11 km . Fish that live in the pelagic zone are called pelagic fish . Pelagic life decreases with increasing depth . It is affected by light intensity , pressure , temperature , salinity , the supply of dissolved oxygen and nutrients , and the submarine topography , which is called bathymetry . In deep water , the pelagic zone is sometimes called the open-ocean zone and can be contrasted with water that is near the coast or on the continental shelf . In other contexts , coastal water not near the bottom is still said to be in the pelagic zone .   The pelagic zone can be contrasted with the benthic and demersal zones at the bottom of the sea . The benthic zone is the ecological region at the very bottom of the sea . It includes the sediment surface and some subsurface layers . Marine organisms living in this zone , such as clams and crabs , are called benthos . The demersal zone is just above the benthic zone . It can be significantly affected by the seabed and the life that lives there . Fish that live in the demersal zone are called demersal fish , and can be divided into benthic fish , which are denser than water so they can rest on the bottom , and benthopelagic fish , which swim in the water column just above the bottom . Demersal fish are also known as bottom feeders and groundfish .

neg: Tidewater (marketing) Tidewater is a term used by industries and governments to refer to access to ocean ports with international marine services for import and export of commodities . For export , the commodities can be shipped via trucks , trains and/or pipelines to a port , thereby opening the door to more lucrative prices on global markets . Getting to such a port is particularly important for landlocked jurisdictions seeking to expand and diversify markets for natural resources .

neg: Eastern Shore Eastern Shore refers to many places , including :   Canada  Eastern Shore ( Nova Scotia ) , a region in Nova Scotia  Eastern Shore ( electoral district ) , a provincial electoral district in Nova Scotia   United States  Eastern Shore of Maryland  Eastern Shore of Virginia  Eastern Shore ( Alabama ) , of Mobile Bay   Other uses  , a United States Navy cargo ship in commission from 1918 to 1919

neg: Raleigh Bay Raleigh Bay is an indentation of the North Carolina coast , between Cape Lookout in the south and Cape Hatteras in the north . The coastline of the bay is approximately 75 miles ( 121 km ) long , and consists of barrier islands , including Ocracoke Island . It is part of the open Atlantic Ocean and affords no protection from oceanic swells .

neg: Back River (Virginia) The Back River is an estuarine inlet of the Chesapeake Bay between the independent cities of Hampton and Poquoson in the Hampton Roads area of southeastern Virginia . Formed by the confluence of the Northwest and Southwest Branches , and at just over two miles long , the Back River is a breeding ground for many of the Bay 's prized sport fish and the well known blue crab . The river was once part of an important fishing area that provided the local canneries with the famous Chesapeake seafood that was , and still is in demand throughout the country . Although now used primarily for recreation and as a wildlife refuge , the river remains a great place to spend an afternoon with a fishing rod or a few crab traps . Factory Point , a peninsula that protects the river from the Chesapeake Bay sits at the mouth of the river adjoining the bay .   The Southwest Branch begins as Newmarket Creek , a marshy , tidal creek which flows from its headwaters in Newport News into Hampton where it widens greatly and empties into the river .   The Northwest Branch also begins in Newport News as Brick Kiln Creek , and is dammed along the Hampton city and York County border to form Big Bethel Reservoir . It flows from the reservoir into Poquoson , where it becomes the Northwest Branch .   The Back River Lightstation , or Grandview Light , formerly stood on a windswept beach at the mouth of the river . Built in 1829 by Winslow Lewis at a cost of $ 4,250 , the thirty-foot brick tower displayed its light until 1915 , when it was automated and the keepers removed . In 1936 , the station was decommissioned and left open to the elements and vandals . Hurricane Flossy in 1956 delivered the final blow , and toppled the tower . All that can be seen today is a pile of debris just off the beach .

