query: Michael Phelps only ever held short course world records.

pos: Michael Phelps Michael Fred Phelps II ( born June 30 , 1985 ) is an American former competitive swimmer and the most decorated Olympian of all time , with a total of 28 medals . Phelps also holds the all-time records for Olympic gold medals ( 23 ) , Olympic gold medals in individual events ( 13 ) , and Olympic medals in individual events ( 16 ) . In winning eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games , Phelps broke fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz 's 1972 record of seven first-place finishes at any single Olympic Games . At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Phelps won four gold and two silver medals , and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro , he won five gold medals and one silver . This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row .   Phelps is the long course world record holder in the 100 meter butterfly , 200 meter butterfly , and 400 meter individual medley as well as the former long course world record holder in the 200 meter freestyle and 200 meter individual medley . He has won 83 medals in major international long course competition , of which 66 were gold , 14 silver , and 3 bronze , spanning the Olympics , the World , and the Pan Pacific Championships . Phelps 's international titles and record-breaking performances have earned him the World Swimmer of the Year Award eight times and American Swimmer of the Year Award eleven times , as well as the FINA Swimmer of the Year Award in 2012 and 2016 . His unprecedented Olympic success in 2008 earned Phelps Sports Illustrated magazine 's Sportsman of the Year award .   After the 2008 Summer Olympics , Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation , which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles . Phelps retired following the 2012 Olympics , but in April 2014 he made a comeback . At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro , his fifth Olympics , he won five golds and one silver . Phelps was chosen to be a captain of the 2016 US Olympic team , and was also voted by his team to be the flag bearer of the United States at the 2016 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations .

neg: UAE Healthy Kidney 10K The UAE Healthy Kidney 10K is an annual road running event over 10 kilometers ( 6.2 miles ) that takes place in May in New York City in the United States . The event features both an elite-level men 's race and a general mass race for fun runners . Almost 8000 runners take part in the event each year . Its course is situated entirely within Manhattan 's Central Park . It is one of two major annual 10K races held at the venue by the New York Road Runners Club , alongside the women-only New York Mini 10K .   The event was launched in May 2005 by New York Road Runners with the sponsorship of the Embassy of the United Arab Emirates . Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , a former president of the country , received treatment and a kidney transplant at the Cleveland Clinic in 2000 . He lived until November 2004 and the event was created in his honour soon after , with proceeds from the race going towards the National Kidney Foundation .   The course for the race is a single-looped circuit on the paths and roads within the park , comprising a little over one full lap of the park in a clockwise direction . Runners start in the south-west corner of Central Park , heading north past Sheep Meadow and The Ramble and Lake via West Park Drive . It loops southwards past Harlem Meer at the 5 km ( 3-mile ) mark and goes south on East Park Drive , passing the Reservoir and Great Lawn and Turtle Pond . The course reaches the 5-mile mark just before Central Park 's Bandshell . Runners turn back north after Wollman Rink , reach the 6-mile mark at the start line , then cross the finish line near the Tavern on the Green .   The first two editions of the men 's race were won by Craig Mottram . Dathan Ritzenhein became the first American to win the race and Patrick Makau became the first African the year after . Ethiopians Tadese Tola and Gebre Gebremariam ran course records under 28 minutes to win in 2009 and 2010 . The 10K world record holder Leonard Patrick Komon set the current record at 27:35 minutes in 2011 . The event does not actively invite an elite women 's field , due to the proximity of June 's New York Mini 10K women 's race , but elite level female athletes who are resident in the area typically take part . Ethiopia 's Bizunesh Deba holds the women 's course record of 33:09 minutes , set in 2010 .

neg: World Orienteering Championships The World Orienteering Championships were first held in 1966 . They were held biennially up to 2003 ( with the exception of 1978 and 1979 ) . Since 2003 , competitions have been held annually .   Originally , there were only two competitions : an individual race and a relay . In 1991 , a short distance race ( roughly 25 minutes ) was added and a sprint race was added in 2001 . In 2014 , a sprint relay was added with two men and two women participating and with starting order woman-man-man-woman .   The current championship events are :  Relay -- for three-person teams  Long distance -- previously called classic distance  Middle distance -- previously called short distance  Sprint  Sprint relay -- four-person teams , two men and two women .

neg: Ramon Clay Ramon Clay ( born June 29 , 1975 ) is a retired American sprinter who specialized in the 200 metres .   He was born in Memphis , Tennessee .   As a senior at Nashville 's Hunters Lane High School , despite having the flu during the State Championships , Clay was the champion in the 100 , 200 , and 400 meters . His personal bests in high school were hand timed at 10.2 in the 100m , 20.9 in the 200m , and 46.4 in the 400m , before the State used automatic timing . His best 200 and 400 times were recorded a mere 20 minutes apart at the Banner Relays in Nashville .   He attended Norfolk State University .   At the 1996 Olympic Trials , he just missed representing the USA at the 1996 Olympics in the 200 meters , finishing 4th in a race where a world record time ( 19.66 seconds ) was set by Michael Johnson . His time in the race was 20.08 , just .04 seconds behind 3rd place finisher and former American record holder Michael Marsh .   He won a silver medal ( in the 400 meters ) at the 1994 World Junior Championships , finished fourth at the 2002 IAAF World Cup and seventh at the 2003 IAAF World Athletics Final . He became US Outdoor champion in 2002 , and US Indoor champion in 1998 . He also competed at the 2001 World Championships without reaching the final .   His personal best times were 20.05 seconds in the 200 meters , achieved in July 2001 in Lausanne ; 10.21 seconds in the 100 meters , achieved in May 2003 in Sainte Anne ; and 6.56 seconds in the 60 meters ( indoor ) , achieved in February 2003 in Liévin .   On October 22 , 2010 the United States Anti-Doping Agency determined that Clay was guilty of using steroids and hormones officially dating back to January 1 , 2000 . Clay was implicated as part of the BALCO scandal . His results subsequent to that date were disqualified and even though he is retired , he also received a two-year ban from the sport .

neg: Kris Freeman Kris Freeman is a professional American cross-country skier . Born October 14 , 1980 in Concord , New Hampshire , he is a member of the U.S. Ski Team , along with his older brother Justin Freeman .   Before the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , he was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes   Kris Freeman is probably best known as a distance stalwart . He competed in the Winter Olympics for the first time in 2002 . In March 2003 , at the World Championships held in Val di Fiemme , Italy , Freeman placed fourth in the 15 Kilometer Classic , only to miss out on the gold medal by 10 seconds . At the U-23 World Championships he placed 1st in the 30 km classic race , skiing away from the field . He was again picked for the U.S. Olympic Team . After several seasons in which , by his own admission , his results did not live up to expectations and the diagnosis of severe compartment syndrome , Freeman duplicated his career best by placing fourth in the 15 km individual-start classic race at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 in Liberec , Czech Republic . . Freeman represented the United States at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi .   Since spring 2008 , he has worn an innovative tubeless insulin pump called the OmniPod that adheres to his skin and delivers insulin so he does not have to inject it .   He uses skis by Fischer , his boots are made by Alpina , and his bindings are Rottefella . He joined Alpina/Rottefella in the summer of 2005 , early enough for the 2005 -- 2006 season . Prior to this , he was sponsored totally by Fischer , having the company 's boots and bindings as well as their skis .   Freeman also is sponsored by and is a spokesman for Eli Lilly and Company , the manufacturer of the rapid-acting insulin Humalog . It was announced on 19 January 2010 that Freeman qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics .

neg: 2010 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) The 10th FINA World Swimming Championships ( 25 m ) was held in Dubai , United Arab Emirates from 15 -- 19 December 2010 . This swimming-only championships took place in the Dubai Sports Complex ; all events were swum in a 25-meter ( short-course ) pool .   FINA announced on April 9 , 2006 that Dubai had defeated the only other bidder Istanbul , Turkey , 11 votes to 10 , after a meeting of the FINA Bureau in Shanghai , China .   The USA topped the medal standings with a total of 25 medals . A total of 57 Championship Records were set , and 4 World Records . American Ryan Lochte and Spaniard Mireia Belmonte were named swimmers of the competition . Lochte became the first individual ever to win 7 medals at a Short Course Worlds , and became the first individual to swim a World Record since suits-rule changes went into effect in January 2010 . Belmonte won a total of four medals , tied for the most with American Rebecca Soni .

neg: South American Cross Country Championships The South American Cross Country Championships is an annual continental cross country running competition for athletes from South America or , more specifically , member countries of CONSUDATLE . It was first held in 1986 , making it the oldest of the continental cross country championships . The event is typically held in late February or early March .   The South American Championships in Athletics were the precursor to the competition in that cross country was featured on the main athletics programme between 1924 and 1949 . After the introduction of an independent championships in 1986 , multiple races were held : the initial competition schedule featured long races for senior men and women , and shorter races for junior men and women . This was expanded in 1991 with the addition of a youth competition for younger runners . Keeping in line with changes to the IAAF World Cross Country Championships , the South American championships also held senior short race competitions between 1998 -- 2006 , to complement the established long races . The short races were removed from the programme after their removal from the World Championships in 2006 .   Brazil have been the most successful nation at the championships : they were undefeated in both of the long race team contests between 1993 and 2001 .

