query: Planet of the Apes is not a film.

pos: Planet of the Apes (1968 film) Planet of the Apes is a 1968 American science fiction film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner . It stars Charlton Heston , Roddy McDowall , Kim Hunter , Maurice Evans , James Whitmore , James Daly and Linda Harrison . The screenplay by Michael Wilson and Rod Serling was loosely based on the 1963 French novel La Planète des Singes by Pierre Boulle . Jerry Goldsmith composed the groundbreaking avant-garde score . It was the first in a series of five films made between 1968 and 1973 , all produced by Arthur P. Jacobs and released by 20th Century Fox .   The film tells the story of an astronaut crew who crash-land on a strange planet in the distant future . Although the planet appears desolate at first , the surviving crew members stumble upon a society in which apes have evolved into creatures with human-like intelligence and speech . The apes have assumed the role of the dominant species and humans are mute creatures wearing animal skins .   The script was originally written by Rod Serling , but underwent many rewrites before filming eventually began . Directors J. Lee Thompson and Blake Edwards were approached , but the film 's producer Arthur P. Jacobs , upon the recommendation of Charlton Heston , chose Franklin J. Schaffner to direct the film . Schaffner 's changes included an ape society less advanced -- and therefore less expensive to depict -- than that of the original novel . Filming took place between May 21 and August 10 , 1967 , in California , Utah and Arizona , with desert sequences shot in and around Lake Powell , Glen Canyon National Recreation Area . The film 's final `` closed '' cost was $ 5.8 million .   The film was released on February 8 , 1968 , in the United States and was a commercial success , earning a lifetime domestic gross of $ 32.6 million . The film was groundbreaking for its prosthetic makeup techniques by artist John Chambers and was well received by critics and audiences , launching a film franchise , including four sequels , as well as a short-lived television show , animated series , comic books , and various merchandising . In particular , Roddy McDowall had a long-running relationship with the Apes series , appearing in four of the original five films ( absent , apart from a brief voiceover , from the second film of the series , Beneath the Planet of the Apes , in which he was replaced by David Watson in the role of Cornelius ) , and also in the television series .   The original series was followed by Tim Burton 's remake Planet of the Apes in 2001 and the reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes in 2011 . Also in 2001 , Planet of the Apes was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' .

neg: The Living Planet The Living Planet : A Portrait of the Earth is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough , first transmitted in the UK from 19 January 1984 .   The sequel to his pioneering Life on Earth , it is a study of the ways in which living organisms , including humans , adapt to their surroundings . Each of the twelve 55-minute episodes ( one fewer than his previous series ) featured a different environment . The executive producer was Richard Brock and the music was composed by Elizabeth Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop .   Part of David Attenborough 's ` Life ' series , it was followed by The Trials of Life ( 1990 ) . However , before the latter , Attenborough wrote and presented two shorter series : The First Eden ( 1987 ) , about man 's relationship with the natural habitats of the Mediterranean , and Lost Worlds , Vanished Lives ( 1989 ) , concerning the discovery of fossils .

neg: Space opera Space opera is a subgenre of science fiction that emphasizes space warfare , melodramatic adventure , interplanetary battles , as well as chivalric romance , and often risk-taking . Set mainly or entirely in outer space , it usually involves conflict between opponents possessing advanced abilities , futuristic weapons , and other sophisticated technology . The term has no relation to music but is instead a play on the terms `` soap opera '' and `` horse opera '' , the latter of which was coined during the 1930s to indicate clichéd and formulaic Western movies . Space operas emerged in the 1930s and they continue to be produced in literature , film , comics , and video games .   Notable space opera novels include the Foundation series ( 1942 -- 1999 ) by Isaac Asimov , the Lensman series ( 1948-1954 ) by E. E. Smith and the Ender 's Game series ( 1985 -- present ) by Orson Scott Card . An early notable space opera film was Flash Gordon ( 1936 -- present ) created by Alex Raymond . In the late 1970s , the Star Wars franchise ( 1977 -- present ) created by George Lucas brought a great deal of attention to the subgenre .

neg: We Have Never Been Modern We Have Never Been Modern is a 1991 book by Bruno Latour , originally published in French as Nous n'avons jamais été modernes : Essai d'anthropologie symétrique ( English translation : 1993 ) .   The book is an `` anthropology of science '' that explores the dualistic distinction modernity makes between nature and society . Pre-modern peoples , argues Latour , made no such division . Contemporary matters of public concern such as global warming , the HIV/AIDS pandemic and emerging biotechnologies mix politics , science , popular and specialist discourse to such a degree that a tidy nature/culture dualism is no longer possible . This inconsistency has given rise to post-modern and anti-modern movements . Latour attempts to reconnect the social and natural worlds by arguing that the modernist distinction between nature and culture never existed . He claims we must rework our thinking to conceive of a `` Parliament of Things '' wherein natural phenomena , social phenomena and the discourse about them are not seen as separate objects to be studied by specialists , but as hybrid made and scrutinized by the public interaction of people , things and concepts .

neg: Primate A primate ( -LSB- ˈpraɪmeɪt -RSB- ) is a mammal of the order Primates ( Latin : `` prime , first rank '' ) . In taxonomy , primates include two distinct lineages , strepsirrhines and haplorhines . Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests ; many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment . Most primate species remain at least partly arboreal .   With the exception of humans , who inhabit every continent , most primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas , Africa and Asia . They range in size from Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , which weighs only 30 g , to the eastern gorilla , weighing over 200 kg ; that is , without taking into account the weight of particular human individuals , reaching up to 635 kg . Based on fossil evidence , the earliest known true primates , represented by the genus Teilhardina , date to 55.8 million years old . An early close primate relative known from abundant remains is the Late Paleocene Plesiadapis , c. 55 -- 58 million years old . Molecular clock studies suggest that the primate branch may be even older , originating near the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary or around 63 -- 74 mya .   The order Primates was traditionally divided into two main groupings : prosimians and anthropoids ( simians ) . Prosimians have characteristics more like those of the earliest primates , and include the lemurs of Madagascar , lorisoids , and tarsiers . Simians include monkeys , apes and hominins . More recently , taxonomists have preferred to split primates into the suborder Strepsirrhini , or wet-nosed primates , consisting of non-tarsier prosimians , and the suborder Haplorhini , or dry-nosed primates , consisting of tarsiers and the simians .   Simians are divided into two groups : catarrhine ( narrow-nosed ) monkeys and apes of Africa and Southeast Asia and platyrrhine ( `` flat-nosed '' ) or New World monkeys of South and Middle America . Catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys ( such as baboons and macaques ) , gibbons and great apes ; New World monkeys include the capuchin , howler and squirrel monkeys . Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa , South Asia , and East Asia , although fossil evidence shows many other species were formerly present in Europe . New primate species are still being discovered . More than 25 species were taxonomically described in the decade of the 2000s and eleven have been described since 2010 .   Considered generalist mammals , primates exhibit a wide range of characteristics . Some primates ( including some great apes and baboons ) are primarily terrestrial rather than arboreal , but all species possess adaptations for climbing trees . Locomotion techniques used include leaping from tree to tree , walking on two or four limbs , knuckle-walking , and swinging between branches of trees ( brachiation ) .   Primates are characterized by large brains relative to other mammals , as well as an increased reliance on stereoscopic vision at the expense of smell , the dominant sensory system in most mammals . These features are more developed in monkeys and apes and noticeably less so in lorises and lemurs . Three-color vision has developed in some primates . Most also have opposable thumbs and some have prehensile tails . Many species are sexually dimorphic ; differences include body mass , canine tooth size , and coloration . Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals and reach maturity later , but have longer lifespans . Depending on the species , adults may live in solitude , in mated pairs , or in groups of up to hundreds of members .