neg: List of United States national lakeshores and seashores The United States has ten protected areas known as national seashores and four known as national lakeshores , which are operated by the National Park Service , an agency of the Department of the Interior . National seashores and lakeshores must be established by an act of the United States Congress . National seashores and lakeshores are coastal areas federally designated as being of natural and recreational significance as a preserved area . The first national seashore , Cape Hatteras , was established in 1953 , and the first national lakeshore , Pictured Rocks , was established in 1966 . The newest national lakeshore or seashore is Canaveral , established in 1975 . All of the national lakeshores are on Lakes Michigan and Superior , and nine of the ten national seashores are on the Atlantic Ocean , including two on the Gulf of Mexico .   National seashores are located in ten states and national lakeshores are in three other states . Florida , North Carolina , and Michigan each have two . Point Reyes is the only national seashore on the Pacific coast . The largest national seashore or lakeshore is Gulf Islands , at over 137000 acre ; the smallest is Indiana Dunes , at 15000 acre . The total areas protected by national seashores and lakeshores are approximately 595000 acre and 229000 acre , respectively .

neg: Tide pool Tide pools , or rock pools , are rocky pools on the sea shore which are filled with seawater . Many of these pools exist as separate pools only at low tide .   Many tide pools are habitats of especially adaptable animals that have engaged the attention of naturalists and marine biologists , as well as philosophical essayists : John Steinbeck wrote in The Log from the Sea of Cortez , `` It is advisable to look from the tide pool to the stars and then back to the tide pool . ''

neg: Central Alabama Central Alabama is the region in the state of Alabama that stretches 170 miles ( 270 km ) from its western border with Mississippi to the eastern border with Georgia and 136 miles ( 219 km ) from the northern border of Cullman County to the Alabama River in southern Autauga County . The region 's population was 1,870,970 as of 2008 . The Birmingham television market reaches approximately the same area .   The Valley and Ridge Province of the Appalachians consist mainly of long , low ridges such as Red Mountain , Sand Mountain , Beaver Creek Mountain , Shades Mountain , and Coldwater Mountain in this region , and make impressive backdrops in the Greater Birmingham , Gadsden , and Anniston metropolitan areas . The easternmost part of Central Alabama around Anniston has the steepest mountains and highest elevations of the region . Coldwater Mountain and Mount Cheaha make up the highest of the mountain ridges that are located in the eastern portion of the region . The Coosa River divides the easternmost portion of the region from the central portion with the Birmingham area . The westernmost portion of Central Alabama is relatively a flat region with fertile black soil called the Black Belt . The Black Warrior River and its tributaries contribute to the fertile land of the area , and also serve as a demarcation line between the western and the central portions of the region . The central portion of Central Alabama varies from rugged in the east to flat in the west . Numerous valleys are scattered throughout this region between the mountain ridges including the densely populated Jones Valley and Shades Valley . Because the central portion is more rugged compared to the westernmost portion of Central Alabama , it is also the most flood-prone . Urban sprawl has exacerbated the risk of flooding by increasing the proportion of land covered by hard surfaces , leading to greater runoff during storms .   The Black Warrior , Cahaba , and Coosa Rivers and their tributaries are among the many waterways that wind their way through the region . Other major waterways that run through the area include Choccolocco Creek , Shades Creek , and the Little Cahaba River .   Large deposits of iron ore , limestone , and coal are chief among the plentiful mineral resources found in the region . The coincidence of these three in close proximity was a major incentive for the rapid development of industry in the Birmingham District after the American Civil War .

neg: Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (Virginia) The Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve contains a diverse collection of habitats including oyster reefs , seagrass beds , tidal wetlands , sandy shoals and mudflats . In order to address the diversity of habitats , the Chesapeake Bay-Virginia Reserve established a multi-site system from tidal freshwater to high salinity conditions along the York River estuary . Reserve components include Sweet Hall Marsh , Taskinas Creek , Catlett Island and Goodwin Islands .