neg: Eric Heiden Eric Arthur Heiden ( born June 14 , 1958 ) is an American physician and a former long track speed skater , road cyclist and track cyclist . Heiden won an unprecedented five individual gold medals , and set four Olympic records and one world record at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games in Lake Placid , New York , United States . He was the most successful athlete at those Olympic Games , single-handedly winning more gold medals than all nations except for the Soviet Union ( 10 ) and East Germany ( 9 ) . He is the most successful Winter Olympian from a single edition of any Winter Olympics . He delivered the Athlete 's Oath at those same 1980 Games .   Heiden is an icon in the speed skating community . His victories are significant , as few speed skaters ( and athletes in general ) have won competitions in both sprint and long-distance events . Heiden is the only athlete in the history of speed skating to have won all five events in a single Olympic tournament and the only one to have won a gold medal in all events . He is considered by some to be the best overall speed skater ( short and long distances ) in the sport 's history . Heiden ranked No. 46 in ESPN 's SportsCentury 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century in 1999 , the only speed skater to make the list . In 2000 , a Dutch newspaper called him the greatest skater ever .

neg: Charles Hamelin Charles Hamelin ( born 14 April 1984 ) is a Canadian short track speed skater . Hamelin is a 4-time Olympic medalist having won 3 gold and 1 silver during the 2006 , 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics . He is also a 2-time world champion over the 500 m distance , having won those championships in 2007 and 2009 .   Hamelin broke into success early at the 2003 World Junior Short Track Championships where he won silver medals in the 500 m and the 1500 m races , following up with a bronze in the 5000 m relay . He built on this success at 2005 World Championships , there he won a gold in the 5000 m relay and a silver in the 500 m. His success continued at the worlds by winning gold in the 3000 m , gold in the 5000 m relay and bronze in the 1000 m at the 2006 World Championships . He finished 4th place at the 2006 Winter Olympics in the 1500 m event but received a silver medal as part of the men 's 5000 m relay squad . Hamelin is the former world record holder in the 1000 m.

neg: 2016 FINA Swimming World Cup The 2016 FINA Swimming World Cup was a series of nine two-day meets in nine different cities between August and October 2016 . After switching to long-course ( 50 meter ) pools in the previous year 's pre-Olympic season , this edition returned to the usual short-course ( 25 meter pool ) format . Like the previous short course World Cup in 2014 , 36 events were scheduled . The total amount of prize money was US$ 2,178,000 . The first meet started 13 days after the final day of the Olympic pool swimming program .

neg: Matt Biondi Matthew Nicholas Biondi ( born October 8 , 1965 ) is an American former competition swimmer , eleven-time Olympic medalist , and former world record-holder in five events . Biondi competed in the Summer Olympic Games in 1984 , 1988 and 1992 , winning a total of eleven medals ( eight gold , two silver and one bronze ) . During his career , he set three individual world records in the 50-meter freestyle and four in the 100-meter freestyle .   At the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul , Biondi won five gold medals , setting world records in the 50-meter freestyle and three relay events .   Biondi is a member of the International Swimming Hall of Fame and the United States Olympic Hall of Fame .

neg: United States at the Olympics The United States of America have sent athletes to every celebration of the modern Olympic Games , except the 1980 Summer Olympics , during which it led a boycott . The United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) is the National Olympic Committee for the United States .   U.S. athletes have won a total of 2,521 medals ( 1,022 of them being gold ) at the Summer Olympic Games and another 282 at the Winter Olympic Games . Most medals have been won in athletics ( track and field ) ( 801 , 32 % ) and swimming ( 553 , 22 % ) . Thomas Burke was the first athlete to represent the United States at the Olympics . He took first place in both the 100 meters and the 400 meters of the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece . American track and field athlete James Connolly was the first modern Olympic champion . He took first place in the triple jump which was the first opening day final event at the 1896 Summer Olympics . American swimmer Michael Phelps is the most-decorated Olympic athlete of any nation , with 28 medals ( including 23 golds ) .   The United States has won gold at every games at which it has competed , more gold and overall medals than any other country in the Summer Games and also has the second-most gold and overall medals at the Winter Games , trailing only Norway . From the mid-20th century to the late 1980s , the United States mainly competed with the Soviet Union at Summer Games and with the Soviet Union , Norway , and East Germany at the Winter Games . However , after the dissolution of the Soviet Union , it now primarily contends with China at the Summer Games for both the overall medal count and the gold medal count and with Norway at the Winter Games for the overall medal count . The United States has topped the total medal count at two Winter Olympics : 1932 in Lake Placid and 2010 in Vancouver . At the 2010 games , the United States set a record for the most total medals ( 37 ) of any country at a single Winter Olympics .

neg: List of European Short Course Swimming Championships medalists (women) This is the complete list of women 's European Short Course Swimming Championships medalists in swimming from 1991 to 2015 . From 1991 to 1994 this event was held as the European Sprint Swimming Championships , where only the 50 meter events , the 100 meter individual medley , and both 4 × 50 meter relays were contested .

neg: Melbourne Vicentre Melbourne Vicentre is a swimming club based at the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre ( MSAC ) , Melbourne , Australia . Its head coach is Ian Pope , supported by Craig Jackson , Alex Hirschauer , Matt King and Brad Harris and others . Vicentre is one of the largest clubs in Victoria , and Swimming Australia Podium Performance Centre .   Amongst the swimmers who train currently with Vicentre are 2014 Commonwealth Games team members Mack Horton and Kotuku Ngawati , Paralympians Ahmed Kelly , Tanya Huebner and Matthew Haanappel as well as Masters World Record holder Linley Frame . Past club members include Giaan Rooney , Matt Welsh , Grant Hackett , Daniel Kowalski , Marieke Guehrer and Nicole Livingstone . Nicole Livingstone has been CEO of the club since July 2014 .   The club was formed in 1988 following the amalgamation of Melbourne Aquatic and ACI Vicentre swimming clubs . In 1996 , the club amalgamated with Malvern Swimming Club Inc. . The club is an incorporated association under the Associations Incorporation Act 1986 ( Vic ) and is an affiliate of Swimming Victoria and Metro South District .   Melbourne Vicentre won the Australian Open Longcourse Championships points score every year since 2004 Athens Olympic trials to 2008 , and 2011-2013 .

neg: Stu Mittleman Stu Mittleman is an ultradistance running champion , as well as a fitness/running coach and author .   Mittleman set three consecutive American 100-Mile Road Race records in the US National Championships 1980 -- 1982 . His fastest 100-Mile Run was 12 hours 56 min . In 1986 , he won the 1,000 Mile World Championship and set a new world record by running the distance ( 1 609.344 kilometers ) in 11 days , 2 hours , 6 min . 6 sec . Mittleman set three consecutive American Records in the 6 Day Race , the final one being set in 1985 at the University of Colorado Field House . One record , which still stands : 577.75 miles in 4 Days .   In December 2008 , Mittleman became the sixth American -- the third American male -- to be inducted into the American Ultrarunning Hall of Fame .

neg: Freestyle swimming Freestyle is a category of swimming competition , defined by the rules of the International Swimming Federation ( FINA ) , in which competitors are subject to only limited restrictions on their swimming stroke , affording the swimmer great freedom in style . Freestyle races are the most common of all swimming competitions , with distances reaching 1500m ( 1650 yards ) . The stroke used almost universally in freestyle races is the front crawl , as this style is generally the fastest . For this reason , the term freestyle is sometimes incorrectly used as a synonym for front crawl when in fact it means one is mostly free to choose a style .

neg: Paul MacDonald Christopher Paul MacDonald , MBE ( born 8 January 1960 ) , is a New Zealand sprint canoeist who competed from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s . He is widely regarded as one of New Zealand 's most successful international athletes and holds innumerable international speed records in canoeing .   Competing in three Summer Olympics , MacDonald won five medals . This included three golds ( K-2 500 m : 1984 , 1988 ; K-4 1000 m : 1984 ) , one silver ( K-2 1000 m : 1988 ) , and one bronze ( K-1 500 m : 1988 ) . His five Olympic medals is the record for the most Olympic medals won by a New Zealander , a record he shares with fellow canoeist Ian Ferguson , and equestrian Mark Todd .   He also won six medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with three golds ( K-1 500 m : 1987 , K-2 500 m : 1985 , K-2 1000 m : 1987 ) and three silvers ( K-2 500 m : 1982 , 1987 , K-2 10000 m : 1990 ) .   In retirement from professional competition , MacDonald has produced many television sports events and programmes including Clash of the Codes ( the ultimate sporting challenge ) and annually presents the Dragon Boat Festival .   In the 1988 New Year Honours , MacDonald was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire , for services to canoeing .