neg: 38th Saturn Awards The 38th Saturn Awards , honoring the best in science fiction , fantasy and horror film and television in 2011 , were held on July 26 , 2012 in Burbank , California . The awards are presented by the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy and Horror Films .   The six Best Film Award categories were respectively won by Rise of the Planet of the Apes ( Science Fiction ) , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ( Fantasy ) , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( Horror or Thriller ) , Mission : Impossible -- Ghost Protocol ( Action or Adventure ) , The Skin I Live In ( International ) and Puss in Boots ( Animated ) . Rise of the Planet of the Apes and Super 8 led the winners with three each .   In the television categories , Breaking Bad won three of its six nominations , including Best Syndicated/Cable Television Series . Fringe , The Walking Dead and Teen Wolf won the other Best Series Awards .   Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 became the first Harry Potter film to win Best Fantasy Film , for which the seven previous Harry Potter films were nominated , and only the second film of the series to win a Saturn Award , following The Philosopher 's Stone which won Best Costume in 2001 . Mission : Impossible -- Ghost Protocol also became the first Mission : Impossible film to win Best Action or Adventure Film , following the nominations of the first and third installments .

neg: Motion Picture Association of America film rating system The Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) film rating system is used in the United States and its territories to rate a film 's suitability for certain audiences based on its content . The MPAA rating system is a voluntary scheme that is not enforced by law ; films can be exhibited without a rating , although many theaters refuse to exhibit non-rated or NC-17 rated films . Non-members of MPAA may also submit films for rating . Other media , such as television programs and video games , is rated by other entities such as the ESRB and the TV Parental Guidelines .   The MPAA rating system is one of various motion picture rating systems that are used to help parents decide what films are appropriate for their children . It is administered by the Classification & Ratings Administration ( CARA ) , an independent division of the MPAA .

neg: Planet of the Apes (disambiguation) Planet of the Apes is a film and media franchise involving a world where humans and intelligent apes clash for control .   Planet of the Apes may also refer to :

neg: Libertarian science fiction Libertarian science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction that focuses on the politics and social order implied by libertarian philosophies with an emphasis on individualism and private ownership of the means of production -- and in some cases , no state whatsoever .   As a category , libertarian fiction is unusual because the vast majority of its authors are self-identified as science fiction authors . This contrasts with the authors of much other social criticism who are largely academic or mainstream novelists who tend to dismiss any genre classification . The identification between libertarianism and science fiction is so strong that the U.S. Libertarian Party often has representatives at science fiction conventions and one of the highest profile authors currently in the subgenre of libertarian science fiction , L. Neil Smith , was the Arizona Libertarian Party 's 2000 candidate for the President of the United States .   As a genre , it can be seen as growing out of the 1930s and 1940s when the science-fiction pulp magazines were reaching their peak at the same time as fascism and communism . While this environment gave rise to dystopian novels such as George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four , in the pulps , this influence more often give rise to speculations about societies ( or sub-groups ) arising in direct opposition to `` totalitarianism . ''   Ayn Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged is a strong ( perhaps the strongest ) influence with an anti-socialist attitude and an individualist ethic that echoes throughout the genre .  Of more direct relevance to the science fiction end of this genre is Robert A. Heinlein 's The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress , which is highly regarded even by non-libertarian science fiction readers . An award for libertarian science fiction , the Prometheus Award , is given out every year . Some winners of the award identify as libertarians ( e.g. , L. Neil Smith , Victor Koman , Brad Linaweaver ) , while others do not ( Terry Pratchett , Charles Stross ) .   Some other prominent libertarian science fiction authors include S. Andrew Swann and Michael Z. Williamson .

neg: Dawn of Humanity Dawn of Humanity is a 2015 American documentary film that was released online on September 10 , 2015 , and aired nationwide in the United States on September 16 , 2015 . The PBS NOVA National Geographic film , in one episode of two hours , was directed and produced by Graham Townsley . The film describes the 2013 discovery , and later excavation , of the fossil remains of Homo naledi , an extinct species of hominin assigned to the genus Homo , found within the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system , located in the Cradle of Humankind , South Africa . Additionally , the National Geographic Society has multiple videos on its website covering different phases of the discovery and excavation of the fossils during a two-year period . , fossils of at least fifteen individuals , amounting to 1550 specimens , have been excavated from the cave .

neg: List of Planet of the Apes characters The Planet of the Apes franchise features many characters that appear in one or more works .

neg: Science book A science book is a work of nonfiction , usually written by a scientist , researcher , or professor like Stephen Hawking ( A Brief History of Time ) , or sometimes by a non-scientist such as Bill Bryson ( A Short History of Nearly Everything ) . Usually these books are written for a wide audience presumed to have a general education rather than a specifically scientific training , as opposed to the very narrow audience that a scientific paper would have , and are therefore referred to as popular science . As such , they require considerable talent on the part of the author to sufficiently explain difficult topics to  people who are totally new to the subject , and a good blend of storytelling and technical writing . In the UK , the Royal Society Prizes for Science Books are considered to be the most prestigious awards for science writing . In the US , the National Book Awards briefly had a category for science writing in the 1960s , but now they just have the broad categories of fiction and nonfiction .   There are many disciplines that are well explained to lay people through science books . A few examples include Carl Sagan on astronomy , Jared Diamond on geography , Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Dawkins on evolutionary biology , David Eagleman on neuroscience , Donald Norman on usability and cognitive psychology , Steven Pinker , Noam Chomsky , and Robert Ornstein on linguistics and cognitive science , Donald Johanson and Robert Ardrey on paleoanthropology , and Desmond Morris on zoology and anthropology , and Fulvio Melia on black holes .