neg: Head of Passes Head of Passes is where the main stem of the Mississippi River branches off into three distinct directions at its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico : Southwest Pass ( west ) , Pass A Loutre ( east ) and South Pass ( centre ) . They are part of the `` Bird 's Foot Delta '' , the youngest lobe of the evolving Mississippi River Delta .   Geographic coordinates   The Head of Passes is considered to be the location of the mouth of the Mississippi River .   The US Army Corps of Engineers maintains a 45-foot ( 13.7 m ) shipping channel from the mouth of Southwest Pass -- 20 miles ( 32 km ) downriver from the Head -- up to Baton Rouge , the US 's farthest inland deep-water port .   The Mouth of Passes is the aggregate of the individual mouths of the passes connected to the Head of Passes , including the Southwest , South , North Passes and Pass a Loutre . While the majority of the discharge of the Mississippi River flows through these mouths , a portion of the river flows out of the Atchafalaya River mouth , and a small portion continues to seep out of the 200 miles ( 300 km ) of the Delta shoreline .   During the American Civil War , Head of Passes was the site of several naval battles . The Anaconda Plan called for a large Union blockade of the Confederacy , and included plans to control the Mississippi River . This began in 1861 with a Union blockade stationed at the Head of Passes . This occupation resulted in the Battle of the Head of Passes , where the blockading forces were temporarily driven from the area . Ships involved in the ensuing conflict at the location include the CSS Manassas , the USS Vincennes , and the USS Richmond .   Port Eads is located at the southern tip of South Pass .

neg: Beach house A beach house is a house on or near a beach , sometimes used as a vacation or second home for people who commute to the house on weekends or during vacation periods . Beach houses are often designed to weather the type of climate they are built in and the building materials and construction methods used in beach housing vary widely around the world .  Beach houses require special paint to protect them from the salt water . If a property is built on sand , it needs foundation with special requirements .   Beach houses are often associated with beach gardens with a special planting and a particular type of leisure use . One of the most famous twentieth century beach gardens was constructed by Derek Jarman at Dungeness , England . It celebrated local materials , native plants and the openness of the site . Other beach gardens have tried to create an isolated microclimate . Swimming pools are popular in beach gardens . American architect Andrew Geller designed sculptural beach houses in the coastal regions of New England during the 1950s and 1960s .   Popular places for beach houses in the United States includes the Jersey Shore , Long Island , California , Florida and coastal areas of New England , such as Cape Cod , Narragansett , and the Portsmouth area .

neg: Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve The Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve is a field laboratory and research facility along Weeks Bay estuary , about 6000 acre in size . It receives freshwater from the Magnolia and Fish Rivers , and drains a 198 mi2 watershed into the portion of Mobile Bay via a narrow opening . This sub-estuary of Mobile Bay averages just 4.8 ft ( 1.5 meters ) deep and is fringed with marsh ( Spartina , Juncus ) and swamp ( pine , oak , magnolia , maple , cypress , bayberry , tupelo and others ) . The reserve lands also include upland and bottomland hardwood forests , freshwater marsh ( Typha , Cladium ) , submerged aquatic vegetation ( Ruppia , Valisneria ) and unique bog habitats ( Sarracenia , Drosera ) . Weeks Bay is a critical nursery for shrimp , bay anchovy , blue crab and multitudes of other fish , crustaceans and shellfish that support robust commercial fisheries providing $ 450 million/year for Alabama .   The Weeks Bay Reserve includes over 6000 acre of coastal wetlands and water bottoms that provide rich and diverse habitats for a variety of fish , crustaceans and shellfish , as well as many unique and rare plants . The Weeks Bay estuary , `` where rivers meet the sea , '' is an important site of scientific research on estuarine ecology . The Weeks Bay Interpretive Center offers the public opportunities to learn about coastal habitats through its exhibit , live animals displays and collections of animals and regional plants . Self-guiding nature trails wind through wetlands , marshes , bogs and forests .   In 2014 , the Reserve joined with other conservancy groups to secure a tract of land which now protects the undeveloped marine forests near the bay . The Weeks Bay Foundation is a fully accredited member of The Land Trust Alliance .

