query: The Existence of God has been argued by Thomas Aquinas.

pos: Existence of God The existence of God is a subject of debate in the philosophy of religion , popular culture , and philosophy .   A wide variety of arguments for and against the existence of God can be categorized as metaphysical , logical , empirical , or subjective . In philosophical terms , the question of the existence of God involves the disciplines of epistemology ( the nature and scope of knowledge ) and ontology ( study of the nature of being , existence , or reality ) and the theory of value ( since some definitions of God include `` perfection '' ) .   The Western tradition of philosophical discussion of the existence of God began with Plato and Aristotle , who made arguments that would now be categorized as cosmological . Other arguments for the existence of God have been proposed by St. Anselm , who formulated the first ontological argument ; Ibn Rushd ( Averroes ) and Thomas Aquinas , who presented their own versions of the cosmological argument ( the kalam argument and the first way , respectively ) ; René Descartes , who said that the existence of a benevolent God is logically necessary for the evidence of the senses to be meaningful ; and Immanuel Kant , who argued that the existence of God can be deduced from the existence of good . Philosophers who have provided arguments against the existence of God include the aforementioned Kant , David Hume , Friedrich Nietzsche and Bertrand Russell . In modern culture , the question of God 's existence has been discussed by scientists such as Stephen Hawking , Francis Collins , Lawrence M. Krauss , Richard Dawkins and John Lennox , as well as philosophers including Richard Swinburne , Alvin Plantinga , William Lane Craig , Rebecca Goldstein , A. C. Grayling , Daniel Dennett , Edward Feser , David Bentley Hart and Sam Harris .   Scientists follow the scientific method , within which theories must be verifiable by physical experiment . On that basis , the question regarding the existence of God , for which evidence can not be tested , definitionally lies outside the purview of modern science . The Catholic Church maintains that knowledge of the existence of God is the `` natural light of human reason '' . Fideists acknowledge that belief in the existence of God may not be amenable to demonstration or refutation , but rests on faith alone . Atheism views arguments for the existence of God as insufficient , mistaken or weighing less in comparison to arguments against . Other religions , such as Buddhism , do not concern themselves with the existence of gods at all , while religions such as Jainism reject the possibility of a creator deity .

neg: Emanationism Emanationism is an idea in the cosmology or cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems . Emanation , from the Latin emanare meaning `` to flow from '' or `` to pour forth or out of '' , is the mode by which all things are derived from the first reality , or principle . All things are derived from the first reality or perfect God by steps of degradation to lesser degrees of the first reality or God , and at every step the emanating beings are less pure , less perfect , less divine . Emanationism is a transcendent principle from which everything is derived , and is opposed to both creationism ( wherein the universe is created by a sentient God who is separate from creation ) and materialism ( which posits no underlying subjective and/or ontological nature behind phenomena being immanent ) .

neg: History of the creation–evolution controversy The creation -- evolution controversy has a long history . In response to theories developed by scientists , some religious individuals and organizations questioned the legitimacy of scientific ideas that contradicted the literal interpretation of the creation account in Genesis . Interpretation of the Judeo-Christian Bible had long been the prerogative of an orthodox priesthood able to understand Latin who traditionally held that Genesis was not meant to be read literally and taught it as an allegory . With the advent of the printing press , the translation of the Bible into other languages , and wider literacy , sundry and more literal understandings of scripture flourished . This allowed some religious persons and groups to challenge scientists who supported evolution , such as biologists Thomas Henry Huxley and Ernst Haeckel .

neg: Dialectic Dialectic or dialectics ( διαλεκτική , dialektikḗ ) , also known as the dialectical method , is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments .   The term dialectic is not synonymous with the term debate . While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view , in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgment . Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent , proving one 's argument correct , and proving the opponent 's argument incorrect . Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser ; however , clear winners are frequently determined by a judge , a jury or group consensus . The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric , a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade , inform , or motivate an audience . Concepts , like `` logos '' or rational appeal , `` pathos '' or emotional appeal , and `` ethos '' or ethical appeal , are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience .   Socrates favoured truth as the highest value , proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion : ergo , dialectic . Socrates valued rationality ( appealing to logic , not emotion ) as the proper means for persuasion , the discovery of truth , and the determinant for one 's actions . To Socrates , truth , not aretē ( moral virtue ) , was the greater good , and each person should , above all else , seek truth to guide one 's life . Therefore , Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof . Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the Indosphere ( Greater India ) and the West ( Europe ) . These forms include the Socratic method , Hindu , Buddhist , Medieval , Hegelian dialectics , Marxist , Talmudic , and Neo-orthodoxy .

neg: Hobbes–Wallis controversy The Hobbes -- Wallis controversy was a polemic debate that continued from the mid-1650s well into the 1670s , between the philosopher Thomas Hobbes and the mathematician John Wallis . It was sparked by De corpore , a philosophical work by Hobbes in the general area of physics . The book contained not only a theory of mathematics subordinating it to geometry and geometry to kinematics , but a claimed proof of the squaring of the circle by Hobbes . While Hobbes retracted this particular proof , he returned to the topic with other attempted proofs . A pamphleteering exchange continued for decades . It drew in the newly formed Royal Society , and its experimental philosophy , to which Hobbes was ( on principle ) opposed .   The sustained nature of the exchanges can be attributed to several strands of the intellectual situation of the time . In mathematics there were open issues , namely the priority ( pedagogic , or theoretical ) to be assigned to geometry and algebra ; and the status of algebra itself , which ( from an English standpoint ) had been pulled together by the text of William Oughtred , as more than a collection of symbolic abbreviations . Socially , the formation of the group of Royal Society members , and the status of the publication Philosophical Transactions , was brought to a point as the quarrel proceeded , with Hobbes playing the outsider versus the self-selecting guild .   Hobbes was an easy target , on the ground chosen by Wallis . The failure of his attempts to solve the impossible problems he set himself were inevitable , but he neither backed down completely , nor applied adequate self-criticism . And on the level of character , Wallis was as intransigent as Hobbes was dogmatic , and this inflicted damage on both of their reputations . Quentin Skinner writes : `` There is no doubt that at the personal level Wallis behaved badly ( as was widely conceded at the time ) . ''   Part of the significance of the controversy is that Hobbes felt that , in the later stages , the Royal Society was in some way complicit in the attacks from Wallis , despite the fact that he had many friends as Fellows in it . This attitude presented one of the obstacles to Hobbes himself becoming a member , though not the only one .