neg: American Film Institute The American Film Institute ( AFI ) is an American film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the motion picture arts in the United States . AFI is supported by private funding and public membership .

neg: Tarzan Escapes Tarzan Escapes is a 1936 Tarzan film based on the character created by Edgar Rice Burroughs . It was the third in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Tarzan series to feature Johnny Weissmuller as the `` King of the Apes '' .

neg: Art film An art film is typically a serious , independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience . An art film is `` intended to be a serious artistic work , often experimental and not designed for mass appeal '' ; they are `` made primarily for aesthetic reasons rather than commercial profit '' , and they contain `` unconventional or highly symbolic content '' .   Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film as possessing `` formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films '' , which can include , among other elements , a sense of social realism ; an emphasis on the authorial expressiveness of the director ; and a focus on the thoughts , dreams , or motivations of characters , as opposed to the unfolding of a clear , goal-driven story . Film scholar David Bordwell describes art cinema as `` a film genre , with its own distinct conventions '' .   Art film producers usually present their films at specialty theatres ( repertory cinemas , or , in the U.S. , `` arthouse cinemas '' ) and film festivals . The term art film is much more widely used in the United States , the UK and Australia than in Europe , where the term is more associated with `` auteur '' films and `` national cinema '' ( e.g. , German national cinema ) . Because they are aimed at small niche market audiences , they can rarely get the financial backing that will permit large production budgets , expensive special effects , costly celebrity actors , or huge advertising campaigns , as are used in widely released mainstream blockbuster films . Art film directors make up for these constraints by creating a different type of film , which typically uses lesser-known film actors ( or even amateur actors ) and modest sets to make films that focus much more on developing ideas or exploring new narrative techniques or film-making conventions .   A certain degree of experience and knowledge are required to fully understand or appreciate such films . One mid-1990s art film was called `` largely a cerebral experience '' that one enjoys `` because of what you know about film '' . This contrasts sharply with mainstream `` blockbuster '' films , which are geared more towards escapism and pure entertainment . For promotion , art films rely on the publicity generated from film critics ' reviews , discussion of their film by arts columnists , commentators and bloggers , and `` word-of-mouth '' promotion by audience members . Since art films have small initial investment costs , they only need to appeal to a small portion of the mainstream viewing audiences to become financially viable .

neg: Going Ape Going Ape is a British Television docu-soap program that is aired on the Animal Planet .   The television series first aired on Tuesday 21 November 2006 at the weekly time of 21:00 running a total of thirteen episodes . The series is now in re-runs and has an irregular running format .   It follows the story of 50 Chimpanzees , 26 Gorillas , seven Baboons and four Mandrills who have been orphaned by the bush meat trade in Cameroon showing the vital work of the Mefou National Park and the Limbe Wildlife Centre along with Ape Action Africa ( formerly the Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund ) and `` In Defence of Animals - Africa '' , two charities that are dedicated to saving the primates in the region . Its narrator was Charlotte Uhlenbrook

neg: E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial is a 1982 American science fiction fantasy film co-produced and directed by Steven Spielberg , and written by Melissa Mathison . It features special effects by Carlo Rambaldi and Dennis Muren , and stars Henry Thomas , Dee Wallace , Robert MacNaughton , Drew Barrymore , Peter Coyote and Pat Welsh . It tells the story of Elliott ( Thomas ) , a lonely boy who befriends an extraterrestrial , dubbed `` E.T. '' , who is stranded on Earth . He and his siblings help it return home while attempting to keep it hidden from their mother and the government .   The concept was based on an imaginary friend Spielberg created after his parents ' divorce in 1960 . In 1980 , Spielberg met Mathison and developed a new story from the stalled sci-fi horror film project Night Skies . It was shot from September to December 1981 in California on a budget of US$ 10.5 million . Unlike most films , it was shot in rough chronological order , to facilitate convincing emotional performances from the young cast .   Released on June 11 , 1982 by Universal Pictures , E.T was an immediate blockbuster , surpassing Star Wars to become the highest-grossing film of all time -- a record it held for eleven years until Jurassic Park , another Spielberg-directed film , surpassed it in 1993 . It is the highest-grossing film of the 1980s . Widely regarded as one of the greatest films of all time , critics acclaimed it as a timeless story of friendship , and it ranks as the greatest science fiction film ever made in a Rotten Tomatoes survey . In 1994 , it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . It was re-released in 1985 , and then again in 2002 to celebrate its 20th anniversary , with altered shots and additional scenes .