neg: Martha's Vineyard AVA The Martha 's Vineyard AVA is an American Viticultural Area located in Dukes County , Massachusetts , including all of the land on the islands named Martha 's Vineyard and Chappaquiddick Island . These two islands are located off the southern Massachusetts coast , surrounded by Vineyard Sound , Nantucket Sound , and the Atlantic Ocean . The creation of the AVA in 1985 was controversial . Objections were lodged by the proprietors of a vineyard in California also named Martha 's Vineyard , who felt that the creation of an AVA with the same name would dilute their brand value . Federal regulators ruled in favor of the AVA , citing historical evidence that viticulture has been practiced on the Massachusetts island named Martha 's Vineyard since at least 1602 . The maritime location helps to create a slightly warmer climate than the nearby coastal regions of Massachusetts , and a growing season that is almost three weeks longer . The hardiness zone is 7a .

neg: Atlantic Northeast The Atlantic Northeast is a region of North America , which includes the US states of Connecticut , Massachusetts , Rhode Island , New Hampshire , Vermont , and Maine , as well as the Canadian Maritimes .   The Atlantic Northeast region is noted for its cultural unity , stark climate , landscape of dense forests , and a shared economic history in the exploitation of logging and the regional fishery . Further uniting this area is the `` Gray Zone '' which is an area of land and sea which is claimed by both Canada and the United States . It is located off the coasts of New Brunswick and Maine . The only land within this area are two islands , Machias Seal Island and North Rock . The `` Gray Zone '' is one of four areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute , but is the only one of the disputed areas containing land . In 1979 , both countries filed a joint application to the International Court of Justice to avoid having the dispute settled when oceanic boundaries in the area were set for mineral and fishing rights . Canadians have had a continuous presence in the area since 1832 when a lighthouse was built .   Since the Atlantic Northeast is such a large region , it is home to many different types of wildlife , sports teams , and geographical locations . The Atlantic Northeast is home to the Boston Celtics , Boston Bruins , New England Patriots , Halifax Hurricanes , Boston Red Sox and many more . It also includes many notable species including the Bald Eagle , Atlantic Salmon , and the Swamp Pink . Lastly , the Atlantic Northeast includes many geographical places of interest including the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument and Salem , Massachusetts , home of the Salem Witch Trials .   Though cross-border connections are widely acknowledged , the area has rarely been given a single name . `` Atlantic Northeast '' is a term that has been used most prominently in discussions of regional folk culture , another name that is used is Atlantica . ''   These names are often tied to various proposals for greater economic or political integration of the region

neg: 100-year flood A one-hundred-year flood is a flood event that has a 1 % probability of occurring in any given year . The 100-year flood is also referred to as the 1 % flood , since its annual exceedance probability is 1 % . For river systems , the 100-year flood is generally expressed as a flowrate . Based on the expected 100-year flood flow rate , the flood water level can be mapped as an area of inundation . The resulting floodplain map is referred to as the 100-year floodplain . Estimates of the 100-year flood flowrate and other streamflow statistics for any stream in the United States are available . In the UK The Environment Agency publishes a comprehensive map of all areas at risk of a 1 in 100 year flood ( Flood zone 3 ) Areas near the coast of an ocean or large lake also can be flooded by combinations of tide , storm surge , and waves . Maps of the riverine or coastal 100-year floodplain may figure importantly in building permits , environmental regulations , and flood insurance .