neg: Perseverance of the saints Perseverance of the saints ( also referred to as eternal security as well as the similar but distinct doctrine known as `` Once Saved , Always Saved '' ) is a teaching that asserts that once persons are truly `` born of God '' or `` regenerated '' by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit , nothing in heaven or earth `` shall be able to separate ( them ) from the love of God '' ( Romans 8:39 ) resulting in a reversal of the converted condition .   Sometimes this position is held in conjunction with Reformed Christian confessions of faith in traditional Calvinist doctrine which argues that all men are `` dead in trespasses and sins '' and so apart from being resurrected from spiritual death to spiritual life , no one chooses salvation alone .   Calvinists maintain that God selected certain individuals before the world began and then draws them to faith in His Son , Jesus Christ . They believe that when Jesus said , `` No man can come unto Me except the Father which hath sent Me draw him '' ( John 6:44 ) , Jesus was saying that men had to be drawn to Him by God before they would believe . Calvinists have long taught that when the apostle Paul wrote , `` God hath chosen us in Him before the foundation of the world '' ( Ephesians 1:4 ) , he was indicating that God actually chose believers in Christ before the world was founded . According to Calvinism , God begins a good work in some and then continues it . They attempt to prove that with the text from the book of Philippians where the apostle Paul writes , `` He which hath begun a good work in you will perform it until the day of Jesus Christ '' ( Philippians 1:6 ) .   There are also many non-Calvinists who also maintain that a person who is saved can never be lost . This Free Grace or non-traditional Calvinist doctrine is found predominantly in `` free will '' Baptist theology , but also other Protestant churches of the evangelical tradition .   The doctrine of Perseverance of the Saints is distinct from the doctrine of Assurance , which describes how a person may first be sure that they have obtained salvation and an inheritance in the promises of the Bible including eternal life . The Westminster Confession of Faith teaches on Perseverance of the Saints in its Chapter 17 and on Assurance of Grace and Salvation in its Chapter 18 .

neg: Argument from morality The argument from morality is an argument for the existence of God . Arguments from morality tend to be based on moral normativity or moral order . Arguments from moral normativity observe some aspect of morality and argue that God is the best or only explanation for this , concluding that God must exist . Argument from moral order are based on the asserted need for moral order to exist in the universe . They claim that , for this moral order to exist , God must exist to support it . The argument from morality is noteworthy in that one can not evaluate the soundness of the argument without attending to almost every important philosophical issue in metaethics .   German philosopher Immanuel Kant devised an argument from morality based on practical reason . Kant argued that the goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness and virtue ( the summum bonum ) and believed that an afterlife must exist in order for this to be possible , and that God must exist to provide this . In his book Mere Christianity , C. S. Lewis argued that `` conscience reveals to us a moral law whose source can not be found in the natural world , thus pointing to a supernatural Lawgiver . '' Lewis argued that accepting the validity of human reason as a given must include accepting the validity of practical reason , which could not be valid without reference to a higher cosmic moral order which could not exist without a God to create and/or establish it . A related argument is from conscience ; John Henry Newman argued that the conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest . Newman argued that , because the conscience suggests the existence of objective moral truths , God must exist to give authority to these truths .

neg: Early Islamic philosophy Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar ( early 9th century CE ) and lasting until the 6th century AH ( late 12th century CE ) . The period is known as the Islamic Golden Age , and the achievements of this period had a crucial influence in the development of modern philosophy and science ; for Renaissance Europe , the influence represented `` one of the largest technology transfers in world history . '' . This period starts with al-Kindi in the 9th century and ends with Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ) at the end of 12th century . The death of Averroes effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the Peripatetic Arabic School , and philosophical activity declined significantly in Western Islamic countries , namely in Islamic Spain and North Africa , though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries , in particular Persia and India where several schools of philosophy continued to flourish : Avicennism , Illuminationist philosophy , Mystical philosophy , and Transcendent theosophy .   Some of the significant achievements of early Muslim philosophers included the development of a strict science of citation , the isnad or `` backing '' ; the development of a method of open inquiry to disprove claims , the ijtihad , which could be generally applied to many types of questions ( although which to apply it to is an ethical question ) ; the willingness to both accept and challenge authority within the same process ; recognition that science and philosophy are both subordinate to morality , and that moral choices are prior to any investigation or concern with either ; the separation of theology ( kalam ) and law ( shariah ) during the early Abbasid period , a precursor to secularism ; the distinction between religion and philosophy , marking the beginning of secular thought ; the beginning of a peer review process ; early ideas on evolution ; the beginnings of the scientific method , an important contribution to the philosophy of science ; the introduction of temporal modal logic and inductive logic ; the beginning of social philosophy , including the formulation of theories on social cohesion and social conflict ; the beginning of the philosophy of history ; the development of the philosophical novel and the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa ; and distinguishing between essence and existence .   Saadia Gaon , David ben Merwan al-Mukkamas , Maimonides , and Thomas Aquinas , were influenced by the Mutazilite work , particularly Avicennism and Averroism , and the Renaissance and the use of empirical methods were inspired at least in part by Arabic translations of Greek , Jewish , Persian and Egyptian works translated into Latin during the Renaissance of the 12th century , and taken during the Reconquista in 1492 .   Early Islamic philosophy can be divided into clear sets of influences , branches , schools , and fields , as described below .