neg: List of high schools producing multiple Olympic gold medalists The Olympic Gold medal is the mark of achievement of the highest level in a particular sport . Many high schools proudly point to an alumnus who has been to the Olympics . Relatively few high schools have the depth to have produced more than one Olympic Gold medalist .   Notes : T = team gold medalist WR = also hold the current world record   Bedford School ( Bedford , Bedfordshire , England ) Harold Abrahams 1924 , Jack Beresford 1924 , 1932 , 1936 , Edward Vaughan Bevan 1928 , Sven Meinhardt 1992 , Stefan Tewes 1992 , Phelan Hill 2016  Eton College ( Berkshire , England ) Guy Nickalls 1908 , Ewart Horsfall 1912 , Robin Dixon 1964 , Matthew Pinsent 1992-2004 , Andrew Lindsay 2000 , Ed Coode 2004  Jefferson High School ( Los Angeles , California ) Mal Whitfield 1948 Charles Dumas 1956  John Muir High School ( Pasadena , California ) Alice Brown 1984T Inger Miller 1996T Linetta Wilson 1996 T  Jordan High School ( Los Angeles , California ) Hayes Edward Sanders 1952 , Florence Griffith Joyner 1988 & WR Kevin Young 1992 & WR  Lincoln High School , East St. Louis , Illinois Al Joyner 1984 Jackie Joyner-Kersee 1988 & WR , 1992 brother and sister  Mount Albert Grammar School , ( Auckland , New Zealand ) Peter Snell ( runner ) 1960 & 1964 ; Shane O'Brien ( rower ) 1984T .  North Salinas High School Calvin Harrison 2000T ( team later disqualified ) Alvin Harrison 1996T , 2000T ( team later disqualified ) identical twin brothers  Oakland Catholic High School ( Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ) Amanda Polk ( rower ) 2016 , Leah Smith ( swimmer ) 2016  President William McKinley High School , Honolulu , Hawaii , Duke Kahanamoku 1912 , 1920 Ford Konno 1952  St. Patrick 's High School ( Kenya ) Peter Rono 1988 Matthew Birir 1992 , David Rudisha 2012 Note : Between Wilson Kipketer and David Rudisha the school has also held the world record for 800 metres since August 13 , 1997  Samuel F. B. Morse High School , ( San Diego ) Arnie Robinson 1976 Monique Henderson 2004T , 2008T  San Gorgonio High School and John F. Kennedy High School ( Los Angeles ) Sherri Howard and Denean Howard , sisters who both won a Gold medal on the same 1984 4x400 relay team ( Denean ran in the preliminary round ) . The sisters transferred to Kennedy in 1981 after setting the NFHS National High School Record in the 4x440y relay at San Gorgonio with two other sisters ( Howard , Howard , Howard , Howard )  Santa Clara High School ( Santa Clara , California ) Donna de Varona 1964 Don Schollander 1964 , 1968T Claudia Kolb 1968 Mark Spitz 1968T , 1972 Joe Bottom 1976T Brian Boitano 1988 Heather Simmons-Carrasco 1996T  Silver Creek High School ( San Jose , California ) Millard Hampton 1976T Andre Phillips 1988  Tulare Union High School ( Tulare , California ) Bob Mathias 1948 , 1952 Sim Iness 1952

neg: 100 metres freestyle The 100 metres freestyle is often considered to be the highlight ( blue riband event ) of the sport of swimming , like 100 metres in the sport of Athletics .   The first swimmer to break the one-minute barrier ( long course ) was Johnny Weissmuller , in 1922 . The current world records holders are César Cielo ( since 2009 ) and Cate Campbell ( since 2016 ) .   Australian Dawn Fraser won the event a record three times at the Olympics , and she is the only woman to win it more than once . Four men , American Duke Kahanamoku , Weissmuller , Russian Alexander Popov , and Dutchman Pieter van den Hoogenband won the event at the Olympics twice . Popov was also world champion ( held since 1973 ) three times .

neg: Jon Lugbill Jon Phillip Lugbill ( born May 27 , 1961 in Wauseon , Ohio ) is a whitewater canoe slalom racer . During the 1980s , he participated in international racing in Men 's Individual C-1 ( a decked canoe , similar to a kayak ) . He is the only slalom racer to ever appear on the Wheaties box .   Lugbill started canoeing in the 1970s in the Washington , D.C. area . He often trained daily in his C-1 using slalom gates set up on a feeder canal next to the Potomac River near Great Falls . During the winter , Lugbill and his fellow paddlers also trained in the David Taylor Model Basin . He and some other fellow racers ( notably David Hearn ) developed new designs of low volume decked canoes , using nylon , kevlar and fiberglass cloths mixed with epoxy resin .   In 1979 , Lugbill won the C-1 men 's individual World Championship in canoe slalom at the first World Championships to be held on the North American continent at Jonquière ( Canada ) . This was the first time an American had won a gold medal in the world canoe slalom championships . Lugbill went on to win gold in his category several more times ; 1981 at Bala ( Wales ) , 1983 at Meran ( Italy ) , 1987 at Bourg St. Maurice ( France ) , and 1989 at the Savage River ( USA ) . In 1985 at Augsburg ( then in West Germany ) , Lugbill had to settle for the silver medal after David Hearn bested him for the gold . Lugbill also won seven consecutive world championship gold medals in the C-1 team event ( 1979-1991 ) . His older brother Ron was part of the gold medal winning C-1 team in 1981 .   Lugbill won three consecutive overall world cup titles in the C-1 category including the inaugural edition in 1988 .   During the peak of Lugbill 's career , whitewater canoeing was not included on the competition program of the Summer Olympic Games . His only appearance on the Olympic stage came in 1992 , when the sport returned to the Olympics after a 20-year absence . On the man-made course in La Seu d'Urgell , Spain , Lugbill placed fourth after being assessed for a five-second gate touch penalty at Gate 23 during his first run .   Lugbill is the Executive Director of Metropolitan Richmond Sports Backers and resides in Richmond , Virginia . The Sports Backers have been named the best Sports Commission in America an unprecedented 4 times by the National Association of Sports Commissions .   Lugbill lived in Archbold , Ohio until he was three years old . Then he moved to Vienna and then Fairfax , Virginia . He attended Lanier Intermediate School in Fairfax and Oakton High School . He graduated from the University of Virginia . He has two daughters , Kelly and Stephanie .

neg: 2010 European Short Course Swimming Championships The 2010 European Short Course Swimming Championships was held 25 -- 28 November 2010 at Pieter van den Hoogenband Zwemstadion in Eindhoven , Netherlands . The meet featured competition amongst national teams from Europe , in 38 short course ( 25m ) swimming events .   The competition featured a preliminary/semifinals/final format for the 50 and 100 events , a timed-final format ( swimmers swim only once ) in the 800/1500 freestyles , and prelims/final for all other events . Preliminary heats were swum in morning sessions ; Semifinals and Finals in evening sessions .   Each nation was permitted to enter three ( 3 ) swimmers into each individual event ; with a maximum of 2 eligible to advance on to Semifinals/Finals .


query: Reddit does not have upvotes.

pos: Reddit Reddit ( stylized as reddit , -LSB- ˈrɛdɪt -RSB- ) is an American social news aggregation , web content rating , and discussion website . Reddit 's registered community members can submit content such as text posts or direct links . Registered users can then vote submissions up or down that determines their position on the page . Submissions with the most up-votes appear on the front page or the top of a category . Content entries are organized by areas of interest called `` subreddits '' . Subreddit topics include news , science , gaming , movies , music , books , fitness , food , image-sharing , and many others . The site prohibits harassment , and moderation requires substantial resources .   As of 2017 , Reddit had 542 million monthly visitors ( 234 million unique users ) , ranking # 4 most visited web-site in US and # 9 in the world . Across 2015 , Reddit saw 82.54 billion pageviews , 73.15 million submissions , 725.85 million comments , and 6.89 billion upvotes from its users .   Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005 . Condé Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006 . Reddit became a direct subsidiary of Condé Nast 's parent company , Advance Publications , in September 2011 . As of August 2012 , Reddit operates as an independent entity , although Advance is still its largest shareholder . Reddit is based in San Francisco , California . In October 2014 , Reddit raised $ 50 million in a funding round led by Sam Altman and including investors Marc Andreessen , Peter Thiel , Ron Conway , Snoop Dogg , and Jared Leto . Their investment saw the company valued at $ 500 million .

neg: Faithless electors in the United States presidential election, 2016 In the 2016 United States presidential election , seven members of the U.S. Electoral College voted for a different candidate than whom they were pledged to vote . The Democratic Party nominee , Hillary Clinton , lost five of her pledged electors while the Republican Party nominee and then president-elect , Donald Trump , lost two . Three of the faithless electors voted for Colin Powell while John Kasich , Ron Paul , Bernie Sanders , and Faith Spotted Eagle each received one vote .   Three additional electors initially voted against their Clinton pledge but had their votes invalidated according to local statutes , so they were replaced or forced to vote again . The defections fell well short of the number needed to change the result of the election ; only two of the seven defected from the presumptive winner , when 37 were needed to change the outcome .   Although there had been a combined total of 157 instances of individual electors voting faithlessly in over two centuries of previous US presidential elections , 2016 was a year in which multiple groups of electors worked to alter the result of the election in order to `` vote their conscience for the good of America '' in accordance with Alexander Hamilton 's Federalist Paper No. 68 . 2016 was also the first year since 1960 when one of the electors actively worked to change the election . Electors were subjected to public pressure , up to and including death threats .   Seven electors successfully cast faithless ballots for president , the most to defect from presidential candidates who were still alive in Electoral College history , surpassing the six electors who defected from James Madison in the 1808 election . Historically , this number of defections has been exceeded only in cases where the presidential candidate was no longer living at the time the electors cast their ballots : the seven faithless presidential votes in 2016 falls well short of the record set in 1872 , when 63 of 66 electors originally pledged to losing candidate Horace Greeley cast their votes for someone else ( Greeley had died between election day and the meeting of the Electoral College ) . The six faithless vice-presidential votes in 2016 is also short of the record for that office , without considering whether the vice-presidential candidates were still living , as multiple previous elections have had more than six faithless vice-presidential votes ; in 1836 , faithless electors successfully moved the vice-presidential decision to the U.S. Senate .