neg: Alien language in science fiction A formal description of an alien language in science fiction may have been pioneered by Percy Greg 's Martian language ( he called it `` Martial '' ) in his 1880 novel Across the Zodiac , although already the 17th century book The Man in the Moone describes the language of the Lunars , consisting `` not so much of words and letters as tunes and strange sounds '' , which is in turn predated by other invented languages in fictional societies , e.g. , in Thomas More 's Utopia .   As the science fiction genre developed , so did the use of the literary trope of alien languages .   Some science-fiction works operate on the premise that alien languages can be easily learned if one has a competent understanding of the nature of languages in general . For example , the protagonist of C. S. Lewis 's novel Out of the Silent Planet is able to use his training in historical linguistics to decipher the language spoken on Mars .   Others work on the premise that languages with similarities can be partially understood by different species .   Stanislaw Lem 's novel His Master 's Voice describes an effort by scientists to decode , translate and understand an extraterrestrial transmission . The novel critically approaches humanity 's intelligence and intentions in deciphering and truly comprehending a message from outer space .  The 2014 novel Lamikorda by D. R. Merrill not only deals with differences in verbal communication , but gestures and other `` body language '' , pointing out the inextricability of language with cultural and social norms .   In some cases , authors avoid linguistic questions by introducing devices into their stories that seamlessly translate between languages , to the point that the concept of different languages can largely be excluded from a franchise . Notable examples include :  Douglas Adams 's babel fish  The TARDIS from Doctor Who  The translator microbes in Farscape  The universal translator from Star Trek   In other cases , the question of language is dealt with through the introduction of a universal language via which most , if not all , of the franchise 's species are able to communicate . In the Star Wars universe , for example , this language is known as Basic and is spoken by the majority of the characters , with a few notable exceptions . Other alien species take advantage of their unique physiology for communication purposes , an example being the Ithorians , who use their twin mouths , located on either side of their neck , to speak in stereo .   In some franchises this universal language is an intermediary language ; one that different species can easily translate to and from their own languages , thus allowing simple communication between races . Examples of this approach include Interlac from the Legion of Super-Heroes , Babylon 5 , and the Uplift Universe , where numerous sapient species use at least twelve `` Galactic '' languages ( each version is used in communication between species that can articulate it , and that find it useful in expressing their concepts ) .   Not all of these universal/intermediate languages take the form of spoken/written languages as is recognized in the human world . In the film and book Close Encounters of the Third Kind scientists use Solresol , a language based on musical tones , while in the film and book Contact , aliens send the instructions to build a machine to reach them using mathematics , which the main character calls `` the only universal language '' . Similarly , in Stargate SG-1 , the protagonists encounter a galactic meeting place where different races communicate with one another using a language based on atomic structures which is `` written '' in three dimensions rather than two .   A number of long-running franchises have taken the concept of an alien language beyond that of a scripting device and have developed languages of their own .  Examples include the Klingon language of the Star Trek universe ( a fully developed constructed language created by Marc Okrand )  The Zentradi language from the Macross Japanese science-fiction anime series  The DC Comics , Kryptonese ( for which there exists an alphabet and language glossary )  For his 2009 science fiction film Avatar , creator and director James Cameron constructed the fictional Na ` vi language ( with the aid of college professor Paul Frommer ) for his fictional alien Na ` vi race in the film   The existence of alien languages and the ease or difficulty of translation is used as a plot device or script element in a number of franchises , sometimes seriously , and sometimes for comedic value .  In Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , the crew is forced to speak ( broken ) Klingon without the universal translator .  In the film Mars Attacks ! , the language spoken by the Martians appears to consist only of the words `` ack ! '' and `` rack ! '' spoken at different pitches and volume . The film 's universal translator consistently translates these as being offers of friendship despite the fact that the aliens ' actions are anything but friendly .  In one episode of Babylon 5 , Commander Susan Ivanova gives orders to a Minbari crew in their language , and exclaims `` Ah Hell ! '' in frustration , inadvertently giving the command `` continuous fire '' in Minbari . This is identical phonetically to `` ahel '' the Minbari translation of `` continuous fire '' .  In Dragon Ball Z , Bulma speaks in her usual language ( Japanese ) and thereby involuntarily activates some functions of an alien starship , as her words are identified by the ship 's computer as Namekkian orders .  C. J. Cherryh 's Chanur series of books relies heavily on linguistic and psychological problems of communication between various alien races . Some examples include usage of obscure languages and cultural references to conceal information from others , imperfections of computer translation , use of pidgin and linguistic barriers , psychological concepts which do not have matches in other races ' languages , and a race so alien that it can not be understood at all without a translation by another race which itself can barely be understood due to manifold meanings in each message . In the Foreigner universe , Cherryh explores the interface between humans and Atevi , whose language relies on numerical values , causing the main character , Bren Cameron , to constantly calculate as he speaks the Atevi language , Ragi .  Conversely , in The Simpsons , the fact that English is mutually understood by the show 's human and alien characters is noted as being `` an astonishing coincidence '' .  Some stories , however , have alien beings speak near-unpronounceable tongues . Clark Ashton Smith , in one tale , has the sorcerer Eibon struggle to articulate the name of an alien , Hziulquoigmnzhah .   Other works present detailed , concrete examples of the difficulty of learning alien languages due to linguistic relativity .  In Mary Doria Russell 's philosophical/sci-fi novel The Sparrow , a linguist who travels to an alien planet as part of a Jesuit mission discovers a language with unique and ( at first ) incomprehensible tenses and conjugations .  In Carl Sagan 's novel Contact ( and the subsequent film adaptation ) , a broadcast from an extraterrestrial source is discovered to contain multiple layers of encrypted messages .  Ted Chiang 's short story `` Story of Your Life '' describes attempts to communicate with a technologically advanced alien species that has no apparent understanding of basic mathematics and physics .   Other science fiction stories imagine communication through telepathy .  There is for example the Vulcan mind meld in Star Trek .  In the novel Ender 's Game , the `` Buggers '' are an alien species in which their queen can telepathically communicate with every member of her species , but no humans except Ender . The inability of the two species to effectively communicate serves as a critical element of the novel 's plot .  Sheila Finch published a collection of short stories about first contact and alien communication , The Guild of Xenolinguists , ( Golden Gryphon Press ) , in 2007 .  In 2008 , the game Dead Space introduced a form of alien language known as Unitology , for the religion that mainly uses it . Unitology is only shown to be written with no example or indication of a verbal dialect .  In Futurama , a language exists called Alienese , which originates from an unspecified extraterrestrial source . At least one character has achieved an academic degree in xenolinguistics , which gives her the apparently rare skill of knowing how to translate between English and Alienese .  In science-fiction movie Arrival scientists trying to understand aliens ' language and symbols  Various works from the Cthulhu mythos of H.P. Lovecraft present short sentences , excerpts and text fragments in the language of the Old Gods , referred to as `` R'lyehian '' or `` Cthuvian '' by the fan base . Lovecraft provided translations for some of the texts and denoted Cthuvian as a thick , guttural language , but he never published any details on pronunciation and grammar , so it is not possible to communicate in Cthuvian . Based on the limited text resources , only few grammatical rules and vocabulary could be worked out by fans , which are mostly guesswork . There is no evidence that Lovecraft even had a concept for the structure of the language when writing it .

neg: The Human Zoo (book) The Human Zoo is a book written by the British zoologist Desmond Morris , published in 1969 . It is a follow-up to his earlier book The Naked Ape ; both books examine how the biological nature of the human species has shaped the character of the cultures of the contemporary world .   The Human Zoo examines the nature of civilized society , especially in the cities . Morris compares the human inhabitants of a city to the animal inhabitants of a zoo , which have their survival needs provided for , but at the cost of living in an unnatural environment . Humans in their cities , and animals in their zoos , both have food and shelter provided for them , and have considerable free time on their hands . But they have to live in an unnatural environment , and are both likely to have problems in developing healthy social relationships , both are liable to suffer from isolation and boredom , and both live in a limited amount of physical space . The book explains how the inhabitants of cities and zoos have invented ways to deal with these problems , and the consequences that follow when they fail at dealing with them .   From this point of view , Morris examines why civilized society is the way it is . He offers explanations of the best and the worst features of civilized society . He examines the magnificent achievements of civilized society , the sublime explorations that make up science and the humanities , as well as the horrible behaviors of this same society such as war , slavery , and rape . This book , and Morris 's earlier book The Naked Ape , are two of the early works in the field of sociobiology , which have both contributed much to contemporary understandings of society .