neg: Modus tollens In propositional logic , modus tollens ( or modus tollendo tollens and also denying the consequent ) ( Latin for `` the way that denies by denying '' ) is a valid argument form and a rule of inference . It is an application of the general truth that if a statement is true , then so is its contra-positive .   The first to explicitly describe the argument form modus tollens were the Stoics .   The inference rule modus tollens validates the inference from implies and the contradictory of to the contradictory of .   The modus tollens rule can be stated formally as :   where stands for the statement `` P implies Q '' . stands for `` it is not the case that Q '' ( or in brief `` not Q '' ) . Then , whenever '' '' and '' '' each appear by themselves as a line of a proof , then '' '' can validly be placed on a subsequent line . The history of the inference rule modus tollens goes back to antiquity .   Modus tollens is closely related to modus ponens . There are two similar , but invalid , forms of argument : affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent . See also contraposition and proof by contrapositive .

neg: Principle of sufficient reason The principle of sufficient reason states that everything must have a reason or a cause . The modern formulation of the principle is usually attributed to Gottfried Leibniz , although the idea was conceived of and utilized by various philosophers who preceded him , including Anaximander , Parmenides , Archimedes , Plato and Aristotle , Cicero , Avicenna , Thomas Aquinas , and Spinoza . Some philosophers have associated the principle of sufficient reason with `` ex nihilo nihil fit '' . Hamilton identified the laws of inference modus ponens with the `` law of Sufficient Reason , or of Reason and Consequent '' and modus tollens with its contrapositive expression .

neg: Origins of Christianity Early Christianity and Early Rabbinical Judaism were significantly influenced by Hellenistic religion and Hellenistic philosophy . Christianity in particular inherited many features of Greco-Roman paganism in its structure , its terminology , its cult and its theology . Titles such as Pontifex Maximus and Sol Invictus were taken directly from Roman religion . The influence of Neoplatonism on Christian theology is significant , visible for example in Augustine of Hippo 's identification of God as summum bonum and of evil as privatio boni . Striking parallels between the New Testament account of Jesus and classical gods or demigods such as Bacchus , Bellerophon or Perseus were recognized by the Church Fathers and termed `` demonic imitation '' by Justin Martyr in the 2nd century .

neg: A History of Philosophy (Copleston) A History of Philosophy is an eleven-volume history of Western philosophy written by English Jesuit priest Frederick Charles Copleston .   Copleston 's History provides extensive coverage of Western philosophy from the Pre-Socratics through Dewey , Russell , Moore , Sartre and Merleau-Ponty . The first nine volumes , originally published between 1946 and 1974 , were written for Catholic seminary students with the goal `` of supplying Catholic ecclesiastical seminaries with a work that should be somewhat more detailed and of wider scope than the textbooks , commonly in use , and which at the same time should endeavour to exhibit the logical development and interconnection of philosophical systems . '' A tenth volume was added in 1986 , and the eleventh is actually a collection of essays which appeared in 1956 as Contemporary Philosophy .   Throughout the eleven volumes Copleston 's Roman Catholic ( Thomist ) point of view is never hidden . All the same , it seems generally accepted that Copleston 's treatment is fair and complete , even for philosophical positions that he does not support .

neg: Theodicy and the Bible Theodicy , in its most common form , is the attempt to answer the question of why a good God permits the manifestation of evil . Theodicy attempts to resolve the evidential problem of evil by reconciling the traditional divine characteristics of omnibenevolence and omnipotence , in either their absolute or relative form , with the occurrence of evil or suffering in the world . `` Writings and discourses on theodicy by Jews , Greeks , Christians , and Eastern religions have graced our planet for thousands of years , '' and `` debates about theodicy continue among believers and unbelievers alike '' .   Theodicy is an `` intensely urgent '' and `` constant concern '' of `` the entire Bible '' . Relating theodicy and the Bible is crucial to understanding Abrahamic theodicy because the Bible `` has been , both in theory and in fact , the dominant influence upon ideas about God and evil in the Western world '' . The Bible raises the issue of theodicy by its portrayals of God as inflicting evil and by its accounts of people who question God 's goodness by their angry indictments . However , the Bible `` contains no comprehensive theodicy '' .   `` The most common theodicy is the free will theodicy . '' It lays the blame for all moral evil and some natural evil on humanity 's misuse of its free will . This article shows that the free will theodicy interacts with the Bible at its core : what Jesus and Paul say about the freedom of the will and with what kind of freedom of the will God endowed humanity at the Creation .