neg: Voter-verified paper audit trail Voter-verifiable paper audit trail ( VVPAT ) or verifiable paper record ( VPR ) is a method of providing feedback to voters using a ballotless voting system . A VVPAT is intended as an independent verification system for voting machines designed to allow voters to verify that their vote was cast correctly , to detect possible election fraud or malfunction , and to provide a means to audit the stored electronic results.It contains name of the candidate ( for whom vote has been casted ) and symbol of the party / individual candidate .   The VVPAT offers some fundamental differences as a paper , rather than electronic recording medium when storing votes . A paper VVPAT is readable by the human eye and voters can directly interpret their vote . Computer memory requires a device and software which potentially is proprietary . Insecure voting machine records could potentially be changed quickly without detection by the voting machine itself . It would be more difficult for voting machines to corrupt records without human intervention . Corrupt or malfunctioning voting machines might store votes other than as intended by the voter unnoticed . A VVPAT allows voters the possibility to verify that their votes are cast as intended and can serve as an additional barrier to changing or destroying votes .   The VVPAT includes a direct recording electronic voting system ( DRE ) , to assure voters that their votes have been recorded as intended . It is intended , and some argue necessary , as a means by which to detect fraud and equipment malfunction . Depending on election laws the paper audit trail may constitute a legal ballot and therefore provide a means by which a manual vote count can be conducted if a recount is necessary . The solution was first demonstrated ( New York City , March 2001 ) and used ( Sacramento , CA 2002 ) by AVANTE International Technology , Inc. . .   In non-document ballot voting systems -- both mechanical voting machines and DRE voting machines -- the voter does not have an option to review a tangible ballot to confirm the voting system accurately recorded his or her intent . In addition , an election official is unable to manually recount ballots in the event of a dispute . Because of this , critics claim there is an increased chance for electoral fraud or malfunction and security experts , such as Bruce Schneier , have demanded voter-verifiable paper audit trails . Non-document ballot voting systems allow only a recount of the `` stored votes . '' These `` stored votes '' might not represent the correct voter intent if the machine has been corrupted or suffered malfunction .   A fundamental hurdle in the implementation of paper audit trails is the performance and authority of the audit . Paper audit systems increase the cost of electronic voting systems , can be difficult to implement , often require specialized external hardware , and can be difficult to use . In the United States , 27 states require a paper audit trail by statute or regulation for all direct recording electronic voting machines used in public elections .  Another 18 states do not require them but use them either statewide or in local jurisdictions . Five US states basically have no paper trail .   In India , Voter-verified paper audit trail ( VVPAT ) system was introduced in 8 of 543 parliamentary constituencies as a pilot project in Indian general election , 2014 . VVPAT is implemented in Lucknow , Gandhinagar , Bangalore South , Chennai Central , Jadavpur , Raipur , Patna Sahib and Mizoram constituencies . Voter-verified paper audit trail was first used in an election in India in September 2013 in Noksen ( Assembly Constituency ) in Nagaland . VVPAT - fitted EVMs was used in entire Goa state in the 2017 assembly elections , which was the first time that an entire state in India saw the implementation of VVPAT .

neg: Undervote An undervote occurs when the number of choices selected by a voter in a contest is less than the minimum number allowed for that contest or when no selection is made for a single choice contest .   In a contested election , an undervote can be construed as active voter disaffection - a voter engaged enough to cast a vote without the willingness to give the vote to any candidate .   An undervote can be intentional for purposes including protest votes , tactical voting , or abstention . Alternately undervotes can be unintentional and caused by many factors including poor ballot design .   Undervotes combined with overvotes ( known as residual votes ) can be an academic indicator in evaluating the accuracy of a voting system when recording voter intent .

neg: Sanskrit Wikipedia Sanskrit Wikipedia ( also known as sawiki ) is the Sanskrit edition of Wikipedia , a free , web-based , collaborative , multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation . Its five thousand articles have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world , with major concentration of contributors in India and Nepal .   Founded in December 2003 , it reached five thousand articles by August 2011 .   The Sanskrit Wikipedia Community also participated in a project named Tell us about your Wikipedia , and Community news from Sanskrit Wikipedia also came on WikiPatrika , a community-written and community-edited newspaper , covering stories , events and reports related to Wikipedia and the Wikimedia Foundation sister projects in India .   As of August 2016 , it has 10,177 articles and is the 132th largest version of Wikipedia . The Times of India considered that `` Sanskrit was making a comeback , thanks to Wikipedia community '' Mother India considered the Sanskrit Wikipedia as a `` wonderful learning tool ''

neg: Discursive dominance The word discursive is closely related to the word discourse , which refers to `` communication of ideas '' . In a society there are competing discourses ( or narratives ) regarding anything and everything such as feminism , racism , casteism , communalism , regionalism , economic development , democracy , governance , etc. . These competing discourses struggle for dominance . Ultimately , one of the discourse emerges as dominant . This is known as discursive dominance . If none of the competing discourses manages to establish itself in the psyche of the people , it results in discord .   A dominant discourse is a winning discursive formation . It is the one that survives the widest range of criticisms in various forums and media .

neg: /r/science / r/science is an Internet forum on Reddit where the community of participants discuss science topics . A popular feature of the forum is `` Ask me Anything '' ( AMA ) public discussions . As of 2014 , / r/science attracted 30,000-100 ,000 visitors per day , making it the largest community-managed science forum and an attractive place to host discussions .

neg: Intellectual freedom Intellectual freedom encompasses the freedom to hold , receive and disseminate ideas without restriction . Viewed as an integral component of a democratic society , intellectual freedom protects an individual 's right to access , explore , consider , and express ideas and information as the basis for a self-governing , well-informed citizenry . Intellectual freedom comprises the bedrock for freedoms of expression , speech , and the press and relates to freedoms of information and privacy .   The United Nations upholds intellectual freedom as a basic human right through Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which asserts :  Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression ; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek , receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers .   The institution of libraries in particular values intellectual freedom as part of their mission to provide and protect access to information and ideas . The American Library Association ( ALA ) defines intellectual freedom as `` the right of every individual to both seek and receive information from all points of view without restriction . It provides for free access to all expressions of ideas through which any and all sides of a question , cause or movement can be explored . ''   The modern concept of intellectual freedom developed out of an opposition to book censorship . It is promoted by several professions and movements . These entities include , among others , librarianship , education , and the Free Software Movement .

neg: Transpartisan Transpartisanship represents an emerging school of political thought which accepts the validity of truths across a range of political perspectives and seeks to synthesize them into an inclusive , pragmatic container beyond typical political dualities . It is distinct from bipartisanship , which aims to negotiate between `` right '' and `` left , '' resulting in a dualistic perspective , and nonpartisanship , which tends to avoid political affiliation altogether .   Transpartisanship is a movement to support and advance a common ground - or `` new center '' - that already exists in U.S. politics , emerging periodically into public view in the form of `` unusual coalitions '' of progressives and conservatives around issues ranging from war and the military budget to corporate power and the surveillance state .   The movement builds on methods of facilitated dialogue , deliberation and conflict resolution .   Current examples of transpartisan initiatives include Transpartisan Center , TheSolution.org , Reuniting America , Transpartisan Alliance , and Liberty Coalition .   Transpartisanship is an emerging field that advocates pragmatic and effective solutions to social and political problems , transcending and including preexisting political ideologies . Transpartisanship encompasses the idea that all systems are inextricably interconnected , and that successful outcomes can best be reached through inclusive , genuine , and respectful cooperation . Transpartisan democracy , in part , seeks to reintegrate the public 's voice in identifying , debating , and shaping governmental policies , while continuing to protect the sovereignty of the individual .  The term `` Transpartisanship '' has emerged to provide a meaningful alternative to `` Bipartisanship , '' and `` Nonpartisanship . '' Bipartisanship limits the dialogue process to two political viewpoints or entities , striving for compromise solutions . Nonpartisanship , on the other hand , tends to deny the existence of differing viewpoints in exchange for cooperation . Both the bipartisan and nonpartisan approaches can discount the multiplicity of viewpoints that exist , which often results in incomplete and therefore unsuccessful outcomes . In contrast to these , transpartisanship recognizes the existence and validity of many points of view , and advocates a constructive dialogue aimed at arriving at creative , integrated , and therefore , breakthrough solutions that meet the needs of all present .   Transpartisan gatherings have resulted not only in surprisingly civil conversations noted by mainstream media but also in shifts from traditional ideological stances by some participants .   A close relative of transpartisanship is Integral politics . A transpartisan approach to policy would necessarily include individual and collective , as well as subjective and objective , perspective . Furthermore , similar to Integral theory , transpartisanship places politics in a developmental context , viewing democracy and prosperity not as static attainments , but rather emergent properties along a continuum of developmental stages .