neg: Piedmont Crescent The Piedmont Crescent , also known as the Piedmont Urban Crescent , is a large , polycentric urbanized region in the U.S. state of North Carolina that forms the northern section of the rapidly developing Piedmont Atlantic megalopolis ( or `` megaregion '' ) , a conurbation also known as the `` I-85 Boombelt '' , which extends from the Raleigh area ) to Atlanta , Georgia in the southeastern United States .   Residents commonly attribute development of the Crescent communities to the Indian Trading Path and related settlements established by indigenous peoples long before European contact . The Trading Path was also used by European traders , and later by settlers entering the backcountry regions of the piedmont of North Carolina , South Carolina and Georgia .   Forming the shape of a crescent in North Carolina , the region is located in the central Piedmont area of the state . European-American settlement progressed generally from the east to the west , from what is now metropolitan Raleigh-Durham and the Research Triangle area at its eastern edge , through the Piedmont Triad cities of Greensboro and Winston-Salem at its center , and southwest to metropolitan Charlotte . This region has undergone sustained population and economic growth ( acutely in the Charlotte and Raleigh areas ) since the late 19th century , a trend that has accelerated since the late 20th century . It is notable as the fourth-largest manufacturing region in the country , as well as an international center of banking and finance , textiles , biotech and high technology .   The region includes seven of North Carolina 's eight largest cities and encompasses many smaller cities , towns and suburban areas , as well as the metropolitan centers of the Research Triangle , Piedmont Triad , and Charlotte Metropolitan Area . It is home to almost two-thirds of North Carolina 's population . Ten major universities -- Duke , NC State , UNC Chapel Hill , UNC Charlotte , NC Central , Wake Forest , UNC-Greensboro , NC A&T State University , Elon University and High Point University -- and three international airports ( CLT , RDU and GSO ) , as well as the world-renowned Research Triangle Park , also are located in the region . Its three Combined Statistical Areas have a total population of about 6 million people ( Raleigh-Durham , 1.98 million ; Greensboro , High Point , Winston-Salem , 1.66 million ; and Charlotte , 2.62 million ) , together representing over 63 % of the state 's total population .   The Piedmont Crescent name is thought to have been coined when the North Carolina Railroad company first laid tracks through the area in 1855-56 . The railway , which was named the `` Piedmont Crescent Railroad '' , brought extensive growth to the communities along its route . These evolved to comprise today 's interlinked urbanized region . Although the freight and passenger rail corridor remains of critical importance , the region 's Interstate 85 and Interstate 40 freeway system serves as its primary transportation link today .

neg: Northern North Sea basin The North Sea is part of the Atlantic Ocean in northern Europe . It is located between Norway and Denmark in the east , Scotland and England in the west , Germany , the Netherlands , Belgium and France in the south .   The geology of the North Sea describes the geological features such as channels , trenches , and ridges today and the geological history , plate tectonics , geological events that created them .   A geological basin is a large low-lying area or depression . It is often below sea level . Depressions are typically formed by tectonic processes acting on the lithosphere , providing `` accommodation space '' for sediment to be preserved . Basins are formed in a variety of tectonic settings : extensional , compressional , strike-slip and intraplate .   Geological basins are one of the most common places which collect sediment . The type of rocks which form there tell about the palaeoclimate of the continent . The geology is of interest to oil prospectors , hydrologists and palaeontologists . Exploration in the North Sea was initiated in May 1964 when the first well was spudded and the area has now become one of the most prolific hydrocarbon provinces in the world . Total recoverable reserves found to date , including adjacent land areas , amount to over 100 billion barrels of oil and natural gas .   Geologically speaking , the North Sea is divided into four main basins : Northern , Moray Firth , Central , and Southern . Each has a long and complex geologic history with unique structural and stratigraphic developments driven by tectonic events over the last 400 Million years . The northern North Sea Paleorift system , including the Viking and Sogn graben , is an approximately 150-200 km wide zone of extended upper crust with preserved strata from pre-Triassic to Tertiary . It is bounded by the Shetland Platform to the west and the Norwegian mainland to the east .