neg: Argument In philosophy and logic , an argument is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion . The general form of an argument in a natural language is that of premises ( typically in the form of propositions , statements or sentences ) in support of a claim : the conclusion . The structure of some arguments can also be set out in a formal language , and formally defined `` arguments '' can be made independently of natural language arguments , as in math , logic , and computer science .   In a typical deductive argument , the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion , while in an inductive argument , they are thought to provide reasons supporting the conclusion 's probable truth . The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truth , for example , the persuasiveness of so-called `` indispensability claims '' in transcendental arguments , the quality of hypotheses in retroduction , or even the disclosure of new possibilities for thinking and acting .   The standards and criteria used in evaluating arguments and their forms of reasoning are studied in logic . Ways of formulating arguments effectively are studied in rhetoric ( see also : argumentation theory ) . An argument in a formal language shows the logical form of the symbolically represented or natural language arguments obtained by its interpretations .

neg: Examination of conscience Examination of conscience is a review of one 's past thoughts , words , actions , and omissions for the purpose of ascertaining their conformity with , or deviation from , the moral law . Among Christians , this is generally a private review ; secular intellectuals have , on occasion , published autocritiques for public consumption . In the Catholic Church penitents who wish to receive the sacrament of penance are encouraged to examine their conscience using the Ten Commandments as a guide , or the Beatitudes , or the virtues and vices . A similar doctrine is taught in Lutheran churches , where penitents who wish to receive Holy Absolution are also asked to use the Ten Commandments as a guide . The process is very similar to the Islamic practice of Muhasaba , or self-reflection .   `` The excellence of this practice and its fruitfulness for Christian virtue , '' preached Pope St. Pius X , `` are clearly established by the teaching of the great masters of the spiritual life . '' St. Ignatius of Loyola considered the examination of conscience as the single most important spiritual exercise . In his Spiritual Exercises he presents different forms of it in the particular and general examination ( 24-43 ) . Of the general examination he writes ; `` The first point is to give thanks to God our Lord for the favors received '' ( 43 ) . This point has become a highly developed part of Ignatian spirituality in modern times , and has led to many more positive practices , generally called examen of consciousness . In twice-daily `` examens '' one might review the ways God has been present through one to others , and to oneself through others , and how one has responded , and to proceed with one 's day with gratitude , more aware of the presence of God in one 's life .   In general , there is a distinction between the particular examen , which aims to change one particular feature or defect in ones behavior , the examen of consciousness , which is a more nuanced reflection , and the general examination of conscience as used before the sacrament of penance . '' This last method is called examination of conscience because it is a review of one 's actions from a moral point of view , reflecting upon one 's responsibility and looking at one 's sins and weaknesses in preparation for repentance , in contrast with the examen of consciousness which does not focus on morality even if sins will emerge during the review of the day .

neg: Doubting Thomas A doubting Thomas is a skeptic who refuses to believe without direct personal experience -- a reference to the Apostle Thomas , who refused to believe that the resurrected Jesus had appeared to the ten other apostles , until he could see and feel the wounds received by Jesus on the cross .   In art , the episode ( formally called the Incredulity of Thomas ) has been frequently depicted since at least the 5th century , with its depiction reflecting a range of theological interpretations .

neg: Transcendent truth Transcendent truths are those unaffected by time or space . They define the world , but are not defined by the world . An example of a transcendent truth is `` God is good '' , or `` there is no God '' . Either way , how one looks at things contained by time and space is a result of the transcendent truth . One is true ; both can not be true at the same time .   World views are made up of transcendent truths , things we believe are true before we question whether or not anything else is true .   The Transcendent Truth is the only Truth that is , ultimately , beyond human comprehension and before all concepts . It is beyond reality , and is the Creator of realities , existence , time and all there is , was and is yet to be . It is the Light that sacred texts speak of that illuminates hearts with knowledge from a Source beyond our universe . It is actually the true definition of God . Gandhi once signed a photograph of himself with the text `` God is truth '' . Buddha once said that truth is the saviour from sin . And Christ said to His disciples `` I am the Truth '' .

neg: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (6.5) In the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus of Ludwig Wittgenstein , Proposition 6.5 seeks to ground his philosophy of action ( Proposition 7 : `` Whereof one can not speak , thereof one must be silent '' ) .   6.5 `` For an answer which can not be expressed , the question too can not be expressed .  `` The riddle does not exist .  `` If a question can be put at all , then it can also be answered .   Although the historical significance of Tractatus is for its influence on the philosophers of logical empiricism , by providing them with a framework for a philosophy of science , and hence engineering , Wittgenstein actually wrote it as a work on ethics . See his propositions 6.4 onward .   But his motivation for writing , and the style of presentation , follow Frege and Russell , below .