neg: History of democracy A democracy is a political system , or a system of decision-making within an institution or organization , in which all members have an equal share of power . Modern democracies are characterized by two capabilities that differentiate them fundamentally from earlier forms of government : the capacity to intervene in their own societies and the recognition of their sovereignty by an international legalistic framework of similarly sovereign states . -LSB- 2 -RSB- Democratic government is commonly juxtaposed with oligarchic and monarchic systems , which are rule by a minority and a sole monarch respectively .   Democracy in its earliest forms is generally associated with the efforts of the ancient Greeks and Romans , who were themselves considered the founders of Western civilization by the 18th century intellectuals who attempted to leverage these early democratic experiments into a new template for post-monarchical political organization . The extent to which these 18th century democratic revivalists succeeded in turning the democratic ideals of the ancient Greeks and Romans into the dominant political institution of the next 300 years is hardly debatable , even if the moral justifications they often employed might be . Nevertheless , the critical historical juncture catalyzed by the resurrection of democratic ideals and institutions fundamentally transformed the ensuing centuries and has dominated the international landscape since the dismantling of the final vestige of empire following the end of the Second World War .   Modern representative democracies attempt to bridge the gulf between the Hobbesian ` state of nature ' and the grip of authoritarianism through ` social contracts ' that enshrine the rights of the citizens , curtail the power of the state , and grant agency through the right to vote .

neg: The Button (Reddit) The Button was an online meta-game and social experiment that featured an online button and 60 second countdown timer that would reset each time the button was pressed . The experiment was hosted on the social networking website Reddit beginning on 1 April 2015 ( April Fools ' Day ) and was active until 5 June 2015 . The game was started by a Reddit administrator .   The Button garnered enthusiasm from Reddit users worldwide , attracting clicks from over one million unique user accounts . Various websites , browser extensions , and mobile applications were created for tracking the live statistics of the Button and enabling users to visit the Button when the timer dropped below a certain threshold .   The Button 's countdown timer reached zero several times due to technical issues , but on 5 June 2015 , the countdown timer was shut off by an admin , ending the experiment .

neg: Fantasy Amateur Press Association The Fantasy Amateur Press Association or FAPA ( `` FAP-uh '' ) is science fiction fandom 's longest-established amateur press association ( `` apa '' ) . It was founded in 1937 by Donald A. Wollheim and John B. Michel . They were inspired to create FAPA by their memberships in some of the non-science fiction amateur press associations , which they learned about from H. P. Lovecraft . ( It is also fandom 's longest-running organization of any kind , preceding the founding of the runner-up , the National Fantasy Fan Federation , by nearly four years . )   Like other APAs , FAPA is primarily an agency for distributing to its members publications published by its members at their own expense . FAPA has `` mailings '' every three months . Members are required to be active in some way -- writing or publishing -- and produce at least eight pages of activity a year . When needed , there are elections ( in August ) of a secretary-treasurer and official editor . Other officials have included Official Critics , a Laureate Committee , President , Vice-President , and ballot counters . The first two positions were abandoned by the mid-1940s , and in 2009 the positions of President and Vice-President were also eliminated . The President Emeritus is the author Robert Silverberg , who was the last serving President and who has been an active member of FAPA longer than any other current member . When necessary , a teller for the annual officer elections is appointed by the secretary-treasurer .   FAPA 's original constitutional limit was 50 members to accommodate publishers using hectographs . There were 21 members listed on the roster of the first mailing in August 1937 ; it took until the November 1938 mailing to fill the 50-member roster . The membership limit was raised to 65 in 1943 and has remained at that level ever since .   The early years of FAPA were stormy with party politics and sociological feuds ( as recounted in the late Jack Speer 's pioneering fan history , Up to Now ) . In 1947 , Speer reformed the constitution , and the Insurgents quashed the last inactive OE , Elmer Perdue . Since then official troubles have mostly not disturbed FAPA , and red tape has been held to a minimum . The constitution was again revised in 1958 ( also by Speer ) to incorporate amendments , bylaws , and practices adopted since 1947 . Another major revision occurred in 2001 under the oversight of Robert Lichtman ( Secretary-Treasurer since 1986 and still holding that office ) , clarifying and conforming constitutional requirements with actual practice .   During the 1950s and 1960s FAPA was so popular and membership so sought after that the waiting list grew to monumental proportions , for a period of time exceeding the number of membership slots on the FAPA roster . A waiting list fee was instituted to cover the cost of sending the Fantasy Amateur to so many fans awaiting membership , and a requirement that waiting listers periodically acknowledge receipt of the Fantasy Amateur was begun in order to weed out those who lost interest during the long wait . By the '70s the waiting list became much smaller , and in recent years ( since the mid 1990s ) has disappeared altogether . Additionally , the number of members has also shrunk as existing members died or otherwise dropped off the roster . As of May 2016 , there were 23 active participants ( including one joint membership ) .

neg: Go ranks and ratings Skill in the traditional board game Go is measured by a number of different national , regional and online ranking and rating systems . Traditionally , go rankings have been measured using a system of dan and kyu ranks . Especially in amateur play , these ranks facilitate the handicapping system , with a difference of one rank roughly corresponding to one free move at the beginning of the game . This system is also commonly used in many oriental martial arts , where it often corresponds with a belt color . With the ready availability of calculators and computers , rating systems have been introduced . In such systems , a rating is rigorously calculated on the basis of game results .

neg: Gingerbeer (web community) Gingerbeer is a London-based virtual community for lesbian and bisexual women . The name `` Gingerbeer '' ( Cockney rhyming slang for `` queer '' ) refers to both the web site , and to the community which it supports . It is maintained and moderated entirely by a team of volunteers .   Gingerbeer was initially launched on January 1 , 2000 , and has undergone two subsequent relaunches , firstly on June 25 , 2001 , and later on November 11 , 2005 , following a major redesign . Gingerbeer became an official not-for-profit organisation in March 2004 , when it was registered as a limited company by guarantee .   The site 's main feature is a highly active messageboards forum , with over 2,000 registered members in May 2007 . In the eighteen months to the end of May 2007 , they had logged over 335,000 posts in over 5000 topics or discussion threads . One of the distinctive features of the messageboards is that they support an active calendar of social , cultural and sporting events across the UK , so that Gingerbeer exists as both a web community and a real life community .   Besides the messageboards , Gingerbeer offers listings of bars , clubs and community events , reviews , and a London guide . Gingerbeer has been recommended as a useful resource for lesbians by some travel guides .

neg: Civic application Civic application is application software aiming at users ' activation to participate in public good development through this application . In civil societies , civic applications are created to enhance public good , civic engagement , and generally social capital .   Civic applications can for example aim at :  development of engaged citizenship ,  strengthening of local communities ,  growth of democracy ,  supporting entrepreneurship ,  protection of nature and a common living space , etc. .   Civic applications are to some extent often social networking services , but what distinguishes them is the civic goal , the mission funding its existence .   Interaction between the user and the application is what differentiates civic applications from any IT service ( website , portal ) speaking about any citizen 's topics , where interaction is not necessary and if exists often takes form of commenting under articles .   Civic application can be accessed from a server via an Internet browser ( online ) or using mobile devices , such as mobile phones or tablets ( mobile ) , less often from user 's local drive ( offline ) .   Non-Governmental Organisations and public national institutions are noticing the value of the civic apps and invite people working in Information Technology domain to participate in their development ( e.g. in Greater Portland , Chicago , Boston , Boulder , Washington D.C , Seattle and other American cities as part of the Code For America initiative ) . Very often they are created as part of `` hackatons '' , IT development competitions .   Civic applications are part of a greater concept of civic technologies , which encompass variety of civic applications , together with any software tools and platforms , enabling its development or hosting , and the software supporting local and national governments in performing their public functions .

neg: Tyranny of the majority Tyranny of the majority ( or tyranny of the masses ) refers to an inherent weakness of direct democracy and majority rule in which the majority of an electorate can place its own interests above , and at the expense of , those in the minority . This results in oppression of minority groups comparable to that of a tyrant or despot .   Potentially , through tyranny of the majority , a disliked or unfavored ethnic , religious , political , or racial group may be deliberately targeted for oppression by the majority element acting through the democratic process .   American founding father Alexander Hamilton writing to Jefferson from the Constitutional Convention argued the same fears regarding the use of pure direct democracy by the majority to elect a demagogue who , rather than work for the benefit of all citizens , set out to either harm those in the minority or work only for those of the upper echelon . The Electoral College mechanism present in the indirect United States presidential election system , and the phenomenon of faithless electors allowed for within it , was , in part , deliberately created as a safety measure not only to prevent such a scenario , but also to prevent the use of democracy to overthrow democracy for an authoritarian , dictatorial or other system of oppressive government . As articulated by Hamilton , one reason the Electoral College was created was so `` that the office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is not in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifications '' .   The scenarios in which tyranny perception occurs are very specific , involving a sort of distortion of democracy preconditions :   Centralisation excess : when the centralised power of a federation make a decision that should be local , breaking with the commitment to the subsidiarity principle . Typical solutions , in this condition , are concurrent majority and supermajority rules .  Abandonment of rationality : when , as Tocqueville remembered , a decision `` which bases its claim to rule upon numbers , not upon rightness or excellence '' . The use of public consultation , technical consulting bodies , and other similar mechanisms help to improve rationality of decisions before voting on them . Judicial review ( e.g. declaration of nullity of the decision ) is the typical way after the vote .   In both cases , in a context of a nation , constitutional limits on the powers of a legislative body , and the introduction of a Bill of Rights have been used to counter the problem . A separation of powers ( for example a legislative and executive majority actions subject to review by the judiciary ) may also be implemented to prevent the problem from happening internally in a government .