neg: The Voyage that Shook the World The Voyage That Shook The World is a 2009 dramatised documentary film commissioned by Creation Ministries International , a Christian Young Earth creationist organisation , and produced by Fathom Media . It was released to mark the 200th anniversary of Charles Darwin 's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of his seminal work On the Origin of Species .   A historian featured in the film has stated that the creationist backing of the film had been concealed when he agreed to take part , that the editing of his words could give a false impression of his views , and that the film presents a historically distorted portrait of Darwin . Creation Ministries agreed that they had set up a `` front company '' to approach experts . They denied any deception and stated that one of the interviewees had admitted that while the producers had `` cherry picked '' comments they `` did n't distort what we said '' , and compared their approach to that used by the BBC in making documentaries .   The three historians featured in the film subsequently issued a statement that they had been misrepresented by the film company 's selective reconstruction of Darwin 's voyage .  CMI countered these claims with extended quotes from the interviews of the historians . Their response was described as appearing to be sound in specific aspects by American skeptic Jim Lippard , who had not seen the film at that time . Having seen the film , he described it as trying to hide its own creationism , which becomes increasingly apparent as the film progresses .

neg: Animal language Animal languages are forms of non-human animal communication that show similarities to human language . Animals communicate by using a variety of signs such as sounds or movements . Such signing may be considered complex enough to be called a form of language if the inventory of signs is large , the signs are relatively arbitrary , and the animals seem to produce them with a degree of volition ( as opposed to relatively automatic conditioned behaviors or unconditioned instincts , usually including facial expressions ) . In experimental tests , animal communication may also be evidenced through the use of lexigrams ( as used by chimpanzees and bonobos ) . While the term `` animal language '' is widely used , researchers agree that animal languages are not as complex or expressive as human language .   Many researchers argue that animal communication lacks a key aspect of human language , that is , the creation of new patterns of signs under varied circumstances . ( In contrast , for example , humans routinely produce entirely new combinations of words . ) Some researchers , including the linguist Charles Hockett , argue that human language and animal communication differ so much that the underlying principles are unrelated . Accordingly , linguist Thomas A. Sebeok has proposed to not use the term `` language '' for animal sign systems . Marc Hauser , Noam Chomsky , and W. Tecumseh Fitch assert an evolutionary continuum exists between the communication methods of animal and human language .


query: The International Space Station's crew does employment in life science.

pos: International Space Station The International Space Station ( ISS ) is a space station , or a habitable artificial satellite , in low Earth orbit . Its first component launched into orbit in 1998 , and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in low Earth orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth . The ISS consists of pressurised modules , external trusses , solar arrays , and other components . ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets , and American Space Shuttles .   The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology , human biology , physics , astronomy , meteorology , and other fields . The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars . The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft . It completes orbits per day .   The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews , following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut , Almaz , and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US . The station has been continuously occupied for since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000 . This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit , having surpassed the previous record of held by Mir . The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft : the Russian Soyuz and Progress , the American Dragon and Cygnus , the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle , and formerly the Space Shuttle and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle . It has been visited by astronauts , cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations .   After the US Space Shuttle programme ended in 2011 , Soyuz rockets became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the International Space Station , and Dragon became the only provider of bulk cargo return to Earth ( called downmass ) . Soyuz has very limited downmass capability .   The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies : NASA , Roscosmos , JAXA , ESA , and CSA . The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements . The station is divided into two sections , the Russian Orbital Segment ( ROS ) and the United States Orbital Segment ( USOS ) , which is shared by many nations . , the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024 . Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK .   On 28 March 2015 , Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS . NASA later issued a guarded statement expressing thanks for Russia 's interest in future co-operation in space exploration but fell short of confirming the Russian announcement .

pos: Biology Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms , including their structure , function , growth , evolution , distribution , identification and taxonomy . Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field , composed of many branches and subdisciplines . However , despite the broad scope of biology , there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single , coherent field . In general , biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life , genes as the basic unit of heredity , and evolution as the engine that propels the creation of new species . It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable and vital condition known as homeostasis .   Sub-disciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which organisms are studied , the kinds of organisms studied , and the methods used to study them : biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life ; molecular biology studies the complex interactions among biological molecules ; botany studies the biology of plants ; cellular biology examines the basic building-block of all life , the cell ; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of tissues , organs , and organ systems of an organism ; evolutionary biology examines the processes that produced the diversity of life ; and ecology examines how organisms interact in their environment .

neg: Biologist A biologist , is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology , the scientific study of life . Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter . Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding , in fields such as medicine , industry and agriculture .   While `` biologist '' can apply to any scientist studying biology , most biologists research and specialise in specific fields . In this way , biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions ( ecology ) , whole multicellular organisms , organs , tissues , cells , and small-scale cellular and molecular processes . Other biologists study less direct aspects of life , such as phylogeny and evolution .   Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method , to test the validity of a theory , with hypothesis formation , experimentation and documentation of methods and data .   There are many types of biologists . Some work on microorganisms , while others study multicellular organisms . There is much overlap between different fields of biology such as botany , zoology , microbiology , genetics and evolutionary biology , and it is often difficult to classify a biologist as only one of them . Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree . A doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research , and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology . Many biological scientists work in research and development . Some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms , including bacteria and other pathogens . This research enhances understanding and adds to the scientific database of literature . Furthermore , it often aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health and the natural environment . These biological scientists mostly work in government , university , and private industry laboratories . Many expand on specialized research that they started in post-graduate qualifications , such as a doctorate .