neg: Index of philosophy of science articles This is a list of articles in philosophy of science .   A-series and B-series  A New Model of the Universe  Abductive reasoning  Abner Shimony  Abstinence  Adolf Grünbaum  Alan Turing  Albert Einstein  Alexandre Koyré  Alfred Jules Ayer  Alfred North Whitehead  Alfred Wilm  Alison Wylie  Altruism  André-Marie Ampère  Andreas Speiser  Androcentrism  Anthropic principle  Anti-Supernaturalism  Antiscience  Anton Kržan  Approximation  Archimedes  Aristotelian physics  Arthur Fine  Arthur Pap  Artificial consciousness  Artificial intelligence  Asa Gray  Atomism  Augustine Eriugena  Avicenna  Barry Loewer  Bas van Fraassen  Bayesian probability  Behaviorism  Berlin Circle  Bernard d'Espagnat  Bertrand Russell  Biological determinism  Biological imperative  Blockhead ( computer system )  Bohr -- Einstein debates  Bonifaty Kedrov  Boris Hessen  C. D. Broad  Cargo cult science  Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker  Carl Gustav Hempel  Carl Linnaeus  Carlos Castrodeza  Carnap -- Ramsey sentence  Causality  Centre for History and Philosophy of Science , University of Leeds  Christopher Potter ( author )  Classical mechanics  Classification of the sciences ( Peirce )  Claus Emmeche  Closed circle  Cognitive science  Commensurability ( philosophy of science )  Computational humor  Computer ethics  Confirmation holism  Conjecture  Conjectures and Refutations  Connectionism  Consciousness  Conservation biology  Constantin Noica  Construct ( philosophy of science )  Constructive empiricism  Constructive realism  Contextual empiricism  Conventionalism  Copernican Revolution ( metaphor )  Crabtree 's bludgeon  Critical realism  Daniel Chandler  Data system  David Hilbert  David Hull  David N. Stamos  David Papineau  David Stenhouse  Dawkins vs. Gould  Decision theory  Deductive-nomological model  Demarcation problem  Democratic Rationalization  Determinism  Deterministic system ( philosophy )  Dominique Lecourt  Don Ihde  Ecology  Edward Grant  Edward Jones-Imhotep  Edward S. Reed  Elisabeth Lloyd  Elliott Sober  Emergence  Émile Meyerson  Empirical method  Empirical relationship  Empirical research  Empiricism  Entity realism  Epicurus  Epistemological anarchism  Epistemological rupture  Epistemology  Eric Higgs ( philosopher )  Ernest Nagel  Ernst Mach  Ernst W. Mayr  Ervin László  Erwin Schrödinger  Ethics of artificial intelligence  Ethics of technology  Ethics of terraforming  Eugenics  Evelyn Fox Keller  Evolution  Evolutionary epistemology  Evolutionary logic  Evolutionary psychology  Experiment  Experimenter 's bias  Explanation  Explanatory gap  Explanatory power  Eyewitness testimony  Fact , Fiction , and Forecast  Faith , Science and Understanding  Falsifiability  Faraday Institute for Science and Religion  Fatalism  Federico Cesi  Francis Bacon  Frank P. Ramsey  Frederick Suppe  Friedrich Kambartel  Friedrich von Hayek  Friedrich Waismann  Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling  Fringe science  Fritjof Capra  Functional contextualism  Galileo Galilei  Game theory  Gaston Bachelard  Genidentity  Geoffrey Hellman  Geohumoral theory  Gerald Holton  Gerard Verschuuren  Gerd Buchdahl  God of the gaps  Great chain of being  Greedy reductionism  Gunther Stent  Gustav Bergmann  Hans Hahn  Hans Reichenbach  Harvey Brown ( philosopher )  Helen Longino  Henri Poincaré  Henry Margenau  Henry Moyes  Herbert Feigl  Herbert Spencer  Heroic theory of invention and scientific development  Hilary Putnam  History and philosophy of science  History of evolutionary thought  History of the Church -- Turing thesis  Horror vacui ( physics )  Hossein Nasr  Hugh Everett III  Hugo Dingler  Ian Hacking  Ignoramus et ignorabimus  Ilkka Niiniluoto  Immunology  Implications of nanotechnology  Imre Lakatos  Indeterminacy ( philosophy )  Individual  Inductive reasoning  Inductivism  Infinite regress  Information ethics  Ingenuity  Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies  Instrumentalism  Intentionality  Internalism and externalism  International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility  Internet ethics  Introspection  Ionian Enlightenment  Irreversibility  Is logic empirical ?  Isaac Newton  Jakob Friedrich Fries  James G. Lennox  James Robert Brown  Jean Cavaillès  Jerome Ravetz  Jerzy Giedymin  Jesús Mosterín  Joachim Jungius  John Beatty ( philosopher )  John Bulwer  John Earman  John L. Pollock  John Lennox  John Searle  John von Neumann  John Weckert  John Worrall ( philosopher )  Jordi Pigem  Joseph Henry Woodger  Jules Vuillemin  Jürgen Mittelstraß  Karl Jaspers  Karl Popper  Kinetic theory  Kurt Riezler  Kyle Stanford  Larry Laudan  Leonardo Moledo  Lindley Darden  List of philosophers of science  Logical positivism  Louis Rougier  Luddite  Ludwik Fleck  Mariano Artigas  Mario Bunge  Marx W. Wartofsky  Mary Hesse  Mary Tiles  Matteo Campani-Alimenis  Mauricio Suarez  Max Bense  Max Black  Maxwell 's demon  Measurement in quantum mechanics  Mechanism ( philosophy )  Mediocrity principle  Meera Nanda  Methodological individualism  Michael Oakeshott  Michael Ruse  Michael Scriven  Michel Bitbol  Miura Baien  Models of scientific inquiry  Modern Physics and Ancient Faith  Molecular biology  Molyneux 's Problem  Moravec 's paradox  Moritz Schlick  Multiple discovery  Myth of Progress  Naïve empiricism  Nancy Cartwright ( philosopher )  Natural law  Natural philosophy  Natural selection  Nature ( philosophy )  Neo-Luddism  Neuroethics  Neuroscience  Neven Sesardic  Newton 's flaming laser sword  Newtonianism  Niels Bohr  Noam Chomsky  Norman Swartz  Norwood Russell Hanson  Not even wrong  Novum Organum  Objectivity ( science )  Observation  Occam 's razor  Olavo de Carvalho  Omnology  Operational definition  Operationalization  Otto Neurath  Oxford Calculators  Paradigm  Paradigm shift  Parsimony  Particle physics  Paul Feyerabend  Paul Häberlin  Perception  Percy Williams Bridgman  Peripatetic axiom  Pessimistic induction  Peter Achinstein  Peter J. Lewis  Phenomenalism  Philip Kitcher  Philip Mirowski  Philipp Frank  Phillip H. Wiebe  Philosophical interpretation of classical physics  Philosophy of artificial intelligence  Philosophy of biology  Philosophy of chemistry  Philosophy of computer science  Philosophy of economics  Philosophy of engineering  Philosophy of information  Philosophy of mathematics  Philosophy of physics  Philosophy of psychology  Philosophy of science  Philosophy of Science Association  Philosophy of social science  Philosophy of space and time  Philosophy of statistics  Philosophy of technology  Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics  Physical law  Physicalism  Physics envy  Pierre Duhem  Pierre Gassendi  Popper 's experiment  Popper and After  Positivism  Post-positivist  Pragmatism  Prediction  Principle of uniformity  Probability  Problem of induction  Pseudoscience  Psychological nominalism  Psychologism  Ptolemy  Quantity  Quantum field theory  Quantum indeterminacy  Quantum logic  Quantum mechanics  R. B. Braithwaite  Raimo Tuomela  Ramsey -- Lewis method  Rational reconstruction  Reasonable doubt  Received view of theories  Reductionism  Regulation of science  Relationship between religion and science  Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory  René Descartes  Retrocausality  Richard Boyd  Richard Swinburne  Robert Grosseteste  Robert Kilwardby  Roberto Refinetti  Robin O. Andreasen  Roboethics  Roger Bacon  Roger Penrose  Rose Rand  Rudolf Carnap  Sandra Mitchell  Science  Science and Christian Belief  Scientific Communism  Scientific essentialism  Scientific law  Scientific misconduct  Scientific modelling  Scientific progress  Scientific realism  Scientific revolution  Scientific theory  Scientism  Scientistic materialism  Scientists for Global Responsibility  Semantic view of theories  Sense data  Sherrilyn Roush  Social constructionism  Space  Spacetime  Species  Stephen Mulhall  Stephen Toulmin  Steve Fuller ( sociologist )  Structuralism ( philosophy of science )  Supervenience  Susan Oyama  Taketani Mitsuo  Technocriticism  Technological determinism  Technological Somnambulism  Technorealism  Temporal finitism  The Incoherence of the Philosophers  The Logic of Scientific Discovery  The Relativity of Wrong  The Selfish Genius  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions  The Two Cultures  The Value of Science  Theoretical definition  Theory  Theory choice  Thomas Samuel Kuhn  Thucydides  Time  Uncertainty principle  Unified Science  Uniformitarianism  Unity of science  Universe  Varadaraja V. Raman  Verificationism  Verisimilitude  Victor Kraft  Victoria Institute  Vienna Circle  Voodoo science  Werner Heisenberg  Wesley C. Salmon  What Is This Thing Called Science ?  Whitny Braun  Wilhelm Windelband  Wilhelm Wundt  Willard Van Orman Quine  Willem B. Drees  William Irwin Thompson  William Newton-Smith  William W. Tait  William Whewell  Wolfgang Smith  Wolfgang Stegmüller  Wronger than wrong  Xu Liangying  Yoichiro Murakami  Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance    Science