neg: Digital public square A digital public square ( DPS ) is a user-driven website that relies upon user-generated content ( UGC ) , created by a group of people with a common interest in a specific community . At its most basic , a digital public square represents an evolution in how people discover , read and share news , information and content . Users/content providers share the common goal of informing and becoming more informed about a shared geographic community or a community of ideas .   Modeled after the traditional `` public square '' where townspeople would gather to exchange views , a digital public square provides a virtual platform for the exploration of issues and the sharing of ideas , creativity and opinions while developing solutions to a community 's challenges . A thriving digital public square has a rich content stream that may include video footage of community events and an interactive community record of nonprofit news and resources . The DPS offers a platform for dialogue and encourages people to connect in a virtual setting to establish relationships that can effect social change .

neg: 43 Things 43 Things was a social networking website established as an online goal setting community . It was built on the principles of tagging , rather than creating explicit interpersonal links ( as seen in Friendster and Orkut ) . Users created accounts and then listed a number of goals or hopes ; these goals were parsed by a lexer and connected to other people 's goals that were constructed with similar words or ideas . This concept is also known as folksonomy . Users could set up to 43 goals , and were encouraged to explore the lists of other users and `` cheer '' them on towards achieving their goals .   The 43 Things website went offline on New Years Day , 2015 . An imposter site , run by a domain squatter appeared in 2017 . This site has agreed to post that they are unrelated to 43 Things , but continue to use the name and URL .

neg: Post-truth politics Post-truth politics ( also called post-factual politics ) is a political culture in which debate is framed largely by appeals to emotion disconnected from the details of policy , and by the repeated assertion of talking points to which factual rebuttals are ignored . Post-truth differs from traditional contesting and falsifying of truth by rendering it of `` secondary '' importance . While this has been described as a contemporary problem , there is a possibility that it has long been a part of political life , but was less notable before the advent of the Internet . In the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four , George Orwell cast a world in which the state changes historic records daily to fit its propaganda goals of the day .   Political commentators have identified post-truth politics as ascendant in American , Australian , British , Chinese , Indian , Japanese , Russian and Turkish politics , as well as in other areas of debate , driven by a combination of the 24-hour news cycle , false balance in news reporting , and the increasing ubiquity of social media . In 2016 , `` post-truth '' was chosen as the Oxford Dictionaries ' Word of the Year , due to its prevalence in the context of that year 's Brexit referendum and U.S. presidential election .

neg: Election An election is a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office . Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century . Elections may fill offices in the legislature , sometimes in the executive and judiciary , and for regional and local government . This process is also used in many other private and business organizations , from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations .   The universal use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype , ancient Athens , where the Elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition , also known as allotment , by which officeholders were chosen by lot .   Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place , or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems . Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections ( especially with a view to predicting future results ) .   To elect means `` to choose or make a decision '' , and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections , especially in the United States .

neg: Progressive stack A progressive stack is a technique used to give marginalized groups greater chance to speak . The idea originated in New York City . It is sometimes an introduction to , or stepping stone to , consensus decision-making in which simple majorities have less power .   The progressive stack technique attempts to counter what its proponents believe is a flaw in traditional representative democracy , where the majority is heard while the minority or non-dominant groups are silenced or ignored . In practice , `` majority culture '' is interpreted by progressive stack practitioners to mean White people , men and young adults , while non-dominant groups include women , people who are lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender , people of color , and very young or older people .   The `` stack '' in the Occupy movement is the list of speakers who are commenting on proposals or asking questions in public meetings . Anyone can request to be added to the stack . In meetings that do n't use the progressive stack , people speak in the order they were added to the queue . In meetings that use the progressive stack , people from non-dominant groups are allowed to speak before people from dominant groups , by facilitators , or stack-keepers , urging speakers to `` step forward , or step back '' based on which racial , age , or gender group they belong to .   A. Barton Hinkle , a columnist for the Richmond Times-Dispatch , has expressed the opinion that `` lining up speakers by race and gender might not seem fair on an individual level , '' and suggests that proponents of the progressive stack care more about class struggle than individual concerns .   Among those opposed to the concept of `` progressive stack '' , conservative journalist and author Jim Goad commented satirically on the concept in these terms : `` The concept of intersectionality is also related to the `` progressive stack , '' which assumes that white males at all times bear noxious degrees of unearned power , which is why they have to get to the back of the line and let all the legless black lesbians speak first . ''


query: Collision Course was released in the 2000s.

pos: Collision Course (album) Collision Course is a collaborative EP from American rapper Jay-Z and nu metal band Linkin Park , released on November 30 , 2004 by Roc-A-Fella , Machine Shop , Warner Bros. and Def Jam records . Before the album , Jay-Z had released collaborations with The Roots and R. Kelly , and Linkin Park had collaborated with various artists on their remix album Reanimation . The album was inspired by The Grey Album by Danger Mouse , which was a mash-up album between Jay-Z and The Beatles . MTV had originally planned on mashing up only one or two songs , but the project was eventually expanded to a six song EP . The album was mostly produced by Mike Shinoda and Jay-Z , and was recorded between July 16 and July 19 .   Upon release , Collision Course reached # 1 on the Billboard 200 . As of June 2014 , it has sold 2 million copies in the United States alone . The album spawned one single , Numb/Encore which eventually won Best Rap/Sung Collaboration at the 2006 Grammy Awards .

neg: C20 C20 or C-20 may refer to :   , the smallest possible fullerene  C20 ( engineering ) , a mix of concrete that has a compressive strength of 20 newtons per square millimeter  HMS C20 , a 1910 British C class submarine  Sauber C20 , a 2001 racing car  C-20 , a series designation for military aircraft :  C-20 , the proposed in-service designation of the Fokker F. 32  C-20A / B/C/D / E , variants of the Gulfstream III  C-20F / G/H/J , variants of the Gulfstream IV  Bombardier C20 , a type of rolling stock used in the Stockholm metro  Bill C-20 , the Canadian Clarity Act  OMX Copenhagen 20 , Denmark 's primary stock market index  Malignant neoplasm of rectum , a type of colorectal cancer ( ICD-10 code : C20 )  King 's Pawn Game , a chess opening ( Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings code : C20 )  The Twentieth Century Society , a British charity which campaigns for the preservation of architectural heritage from 1914 onwards  Caldwell 20 or North America Nebula , an emission nebula in the constellation Cygnus  C20 Cities , now expanded to the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group  IEC 60320 C20 , a polarised , three pole socket electrical connector  , a cruiser of the Royal Navy

neg: Golden Tee Golf Golden Tee Golf is a golf arcade game series by Incredible Technologies . Its signature feature is the use of a trackball to determine the power , direction and curve of the player 's golf shot . Play modes include standard , closest to the pin , and online tournaments .   The 1995 Peter Jacobson 's Golden Tee 3D Golf was the first in the series to support online networked play . Rather than being networked to each other , the cabinets were all linked to a central computer which compared scores for tournament play . The first test tournament , held on 24 game cabinets in the Chicago area from November 24 to December 17 , 1995 , awarded real money to the winners , including a $ 1,000 grand prize .

neg: Aliens versus Predator 2 Aliens versus Predator 2 is a science fiction first-person shooter video game developed by Monolith Productions and published by Fox Interactive for Microsoft Windows in 2001 , and for Mac OS X in 2003 . The game is a sequel to Aliens versus Predator ( 1999 ) ; both games are based on the characters of the Alien and Predator media franchises as well as the Alien vs. Predator crossover series . It is set on the fictional planet LV-1201 .   The game is played from a first-person perspective . In the single-player mode , players control one of three characters , each with their own abilities and individual story modes . An online multiplayer mode , which allows players to play as one of four teams in competitive modes , is no longer officially supported and requires a community developed patch to enable multiplayer .   An expansion pack titled Aliens versus Predator 2 : Primal Hunt was released in 2002 . A `` Gold Edition '' of Aliens versus Predator 2 followed , combining both the original game and the expansion pack into a single package . The sequel to the game was released in 2010 , simply titled Aliens vs Predator .

neg: Collision (2013 film) Collision ( a.k.a. Intersections ) is an English-language French romantic thriller film written and directed by American filmmaker David Marconi , produced by Luc Besson and starring Frank Grillo , Jaimie Alexander , Roschdy Zem , Marie-Josée Croze and Charlie Bewley . The film was released in France on January 30 , 2013 .

neg: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs is a 2009 American computer animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios . It is the third installment in the Ice Age series and the sequel to Ice Age : The Meltdown ( 2006 ) . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha and co-directed by Mike Thurmeier . Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Queen Latifah reprise their roles from the first two films , with Simon Pegg joining them in the role of a weasel named Buck . The story has Sid being taken by a female Tyrannosaurus after stealing her eggs , leading the rest of the herd to rescue him in a tropical lost world inhabited by dinosaurs beneath the ice .   The film was released on July 1 , 2009 by 20th Century Fox . It was the first Ice Age film and the first 20th Century Fox 's film to be released in 3D . Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics , it ranked at the time as the second-highest-grossing animated film of all time , earning $ 886.7 million worldwide . A sequel , titled Ice Age : Continental Drift , was released in 2012 , and another film , titled Ice Age : Collision Course , was released in 2016 .