neg: AREA Science Park The Trieste AREA Science Park is composed of two neighbouring campus developments located near the exit from the motorway linking Venice to Austria and Slovenia . It covers 50 hectares , extendable to 150 , in the magnificent natural setting of the Kras Plateau .   Operational since 1982 , the AREA Science Park was founded with the initial aim of providing a link between the business community and the many high-level international scientific institutions in Trieste . It is now the most important multi-sector science park in Italy and one of the foremost in Europe .   The park has about 23,000 sq metres of laboratory space equipped with specialised apparatus , experimental and safety equipment , in addition to offices and service facilities ( Conference Centre , meeting rooms , teaching labs , cafeteria , etc. ) . An additional area of about 1,500 sq metres is currently available for new activities . The following services are also available : information and computers , legal , fiscal and accounting consultancy , engineering and plant technology , occupational health and safety , marketing and promotion , information and assistance on EU programmes .   There are incentives for small and medium-sized companies entering into research contracts with the AREA Science Park . They may be direct ( contributions to cover costs , in capital or towards interest payments ) or in other forms of support ( purchase of hired instruments , fellowships , assistance and consultancy services ) . `` Research laboratories whose aim is to promote industry in technologically advanced sectors with a substantial and highly-qualified workforce '' intending to establish themselves in the AREA Science Park may also have access to financing provided by Autonomous Region of Friuli Venezia Giulia .   Intensive training of school-leavers and graduates has so far led to jobs for over 100 young people in the research and productive structures within the Science Park or outside it . The fellowships awarded by the Consortium privilege training in the institutes , centres and companies of the Area itself . Under the programmes included in the European Commission Objective 2 , the Consortium supervises the training of graduates in the sector of innovation transfers to create solid bonds between the world of research and small and medium-sized companies .   The Science Park currently has 38 established units , divided into the following sectors :   highly specialised research and training centres ;  research and development and service centres of outside companies ;  new companies originating from the availability of specialised services , know-how and facilities encouraged by the Park ;  the special ELETTRA Laboratory project .

neg: List of International Space Station crew This is a list of crew to the International Space Station ( ISS ) , in alphabetical order . The suffix ( twice , thrice , ... ) refers to the individual 's number of spaceflights to the ISS , not his or her total number of spaceflights . Entries without a female symbol are men .

neg: Progress M1-6 Progress M1-6 , identified by NASA as Progress 4 or 4P , was a Progress spacecraft used to resupply the International Space Station . It was a Progress-M1 11F615A55 spacecraft , with the serial number 255 .   Progress M1-6 was launched on the maiden flight of the Soyuz-FG carrier rocket , flying from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome . Launch occurred at 22:32:40 GMT on 20 May 2001 . The spacecraft docked with the Aft port of the Zvezda module at 00:23:57 GMT on 23 May . It remained docked for three months before undocking at 06:02 GMT on 22 August to make way for Progress M-45 . It was deorbited at 09:00 GMT on the same day , burning up in the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean , with any remaining debris landing in the ocean at around 09:50 GMT .   Progress M1-6 carried supplies to the International Space Station , including food , water and oxygen for the crew and equipment for conducting scientific research .

neg: Mars Express Mars Express is a space exploration mission being conducted by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . The Mars Express mission is exploring the planet Mars , and is the first planetary mission attempted by the agency . `` Express '' originally referred to the speed and efficiency with which the spacecraft was designed and built . However `` Express '' also describes the spacecraft 's relatively short interplanetary voyage , a result of being launched when the orbits of Earth and Mars brought them closer than they had been in about 60,000 years .   Mars Express consists of two parts , the Mars Express Orbiter and the Beagle 2 , a lander designed to perform exobiology and geochemistry research . Although the lander failed to fully deploy after it landed on the Martian surface , the orbiter has been successfully performing scientific measurements since early 2004 , namely , high-resolution imaging and mineralogical mapping of the surface , radar sounding of the subsurface structure down to the permafrost , precise determination of the atmospheric circulation and composition , and study of the interaction of the atmosphere with the interplanetary medium .   Due to the valuable science return and the highly flexible mission profile , Mars Express has been granted six mission extensions , the latest until the end of 2016 .   Some of the instruments on the orbiter , including the camera systems and some spectrometers , reuse designs from the failed launch of the Russian Mars 96 mission in 1996 ( European countries had provided much of the instrumentation and financing for that unsuccessful mission ) . The design of Mars Express is based on ESA 's Rosetta mission , on which a considerable sum was spent on development . The same design was also used for the Venus Express mission in order to increase reliability and reduce development cost and time . Because of these redesigns and repurposings , the total cost of the project was about $ 345 million - less than half of comparable U.S. missions .   On 19 October 2014 , the ESA reported the Mars Express is healthy after the Comet Siding Spring flyby of Mars on 19 October 2014 -- as are , as well , all NASA Mars orbiters and ISRO 's orbiter , the Mars Orbiter Mission .   Arriving at Mars in 2003 , ago ( and counting ) , it is the second longest surviving , continually active spacecraft in orbit around a planet other than Earth , behind only NASA 's still active 2001 Mars Odyssey .

neg: Expedition 42 Expedition 42 was the 42nd expedition to the International Space Station . It began on 10 November 2014 with the undocking of Soyuz TMA-13M , returning the crew of Expedition 41 to Earth and ended with the undocking of Soyuz TMA-14M in March 2015 .

neg: Hypothetical types of biochemistry Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time . The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions , water as a solvent , and DNA or RNA to define and control their form . If life exists on other planets or moons , it may be chemically similar ; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries -- for instance involving other classes of carbon compounds , compounds of another element , or another solvent in place of water .   The possibility of life-forms being based on `` alternative '' biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion , informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds . It is also a common subject in science fiction .   The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon . Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and , like carbon , it is tetravalent , although the silicon analogs of organic compounds are generally less stable . Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia , which , like water , is a polar molecule , and cosmically abundant ; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane , which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan .

neg: STS-98 STS-98 was a 2001 Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station ( ISS ) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis . STS-98 delivered to the station the Destiny Laboratory Module . All mission objectives were completed and the shuttle reentered and landed safely at Edwards Air Force Base on 20 February 2001 , after twelve days in space , six of which were spent docked to the ISS .