neg: Instrumentality (theology) Instrumentality is a theological theory that falls under the broader category of the prophetic model of biblical inspiration . Those who espouse the prophetic model consider the writers of all the books of the bible to have been inspired in the same way as prophets have been inspired by God to preach . This makes sense given that the vocation of the prophet and the vocation of the writer of Holy Scripture is more or less the same ; they are called to communicate the message of God to a community that is in need of hearing it . Though , as Reginald-Garigou Lagrange , O.P. notes , a prophet can act based on direct revelation from God or from inspiration . The latter is what is relevant when it comes to biblical interpretation . This model of biblical inspiration played a dominant role in the Early Church and was fully and systematically explained by medieval theologians like St. Thomas Aquinas . Thomas discusses prophesy in Questions 171-174 of the Second Part of the Second Part of the Summa Theologica . Thomas uses earlier theologians , namely St. Augustine and Pope St. Gregory the Great , to support his argument . Jewish theologians such as Moses Maimonides also defended this model .

neg: History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance This article gives a historical overview of Christian positions on Persecution of Christians , persecutions by Christians , religious persecution and toleration . Christian theologians like Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas legitimized religious persecution to various extents , and during the Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages , Christians considered heresy and dissent to be punishable offences . However , Early modern Europe witnessed the turning point in the history of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance . Christian writers like John Milton and John Locke argued for limited religious toleration , and later secular authors like Thomas Jefferson developed the concept of religious freedom . Christians nowadays generally accept that heresy and dissent are not punishable by a civil authority . Many Christians `` look back on the centuries of persecution with a mixture of revulsion and incomprehension . ''


query: Al Gore was born in 1948.

pos: Al Gore Albert Arnold Gore Jr. ( born March 31 , 1948 ) is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton . He was Clinton 's running mate in their successful campaign in 1992 , and was re-elected in 1996 . At the end of Clinton 's second term , Gore was picked as the Democratic nominee for the 2000 presidential election . After leaving office , Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist , whose work in climate change activism earned him ( jointly with the IPCC ) the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .   Gore was an elected official for 24 years . He was a Congressman from Tennessee ( 1977 -- 85 ) and from 1985 to 1993 served as one of the state 's Senators . He served as Vice President during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001 . In the 2000 presidential election , in what was one of the closest presidential races in history , Gore won the popular vote but lost in the Electoral College to Republican George W. Bush . A controversial election dispute over a vote recount in Florida was settled by the U.S. Supreme Court , which ruled 5 -- 4 in favor of Bush .   Gore is the founder and current chair of the Alliance for Climate Protection , the co-founder and chair of Generation Investment Management and the now-defunct Current TV network , a member of the Board of Directors of Apple Inc. , and a senior adviser to Google . Gore is also a partner in the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers , heading its climate change solutions group . He has served as a visiting professor at Middle Tennessee State University , Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism , Fisk University , and the University of California , Los Angeles . He served on the Board of Directors of World Resources Institute .   Gore has received a number of awards including the Nobel Peace Prize ( joint award with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 2007 ) , a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album ( 2009 ) for his book An Inconvenient Truth , a Primetime Emmy Award for Current TV ( 2007 ) , and a Webby Award ( 2005 ) . Gore was also the subject of the Academy Award-winning ( 2007 ) documentary An Inconvenient Truth in 2006 . In 2007 , he was named a runner-up for Time 2007 Person of the Year .