neg: Collide (band) Collide is an American music duo founded in 1992 , in Los Angeles , California , United States , that has incorporated elements of trip hop , synthpop and music from the Middle East into their sound . Their imagery is said to be a wicked and neo-dark version of Scheherazade 's Arabian Nights tales .   The name comes from the ` collision ' of musical styles , primarily the ethereal vocals provided by kaRIN and the electronic music provided by Statik . Collide 's debut album , Beneath the Skin , was released in 1996 , followed by a remix album , Distort , in 1998 containing remixes by artists such as Kneel Cohn of the bands Spirits In Sin and The Dead Stars On Hollywood . Dissatisfied with the music industry , Collide started their own record label , Noiseplus Music , and in 2000 , they released their second studio album , Chasing the Ghost .   Three years later , they released their third studio album , Some Kind of Strange . The following year , the band released another remix album , Vortex , containing remixes by numerous remix artists , including Charlie Clouser . Joining kaRIN and Statik this time around , and for their first live performances a little later in the year , were Scott Landes ( guitar ) , Rogerio Silva ( guitar ) , Chaz Pease ( drums ) , and Kai Kurosawa ( Warr guitars/bass ) .   In 2005 Collide released a DVD , entitled Like the Hunted , along with a live CD . Then they recorded with Curve 's Dean Garcia in a project called The Secret Meeting . The album , Ultrashiver , was released under their Noiseplus label on June 26 , 2007 . On September 23 , 2008 , the band released their fourth studio album Two Headed Monster . Special guests on the album included Danny Carey from Tool and Dean Garcia from Curve .   At Halloween 2009 , the album These Eyes Before was released . It was a 10-song album of cover versions of well-known songs by artists such as The Beatles , Depeche Mode , Radiohead , and Pink Floyd . Currently , they are offering a free song in exchange for donations which will go towards the recording of a new album .   In January 2011 , Collide was nominated for The 10th Annual Independent Music Awards under the Cover Song category for `` The Lunatics Have Taken Over the Asylum '' .

neg: Contact (1997 American film) Contact is a 1997 American science fiction drama film directed by Robert Zemeckis . It is a film adaptation of Carl Sagan 's 1985 novel of the same name ; Sagan and his wife Ann Druyan wrote the story outline for the film .   Jodie Foster portrays the film 's protagonist , Dr. Eleanor `` Ellie '' Arroway , a SETI scientist who finds strong evidence of extraterrestrial life and is chosen to make first contact . The film also stars Matthew McConaughey , James Woods , Tom Skerritt , William Fichtner , John Hurt , Angela Bassett , Jake Busey , and David Morse .   Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan began working on the film in 1979 . Together , they wrote a 100 + page film treatment and set up Contact at Warner Bros. with Peter Guber and Lynda Obst as producers . When development stalled on the film , Sagan published Contact as a novel in 1985 and the film adaptation was rejuvenated in 1989 . Roland Joffé and George Miller had planned to direct it , but Joffé dropped out in 1993 and Warner Bros. fired Miller in 1995 . Robert Zemeckis was eventually hired to direct , and filming for Contact lasted from September 1996 to February 1997 . Sony Pictures Imageworks handled most of the visual effects sequences .   The film was released on July 11 , 1997 , to mostly positive reviews . Contact grossed approximately $ 171 million in worldwide box office totals . The film won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and received multiple awards and nominations at the Saturn Awards .

neg: Golf instruction Golf instruction is the art of equipping and training golfers to play better golf through improved awareness of swing cause and effects as a result of the actions by their body , the club , and their effect on the golf ball . Most great golfers have a few common elements that make them great including : proper intentionality , swing repeatability to produce an action that fits the golfers intentionality , and a strong level of automaticity for long lasting enjoyment of the game golf . Golf instruction is unique as golf consists of five primary skills : shots from a tee ( most notable : driving that uses a driver ) , full shots from the ground ( mostly known as `` iron shots '' , pitching ( or 3/4 shots designed for distance control , chipping ( short shots around the green the require less than a full swing ) , putting ( 1 club preferably `` the putter '' ) and course strategy or gamesmanship .   Proficiency in teaching golf instruction requires not only technical and physical ability , but also knowledge of the rules and etiquette of the game . Golf instruction offered on many platforms in the United States including : the PGA of America , GolfTEC , and independent golfers who `` may '' or `` may not '' have credentials that are recognized by credible teachers certified sources such as the PGA of America . Although there are many great golf instructors in the United States , who are PGA Class A Professionals , not all great instructors carry this status nor find it a major determiner of golf instruction proficiency .   Golf Instruction can be wide ranging , but many great modern day instructors are able to diagnose and prescribe swing frustrations accurately and present a clear fix that encourages the golfer in the discovery of lasting repeatability from the specific ailment that `` plagued '' them from a sound repeatable swing to play a golf course successfully ( varying terms of success as a golfer ) Many modern instructors include the following in their diagnosis  1 . visual feedback through video and bio motion analysis  2 . personalized golf club fitting for individual body and swing types  3 . on-course play under real conditions  4 . mental performance development  5 . golf specific body conditioning for optimal golf bio-mechanics   Beginning players can start lesson in several ways , but most do so in either a group or individual setting , covering the five primary skills of golf as noted above golf swing . Golf is an asymmetrical exercise that can break body balances , requiring also adequate exercises to keep the balance in muscles . Experienced recreational players often return for instruction , either to fix a specific problem they are encountering or to improve their game . Reconstruction of a golf swing to reach a high level of play often involves series of lessons over an extended period of time . Junior golfers often begin receiving instruction by age 10 or younger , and often retain private teachers even when coached on a high school golf team .   Some top instructors who work with professional golfers have become quite well known in their own right over the years , including Harvey Penick , Jack Grout , Dick Harmon , David Leadbetter , Butch Harmon , Hank Haney , Chip Thomson , Sean Foley , and Mike Bennett and Andy Plummer . Some of the teachers maintain teaching facilities or schools where they or their disciples use their methods or systems . A few instructors focus solely on a particular aspect of the sport , such as Dave Pelz with the short game . Some famous golfers have been tightly bound with their instructor , such as Jack Nicklaus with Jack Grout , while in other cases golfers have made high-profile switches from one instructor to another , such as Tiger Woods moving from Butch Harmon to various other instructors .   Recreational golfers are constantly seeking tips on how to improve , and the major golf publications such as Golf Magazine and Golf Digest devote substantial portions of their pages to instructional material of various kinds , often written by top-level instructors . Even television broadcasts of professional golf tournaments often contain short instructional segments , delivered by commentators who are also instructors such as Peter Kostis .   Golf instruction may be augmented by training aids such as specially weighting or jointed clubs , putting cups for practice on the den room carpet , mini practice tees with feedback for use in garages , et cetera . Some training aids are sold via television infomercials and the more peculiar varieties were satirized in the 1996 film Tin Cup .   Golf instruction is no guarantee of success or improved play in the game . Bad mechanics can be deeply ingrained in a subject 's swing , and psychological factors can also hinder progress . The 2009 Golf Channel program The Haney Project : Charles Barkley showcased some of these issues , as Hank Haney attempted to fix former NBA great Charles Barkley 's infamously bad swing .

neg: Back Track For the Linux Distribution , see BackTrack   Back Track is a first-person shooter that was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 and Windows PC in late 1990s . It is notable for being the first 3-D shooter to be released on the Game Boy Advance ( along with DOOM ) , however it was quickly overtaken by such competitors as Ecks vs. Sever .

neg: Crash Course (game show) Crash Course is an American game show that premiered on ABC on August 26 , 2009 . It is hosted by Orlando Jones and Dan Cortese . The series has teams of two competing for a golden steering  wheel and $ 50,000 . The series was aimed to try and outbest Wipeout , but failed to beat its audience and has been canceled after three aired episodes ( but four were produced ) .

neg: Grand Theft Auto III Grand Theft Auto III is an open world action-adventure third-person shooter video game developed by DMA Design and published by Rockstar Games . It was released on 22 October 2001 for the PlayStation 2 , on 20 May 2002 for Microsoft Windows , and on 31 October 2003 for the Xbox . A remastered version of the game was released on mobile platforms in 2011 , for the game 's tenth anniversary . It is the fifth title in the Grand Theft Auto series , and the first main entry since 1999 's Grand Theft Auto 2 . Set within the fictional Liberty City , based on New York City , the game follows Claude after he is left for dead and quickly becomes entangled in a world of gangs , crime and corruption .   The game is played from a third-person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle . The open world design lets players freely roam Liberty City , consisting of three main islands . Development was shared between DMA Design , based in Edinburgh and Rockstar , in New York City . Much of the development work constituted transforming popular series elements into a 3D world . The game was delayed following the September 11 attacks , to allow the team to change references and gameplay deemed inappropriate .   Upon release , the game received critical acclaim , with praise particularly directed at its concept and gameplay . However , the game also generated controversy , with criticism directed at the depiction of violence and sexual content . Grand Theft Auto III became the best-selling video game of 2001 , and has sold over 17 million copies . Considered one of the most significant titles of the sixth generation of video games , and by many critics as one of the greatest video games of all time , it won year-end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . Since its release , it has received numerous ports to many gaming platforms . Its successor , Grand Theft Auto : Vice City , was released in October 2002 .