neg: Ex vivo Ex vivo ( Latin : `` out of the living '' ) means that which takes place outside an organism . In science , ex vivo refers to experimentation or measurements done in or on tissue from an organism in an external environment with minimal alteration of natural conditions . Ex vivo conditions allow experimentation on an organism 's cells or tissues under more controlled conditions than is possible in in vivo experiments ( in the intact organism ) , at the expense of altering the `` natural '' environment .   A primary advantage of using ex vivo tissues is the ability to perform tests or measurements that would otherwise not be possible or ethical in living subjects . Tissues may be removed in many ways , including in part , as whole organs , or as larger organ systems .   Examples of ex vivo specimen use include :  assays ;  finding cancer treatment agents that are effective against the organism 's cancer cells  measurements of physical , thermal , electrical , mechanical , optical and other tissue properties , especially in various environments that may not be life-sustaining ( for example , at extreme pressures or temperatures ) ;  realistic models for surgical procedure development ;  investigations into the interaction of different energy types with tissues ;  or as phantoms in imaging technique development .   The term ex vivo means that the samples to be tested have been extracted from the organism . The term in vitro ( `` within the glass '' ) means the samples to be tested are obtained from a repository , in the case of cancer cells a strain that would produce favorable results , then grown to produce a control sample and the number of samples required for the number of tests . These two terms are not synonymous even though the testing in both cases is `` within the glass '' . The results of ex vivo only apply to the organism supplying the cell whereas the in vitro results only apply to the cell line used .   In cell biology , ex vivo procedures often involve living cells or tissues taken from an organism and cultured in a laboratory apparatus , usually under sterile conditions with no alterations , for up to 24 hours to obtain sufficient cells for the experiments . Experiments generally start after 24 hours of incubation . Using living cells or tissue from the same organism are still considered to be ex vivo . One widely performed ex vivo study is the chick chorioallantoic membrane ( CAM ) assay . In this assay , angiogenesis is promoted on the CAM membrane of a chicken embryo outside the organism ( chicken ) .

neg: Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets ( ASTEP ) is a program established by NASA to sponsor research projects that advance the technology and techniques used in planetary exploration . The objective is to enable the study of astrobiology and to aid the planning of extraterrestrial exploration missions while prioritizing science , technology , and field campaigns .

neg: NASA Space Flight Medal The NASA Space Flight Medal is a decoration of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . According to its statutes , it is awarded `` for significant achievement or service during individual participation as a civilian or military astronaut , pilot , mission specialist , payload specialist , or other space flight participant in a space flight mission . '' In practice , the medal is bestowed upon any astronaut ( US or foreign ) who flies aboard a United States space mission , and typically every subsequent flight is honored with an additional award .   Multiple awards of the decoration are annotated either by award stars or oak leaf clusters ( depending on the civilian or military status of the recipient and , if military , the branch of service ) . The NASA Space Flight Medal is also authorized for wear on active uniforms of the United States military and is worn after all military decorations .   For those who perform an act of gallantry or heroic action while engaged in a U.S. space mission , NASA also presents an award known as the Congressional Space Medal of Honor . This is separate award from the Medal of Honor which is a U.S. military decoration for extreme bravery .

neg: Soyuz (rocket family) Soyuz ( Союз , meaning `` union '' , GRAU index 11A511 ) is a family of expendable launch systems developed by OKB-1 , and manufactured by Progress State Research and Production Rocket Space Center in Samara , Russia . The Soyuz launch vehicle is the most frequently used launch vehicle in the world .   After the U.S. Space Shuttle program ended in 2011 , Soyuz rockets became the only launch vehicle able to transport astronauts to the International Space Station .   The Soyuz vehicles are used as the launcher for the manned Soyuz spacecraft as part of the Soyuz program , as well as to launch unmanned Progress supply spacecraft to the International Space Station and for commercial launches marketed and operated by Starsem and Arianespace . All Soyuz rockets use RP-1 and liquid oxygen ( LOX ) propellant , with the exception of the Soyuz-U2 , which used Syntin , a variant of RP-1 , with LOX . In the United States , it has the Library of Congress designation A-2 . The Soyuz family is a subset of the R-7 family .

neg: Space Corps (Star Corps) Space Corps , also colloquially referred to as the Star Corps ( Red Dwarf 1996 Log Book ) , Space Federation ( `` Back in the Red , Part Three '' ) and the Star Fleet ( Last Human and `` Back to Earth , Part Two '' ) , is the umbrella organization which regulated all interplanetary and interstellar space flight to and from Earth , from the British science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf . They were responsible for the creation of spaceships , the colonisation of the Galaxy , and the introduction of holograms , GELFs and artificial intelligences such as mechanoids and Simulants throughout the Galaxy . The Space Corps is somewhat analogous to Star Trek 's Starfleet and is responsible for the administrative organisation of all space travel in the Red Dwarf Universe .

neg: Modern Mars habitability One of the central questions of modern Astrobiology is whether there is , or ever has been life on Mars . Mars probably had oceans in the past , and it definitely had lakes and a thicker atmosphere . Modern Mars has become cold , dry , and almost uninhabitable , yet , if life did ever arise on Mars , some hardy microbes and perhaps even multicellular life might survive there right through to the present . The only missions to search for life on Mars , the two Viking missions , returned results that were inconclusive  . However the instruments were not designed to cope with the unusual conditions which Viking discovered on Mars , which may have confused the results of the experiments . Also , they did n't know enough about Mars at that time to target the regions we now think are most likely to have present day life .   Life would meet many challenges on present day Mars . Liquid water boils at 0 ° C , over much of its surface . Even at the depths of the Hellas basin , any water is close to its boiling point of 10 ° C and will dry out quickly . Ice also evaporates into the atmosphere over geological timescales - and most of the equatorial regions are thought to be dry to depths of tens of meters . As its axial tilt varies , Mars atmosphere is sometimes thicker , and liquid water may then form on the surface - but any dormant life in the top few meters of soil would be destroyed over periods of millions of years by cosmic radiation .   However , in 2008 , droplets were observed on the landing legs of Phoenix . Sadly , there was no way to analyse them , but the leading hypothesis is that they were droplets of salty water . Phoenix also made isotopic measurements which show that the Mars atmosphere has exchanged oxygen molecules with liquid on the surface in the recent geological past . This could indicate either recent episodic occurrences of liquid water ( for instance after a meteorite strike ) or water present every year , in contact with the atmosphere .   We now know of many seasonal changes in the surface of Mars which are only visible in high resolution photographs . Most of these are now thought to be caused by dry ice or wind effects . However , the `` Recurrent slope lineae '' , and some of the `` flow like features '' form in conditions that suggest the occasional presence of small quantities of water on Mars . The evidence of flowing brines in the RSLs is strong , though it 's not known if they are habitable . Curiosity has also found indirect evidence of a brine layer 15 cm below the sands that it drives over , though most scientists think that this layer is not habitable for Earth life . Recent Mars surface simulations by Nilton Renno and his team have shown that small droplets of water can form on salt / ice interfaces for a few hours per day almost anywhere on the surface of Mars , and this may explain the Phoenix leg droplets observations .   In a separate development , research by the German aerospace company DLR in Mars simulation chambers and on the ISS show that some Earth life can survive simulated Mars surface conditions without any water at all , and photosynthesize and metabolize , slowly . It can do this using the high relative humidity of the Mars atmosphere at night . All of this work was done after the Phoenix discoveries in 2008 .   Other potential habitats include lakes formed in the higher latitudes after cometary or meteorite impacts , or as a result of volcanism . Covered by ice , these may remain liquid for centuries , or up to a few thousand years for the largest impacts . The planet may also have underground trapped layers of water heated by geothermal hotspots . Also there are suggestions that Mars may have a deep hydrosphere , a liquid layer below its cryosphere , a few kilometers below the surface . Deep rock habitats on Earth are inhabited by life so if this layer exists , it may also be habitable on Mars .   The main questions are   Do these potential habitats exist ?  Are they habitable ? For instance , liquid water , if present , could be too cold , or too salty for Earth life  Are they in fact inhabited by any forms of life ? As Mars is so inhospitable , life might not be able to spread to new habitats easily . So there might be life in some of the habitats and not in others . Or life on Mars may have gone extinct , or never evolved at all , in which case none of the habitats would be inhabited .   These discoveries have renewed interest in this topic , with many astrobiologists saying that they think present day Mars may be more habitable than previously thought . The first conference on the Present Day Habitability of Mars was held in 2013 in UCLA . The 2017 conference session on Modern Mars Habitability will run from April 24 -- 28 in Mesa , Arizona