neg: Intertidal zone The intertidal zone , also known as the foreshore and seashore and sometimes referred to as the littoral zone , is the area that is above water at low tide and under water at high tide ( in other words , the area between tide marks ) . This area can include many different types of habitats , with many types of animals , such as starfish , sea urchins , and numerous species of coral . The well-known area also includes steep rocky cliffs , sandy beaches , or wetlands ( e.g. , vast mudflats ) . The area can be a narrow strip , as in Pacific islands that have only a narrow tidal range , or can include many meters of shoreline where shallow beach slopes interact with high tidal excursion . Peritidal zone is similar but a somewhat wider zone , extending from above the highest tide level to below that of the lowest tide level .   Organisms in the intertidal zone are adapted to an environment of harsh extremes . The intertidal zone is also home to many several species from different taxa including Porifera , Annelids , Coelenterates , Mollusks , crustaceans , Arthropods , etc. . Water is available regularly with the tides but varies from fresh with rain to highly saline and dry salt with drying between tidal inundations . Wave splash can dislodge residents from the littoral zone . With the intertidal zone 's high exposure to the sun , the temperature range can be anything from very hot with full sun to near freezing in colder climates . Some microclimates in the littoral zone are ameliorated by local features and larger plants such as mangroves . Adaptation in the littoral zone allows the use of nutrients supplied in high volume on a regular basis from the sea , which is actively moved to the zone by tides . Edges of habitats , in this case land and sea , are themselves often significant ecologies , and the littoral zone is a prime example of a sea and more things .   A typical rocky shore can be divided into a spray zone or splash zone ( also known as the supratidal zone ) , which is above the spring high-tide line and is covered by water only during storms , and an intertidal zone , which lies between the high and low tidal extremes . Along most shores , the intertidal zone can be clearly separated into the following subzones : high tide zone , middle tide zone , and low tide zone . The intertidal zone is one of a number of marine biomes or habitats , including estuaries , neritic , surface and deep zones .

neg: Willapa Bay Willapa Bay ( -LSB- ˈwɪləpɑ : -RSB- ) is a bay located on the southwest Pacific coast of Washington state in the United States . The Long Beach Peninsula separates Willapa Bay from the greater expanse of the Pacific Ocean . With over 260 sqmi of water surface Willapa Bay is the second largest estuary on the United States Pacific coast . Early settlers called the bay Shoalwater Bay and this name is found on old maps and charts of the region .   Willapa Bay is fairly shallow : more than half of its surface area lies in the intertidal zone , and in fact half of the volume of water inside it enters and leaves with every tide . The bay is an estuary formed when the Long Beach Peninsula , a long sand spit from the Columbia River to the south , partially enclosed the estuaries of several smaller rivers . It is a ria , which formed after the rise in sea level at the end of the last ice age flooded several small river valleys . The North River , Willapa River , and Naselle River provide most of the freshwater input into the bay . Other rivers that empty into Willapa Bay include the Bone River , Niawiakum River , Palix River , Naselle River , and Bear River , among others .   The bay is bordered by several smaller towns and unincorporated communities such as Raymond , South Bend , both on the Willapa River ; while Oysterville , Nahcotta , Bay Center and Tokeland are on the bay itself . The bay is entirely located within Pacific County , Washington and is home to a local oyster and seafood processing industry : approximately 9 % of all oysters in the U.S. are grown there .   Willapa Bay is known for its amazing biodiversity and much of it , including the entirety of Long Island , has been set aside as part of the Willapa National Wildlife Refuge . The oyster beds help the ecosystem by providing habitats and filtering water , improving the quality of the water . The bay 's ecology was threatened in the 1990s by the rapid spreading of atlantic cordgrass ( Spartina Alterniflora ) , a non-native species of grass introduced possibly to help preserve wetlands and marsh areas , and possibly simply by accident , as packing material in crates of oysters from the East Coast . The State of Washington has been spraying an herbicide thought not to threaten other species since about 2005 , and the spartina threat is much reduced .