neg: Allan Alcorn Allan Alcorn ( born January 1 , 1948 in San Francisco ) is an American pioneering engineer and computer scientist . He grew up in San Francisco , California , and attended the University of California , Berkeley , graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences in 1971 .

neg: Gary Neat Gary Francis Neat ( born 27 October 1948 ) is an Australian business leader and company director . He is a former journalist and senior political figure .

neg: Comedy Central's Indecision 2000 Comedy Central 's Indecision 2000 was a series of special episodes featured on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart spoofing the 2000 Presidential Election . This series covered the primaries leading up to the general election between George W. Bush and Al Gore . The series featured `` correspondents '' at the Democratic National Convention as well as the Republican National Convention . At the conventions , the correspondents interviewed many politicians in the comedic style that has made The Daily Show famous . On the first episode after election night , Jon Stewart said that the name was a joke and he had not expected people to take it seriously , referring to the debacle in Florida .   This edition of Indecision also included a separate series called Lewis Black 's World of Politics , aired during the Republican and Democratic national conventions and featuring Lewis Black . It was included on Black 's DVD releases Lewis Black - Unleashed in 2003 .   In 2000 , Indecision 2000 won a Peabody Award .

neg: First inauguration of Bill Clinton The first inauguration of Bill Clinton as the 42nd President of the United States was held on January 20 , 1993 on the West Front of the United States Capitol Building in Washington , D.C. . The inauguration marked the commencement of the first four-year term of Bill Clinton as President and Al Gore as Vice President . At of age time of his first inauguration , Clinton was the third-youngest person to become president , and the first from the Baby Boomer generation .

neg: The Selling of the President 1968 The Selling of the President 1968 is a non-fiction book written by American author Joe McGinniss and published by Trident Press in October , 1969 .   The book describes the marketing of Richard Nixon during the 1968 presidential campaign . It has been described as `` a classic of political journalism '' and a `` classic of campaign reporting that first introduced many readers to the stage-managed world of political theater . '' It was reprinted in 1988 under the title The Selling of the President .   McGinniss became an overnight success when the book , his first , landed on The New York Times bestseller list . He was 26 years old , making him the youngest living writer with that achievement . The book was on the New York Times non-fiction bestseller list for 31 weeks from October 1969 to May 1970 .   The idea for the book came to McGinniss almost serendipitously :   -LSB- He -RSB- stumbled across his book 's topic while taking a train to New York . A fellow commuter had just landed the Hubert Humphrey account and was boasting that ` in six weeks we 'll have him looking better than Abraham Lincoln . ' McGinniss tried to get access to Humphrey 's campaign first , but they turned him down . So he called up Nixon 's , and they said yes . '' .   The book was very well received by both critics and the public . It `` spent more than six months on best-sellers lists , and McGinniss sold a lot of those books through television , appearing on the titular shows of Merv Griffin , David Frost and Dick Cavett , among others . '' Conservative writer William F. Buckley `` assumed McGinniss had relied on ` an elaborate deception which has brought joy and hope to the Nixon-haters . ' But even Buckley liked the book . ''   In 1972 , the book was adapted into a short-lived Broadway musical .

neg: United States presidential election in Louisiana, 2000 The 2000 United States presidential election in Louisiana took place on November 7 , 2000 throughout all 50 states and D.C. , which was part of the 2000 United States presidential election . Voters chose 9 representatives , or electors to the Electoral College , who voted for President and Vice President .   Louisiana was won by Governor George W. Bush , a dramatic swing from the statewide results in 1996 when Democrat President Bill Clinton carried the state with 52 % of the vote and with a double digit margin of victory . Bush was the first Republican to carry the state since 1988 . Bush won most of the counties and congressional districts in the state . Bush dominated among the rural areas of the state . The only congressional district Gore won was the second district , which represents the very urban area of New Orleans .

neg: Fifty-state strategy A fifty-state strategy is a political strategy which aims for progress in all states of the United States of America , rather than conceding certain states as `` unwinnable . '' In a presidential campaign , it is usually implemented as an appeal to a broad base of the American public in an attempt to win , even if marginally , every state , since even a marginal victory is effectively total victory for electoral purposes . It can also refer to an overall long-term strategy for a political movement such as a political party .   This strategy is very ambitious and , when used for a specific election , is typically abandoned as the election day draws nearer . In the vast majority of cases , winning a state 's popular vote for president or senator -- even by a small margin -- means the state 's entire representation in the election goes to the victor without being divided . A fifty-state strategy requires a campaign to spend valuable resources in a rival 's strongest states , when those resources could instead be concentrated in swing states that will become a total win or a total loss based on only a small difference in popular votes .   A president has won every state three times : in 1788 and 1792 , George Washington won all the electoral votes running effectively unopposed , and in 1820 , James Monroe , running unopposed , carried all twenty-three states in the union at that time ( although one electoral vote was cast for John Quincy Adams and two electors died prior to casting votes ) . In 1936 , Franklin D. Roosevelt carried forty-six of forty-eight states , losing only Maine and Vermont . A complete fifty-state victory has not been accomplished since the fiftieth state was admitted into the union , although Republicans have twice managed to win the presidency in forty-nine of the fifty : in 1972 with Richard Nixon losing only Massachusetts , and in 1984 with Ronald Reagan losing only his rival 's home state of Minnesota . Both also lost the District of Columbia , which has had presidential electors since the Twenty-Third Amendment in 1961 .