neg: Helmet-to-helmet collision Helmet-to-helmet collisions are occurrences in American football when two players ' helmets make head-to-head contact with a high degree of force . Despite its long association with the sport , this type of contact is now considered to be dangerous play by league authorities due to the potential of causing serious injury . Major football leagues , such as the National Football League ( NFL ) , and NCAA , have taken a tougher stance on helmet-to-helmet collisions after the US Congress launched an investigation into the effects repeated concussions have on football players and the new discoveries of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy . Other possible injuries include head traumas , spinal cord injuries , and even death ; nevertheless helmet manufacturers are constantly improving their designs in order to best protect their users against injuries from such collisions . Intentionally causing a helmet-to-helmet collision is banned in most , if not all , football leagues .   The crackdown on helmet-to-helmet collisions has resulted in reappraisals of the sport . An image of two helmets smashing together -- which had been a staple for 20 years -- was dropped in 2006 from Monday Night Football on ESPN . The NFL also ordered Toyota Motor Company to stop using a similar helmet collision in its advertisements .   However , despite the safety concerns , some professional football players have criticized bans on helmet-to-helmet collisions on the basis that gridiron football is a game that is supposed to be composed of the world 's biggest and best athletes , and placing such restrictions `` waters down '' the game .

neg: Mercedes-Benz World Racing Mercedes-Benz World Racing ( also referred to as World Racing ) - is a computer game in the genre of driving simulators , developed by the German company Synetic GmbH . The game was released in September 2003 . A sequel , World Racing 2 , was released in 2005 .   Category :2003 video games  Category : GameCube games  Category : PlayStation 2 games  Category : Racing video games  Category : Windows games  Category : Xbox games

neg: Intersections (1985–2005) Bruce Hornsby 's Intersections ( 1985 -- 2005 ) is a 4 CD / 1 DVD retrospective boxed set . The tracks are a mixture of previously unreleased live recordings , unreleased studio recordings , and album cuts . The boxed set 's title emphasizes the large number of musical collaborations Hornsby has embarked upon during his career , as evidenced by the list of collaborators below .   The discs are thematically broken into three categories : `` Top 90 Time , '' `` Solo Piano , Tribute Records , Country-Bluegrass , Movie Scores , '' and `` By Request ( Favorites and Best Songs ) '' ( two CDs ) . A full third of the music is previously unreleased ; many familiar tracks are presented as unreleased live versions rather than the original studio recordings , and the majority of the remaining tracks are from single b-sides , collaborations and/or tribute albums and movie soundtracks .   Some noteworthy collaborations include a piano-and-saxophone duet with Ornette Coleman and a performance with Roger Waters of Pink Floyd 's `` Comfortably Numb . '' The set also offers a number of excellent examples of Hornsby 's re-inventiveness with his own compositions , particularly in a live setting , for instance three different versions of `` The Valley Road '' are included -- a live `` bluesy funk '' version with the Noise Makers , a Grammy-winning bluegrass version with the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and `` a loose and sloppy but totally grooving boogie '' take with the Grateful Dead .  Critics have said that Hornsby 's particular integrations of different musical genres , and his passion for reinventing his own compositions , create a kind of music many might `` never hear '' otherwise as it is `` a kind of music no one else is making . ''   `` Song H '' was a new composition that was nominated for Best Pop Instrumental at the 2007 Grammy Awards .

neg: Discount theater Discount theaters , also known as dollar theatres , dollar movies , second-run theatres , and sub-run theatres , are movie theaters that show motion pictures for reduced prices after the films leave first-run theatres . Originally , they would receive 35mm films after they had been shown already at first run theaters ; therefore the film quality would be lower because the film was worn by dozens of showings , and the audience for the film would be reduced since it had been released weeks or months before .   At the time , VHS was just rising as an affordable home video technology . Consequently , budget-conscious film-goers might wait for a film to hit the local dollar house instead of paying more money to see the film first-run .   As the 21st century dawned , a pair of factors conspired to drive many discount theatres out of business : 1 ) an oversupply of American movie screens caused by ambitious overbuilding allowed films to stay longer in the first-run theatres , and 2 ) the delay between theatrical release and VHS or DVD release continued to shrink . This latter factor convinced many moviegoers that it was simply not worth the money , hassle , and possible encounters with noisy fellow patrons and sticky floors , meaning dollar theatres could be in the twilight of their existence .

neg: Loose Change Loose Change is a series of films released between 2005 and 2009 that argue in favor of certain conspiracy theories relating to the September 11th attacks . The films were written and directed by Dylan Avery and produced by Korey Rowe , Jason Bermas , and Matthew Brown .   The original 2005 film was edited and re-released as Loose Change : 2nd Edition ( 2006 ) , and then subsequently edited a third time for the 2nd Edition Recut ( 2007 ) . Loose Change : Final Cut , deemed `` the third and final release of this documentary series '' was released on DVD and Web-streaming format on November 11 , 2007 .   Another version of the film , Loose Change 9/11 : An American Coup , released on September 22 , 2009 , is narrated by Daniel Sunjata and distributed by Microcinema International .   Coverage of the film increased in 2006 with the recut release having airings on U.S. and European television stations and over 4 million views online in four months , leading Vanity Fair to say it could be the first internet blockbuster . Loose Change asserts that the usual account of the Pentagon attack , World Trade Center collapse and United 93 phone calls and crash is implausible and instead suggests the 9/11 attacks were a false flag operation . The film 's main claims have been debunked by journalists , independent researchers , and prominent members of the scientific and engineering community .

neg: Traffic collision A traffic collision , also called a motor vehicle collision ( MVC ) among other terms , occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle , pedestrian , animal , road debris , or other stationary obstruction , such as a tree or pole . Traffic collisions often result in injury , death , and property damage .   A number of factors contribute to the risk of collision , including vehicle design , speed of operation , road design , road environment , and driver skill , impairment due to alcohol or drugs , and behavior , notably speeding and street racing . Worldwide , motor vehicle collisions lead to death and disability as well as financial costs to both society and the individuals involved .   Road injuries occurred in about 54 million people in 2013 . This resulted in 1.4 million deaths in 2013 , up from 1.1 million deaths in 1990 . About 68,000 of these occurred in children less than five years old . Almost all high-income countries have decreasing death rates , while the majority of low-income countries have increasing death rates due to traffic collisions . Middle-income countries have the highest rate with 20 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants , 80 % of all road fatalities by only 52 % of all vehicles . While the death rate in Africa is the highest ( 24.1 per 100,000 inhabitants ) , the lowest rate is to be found in Europe ( 10.3 per 100,000 inhabitants ) .

neg: Collision avoidance system A collision avoidance system is an automobile safety system designed to reduce the severity of a collision . It is also known as a precrash system , forward collision warning system , or collision mitigating system . It uses radar ( all-weather ) and sometimes laser ( LIDAR ) and camera ( employing image recognition ) to detect an imminent crash . GPS sensors can detect fixed dangers such as approaching stop signs through a location database .   Once the detection is done , these systems either provide a warning to the driver when there is an imminent collision or take action autonomously without any driver input ( by braking or steering or both ) . Collision avoidance by braking is appropriate at low vehicle speeds ( e.g. below 50 km/h ) , while collision avoidance by steering is appropriate at higher vehicle speeds . Cars with collision avoidance may also be equipped with adaptive cruise control , and use the same forward-looking sensors .   In March 2016 , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety announced the manufacturers of 99 % of U.S. automobiles had agreed to include automatic emergency braking systems as a standard feature on virtually all new cars sold in the U.S. by 2022 . In Europe there was a related agreement about advanced emergency braking system ( AEBS ) or autonomous emergency braking ( AEB ) in 2012 . United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ( UNECE ) has announced that this kind of system will become mandatory for new heavy vehicles starting in 2015 . NHTSA projected that the ensuing acceleration of the rollout of automatic emergency braking would prevent an estimated 28,000 collisions and 12,000 injuries .

neg: Golf course A golf course is the grounds where the game of golf is played . It comprises a series of holes , each consisting of a teeing ground , a fairway , the rough and other hazards , and a green with a flagstick ( `` pin '' ) and hole ( `` cup '' ) . A standard round of golf consists of 18 holes . Most courses contain 18 holes ; some share fairways or greens , and a subset has nine holes , played twice per round . Par-3 courses consist of nine or 18 holes all of which have a par of three strokes .   Many older courses are links , often coastal . Courses are private , public , and municipally owned , and typically feature a pro shop . Many private courses are found at country clubs .

neg: Game controller A game controller is a device used with games or entertainment systems to provide input to a video game , typically to control an object or character in the game . A controller is usually connected to a game console or computer by means of a wire or cord , although , since the mid-2000s , wireless controllers have become widespread . Input devices that have been classified as game controllers include keyboards , mouses , gamepads , joysticks , etc. . Special purpose devices , such as steering wheels for driving games and light guns for shooting games , are also game controllers .   Game controllers have been designed and improved over the years to be as user friendly as possible . The Microsoft Xbox controller , with its shoulder triggers that mimic actual triggers such as those found on guns , has become popular for shooting games . Some controllers are designed to be deliberately best for one type of game , such as steering wheels for driving games , or dance pads for dancing games .   One of the first video game controllers was a simple dial and single button , used to control the game Tennis for Two . Controllers have since evolved to include directional pads , multiple buttons , analog sticks , joysticks , motion detection , touch screens and a plethora of other features .