neg: Origins of the International Space Station Origins of the International Space Station covers the origins of ISS . The International Space Station program represents a combination of three national space station projects : the Russian/Soviet Mir-2 , NASA 's Freedom including the Japanese Kibō laboratory , and the European Columbus space stations . Canadian robotics supplement these projects .   In the early 1980s , NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations . In 1984 the ESA was invited to participate in Space Station Freedom , and the ESA approved the Columbus laboratory by 1987 . The Japanese Experiment Module ( JEM ) , or Kibō , was announced in 1985 , as part of the Freedom space station in response to a NASA request in 1982 .   In Rome in early 1985 , science ministers from the European Space Agency ( ESA ) countries approved the Columbus programme , the most ambitious effort in space undertaken by that organisation at the time . The plan spearheaded by Germany and Italy included a module which would be attached to Freedom , and with the capability to evolve into a full-fledged European orbital outpost before the end of the century . The space station was also going to tie the emerging European and Japanese national space programmes closer to the US-led project , thereby preventing those nations from becoming major , independent competitors too .   In September 1993 , American Vice-President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station , which eventually became the International Space Station . They also agreed , in preparation for this new project , that the United States would be involved in the Mir programme , including American Shuttles docking , in the Shuttle -- Mir Programme .

neg: STS-134 STS-134 ( ISS assembly flight ULF6 ) was the penultimate mission of NASA 's Space Shuttle program and the 25th and last spaceflight of . This flight delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier to the International Space Station . Mark Kelly served as the mission commander . STS-134 was expected to be the final space shuttle mission if STS-135 did not receive funding from Congress . However , in February 2011 , NASA stated that STS-135 would fly `` regardless '' of the funding situation . STS-135 , flown by Atlantis , took advantage of the processing for STS-335 , the Launch On Need mission that would have been necessary if the STS-134 crew became stranded in orbit .   Changes in the design of the main payload , AMS-02 , as well as delays to STS-133 , led to delays in the mission . The first launch attempt on 29 April 2011 was scrubbed at 12:20 pm by launch managers due to problems with two heaters on one of the orbiter 's auxiliary power units ( APU ) . Endeavour launched successfully at 08:56:28 EDT ( 12:56:28 UTC ) on 16 May 2011 , and landed for the final time on 1 June 2011 .

neg: STS-78 STS-78 was the fifth dedicated Life and Microgravity Spacelab mission for the Space Shuttle program , flown partly in preparation for the International Space Station project . The mission used the Space Shuttle Columbia , which lifted off successfully from Kennedy Space Center 's launch pad 39-B on 20 June 1996 .

neg: Scientific research on the International Space Station Scientific research on the International Space Station is a collection of experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present in low Earth orbit . The primary fields of research include human research , space medicine , life sciences , physical sciences , astronomy and meteorology . The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector .   Research on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body . Subjects currently under study include muscle atrophy , bone loss , and fluid shift . The data will be used to determine whether space colonisation and lengthy human spaceflight are feasible . As of 2006 , data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise ( such as the six-month journey time required to fly to Mars ) .  Large scale medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute ( NSBRI ) . Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts ( including former ISS Commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka ) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts . The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space . Usually , there is no physician on board the ISS , and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge . It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult .   Researchers are investigating the effect of the station 's near-weightless environment on the evolution , development , growth and internal processes of plants and animals . In response to some of this data , NASA wants to investigate microgravity 's effects on the growth of three-dimensional , human-like tissues , and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space .   The investigation of the physics of fluids in microgravity will allow researchers to model the behaviour of fluids better . Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity , physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth . In addition , an examination of reactions that are slowed by low gravity and temperatures will give scientists a deeper understanding of superconductivity .   The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity , with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground . Other areas of interest include the effect of the low gravity environment on combustion , through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants . These findings may improve our knowledge about energy production , and lead to economic and environmental benefits . Future plans are for the researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols , ozone , water vapour , and oxides in Earth 's atmosphere , as well as cosmic rays , cosmic dust , antimatter , and dark matter in the universe .

neg: Videometer A videometer is a European designed automatic docking system that guides an Automated Transfer Vehicle ( ATV ) towards the docking port of the Russian Zvezda Service Module of the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The ATV uses relative global positioning system ( GPS ) in order to close in on the ISS up to a distance of 249 m. Thereafter the ATV uses two videometers , together with additional data from telegoniometers , to automatically complete the docking maneuver . Both videometers are active during rendezvous with one acting as a back-up .   Retroreflectors located on the aft end of Zvezda module accurately reflect pulsed laser beams emitted by the videometer on the front of the ATV . The spot patterns of laser light returned from the passive reflectors are analysed by the image processors on the ATV to give its relative position and orientation to the ISS . The beam travel time to the videometer 's 26 retroreflectors , contained in a 25mm cube , compute the distance between the two spacecraft and thus allowing it to identify , approach and mate to Zvezda 's docking mechanism .

neg: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science ( ISAS ) is a Japanese national research organization of astrophysics using rockets , astronomical satellites and interplanetary probes which played a major role in Japan 's space development . Since 2003 , it is a division of Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) .