neg: United States presidential election in New Mexico, 1996 The 1996 United States presidential election in New Mexico took place on November 5 , 1996 . All 50 states and the District of Columbia , were part of the 1996 United States presidential election . New Mexico voters chose 5 electors to the Electoral College , which selected the President and Vice President .   New Mexico was won by incumbent United States President Bill Clinton of Arkansas , who was running against Kansas Senator Bob Dole . Clinton ran a second time with former Tennessee Senator Al Gore as Vice President , and Dole ran with former New York Congressman Jack Kemp .   New Mexico weighed in for this election as 1 % more Republican than the national average .

neg: United States presidential election in North Carolina, 1968 The 1968 United States presidential election in North Carolina took place on November 5 , 1968 throughout all 50 states and D.C. , which was part of the 1968 United States presidential election . Voters chose 13 representatives , or electors to the Electoral College , who voted for President and Vice President .   The vote in North Carolina was split three ways , between Republican nominee Richard Nixon , Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey , and American Independent Party nominee George Wallace . Nixon won the state , with 39.5 % of the vote , while Wallace 's 31.3 % pushed Humphrey into third on 29.2 % . Nixon won twelve of the state 's electoral votes , while one faithless elector that had been pledged to Nixon voted instead for Wallace .

neg: Dan Quayle James Danforth `` Dan '' Quayle ( born February 4 , 1947 ) is an American politician and lawyer . He was the 44th Vice President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 under President George H. W. Bush . He was also a U.S. Representative ( 1977 -- 81 ) and U.S. Senator ( 1981 -- 89 ) from the state of Indiana .   A native of Indianapolis , Indiana , Quayle spent most of his childhood living in Paradise Valley , Arizona , a suburb of Phoenix . He married Marilyn Tucker in 1972 and obtained his J.D. from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law in 1974 . He practiced law in Huntington , Indiana , with his wife before his election to the United States House of Representatives in 1976 , aged 29 . In 1980 Quayle won election to the Senate .   In 1988 , Vice President George H. W. Bush , the Republican Party nominee for the presidency , chose Quayle as his vice presidential running mate . The Bush/Quayle ticket won the 1988 election over Democrats Michael Dukakis and Lloyd Bentsen .   As vice president , Quayle made official visits to 47 countries and was appointed chairman of the National Space Council . He secured re-nomination for vice-president in 1992 , but Democrat Bill Clinton and his vice presidential running mate , Al Gore , defeated the Bush/Quayle ticket .   In 1994 , Quayle published his memoir entitled Standing Firm but declined to run for public office in this time period because he was suffering from phlebitis . He sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 , but withdrew and supported George W. Bush . In 2016 , he endorsed Jeb Bush and after that he supported Donald Trump for president . Quayle and his wife reside in Paradise Valley , Arizona .   Quayle is the chairman of global investments at Cerberus Capital Management .

neg: The Green Promise The Green Promise is a 1948 American film directed by William D. Russell . The film was co-produced by Houston oilman Glenn McCarthy and leading man Robert Paige to display the concept and meaning of the 4-H Club and highlight farming issues such as soil erosion , government programs , and individual enterprise . The title refers to a scene where the local preacher gives a sermon on a story from the Book of Exodus of God 's `` green promise '' to lead Moses into a land of milk and honey . The preacher reminds his congregation that the fulfillment of the promise requires faith , difficult journeys and open-mindedness .   It is currently in the public domain .

neg: United States presidential election, 1992 The United States presidential election of 1992 was the 52nd quadrennial presidential election . It was held on Tuesday , November 3 , 1992 . There were three major candidates : Incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush , Democratic Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton , and independent Texas businessman Ross Perot .   Bush had alienated much of his conservative base by breaking his 1988 campaign pledge against raising taxes . The economy was in recession and Bush 's perceived greatest strength , foreign policy , was regarded as much less important following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the relatively peaceful climate in the Middle East after the defeat of Iraq in the Gulf War .   Clinton won a plurality in the popular vote , and a wide Electoral College margin . The election was a significant realigning election after three consecutive Republican landslides . Northeastern , Upper Midwest , and West Coast states which had previously been competitive began voting reliably Democratic . As of 2016 , this is the most recent election in which an incumbent president was unseated , the previous one having been the 1980 election in which Ronald Reagan unseated then-incumbent Jimmy Carter .   Perot 's campaign took 18.9 % of the vote , finishing second in Maine and Utah . This was noted for being the highest vote share of a third-party candidate since 1912 , though he did not obtain any electoral votes .   As of 2017 , this is the last time Georgia and Montana voted for the Democratic candidate , and the last time the state of Florida was on the losing end of the presidential election .

neg: Janet De Gore Janet De Gore ( age , place of birth , and other personal information unknown ) is a former actress best known for her supporting roles on the ABC television series , The Law and Mr. Jones , in which she portrayed the legal secretary , Marsha Spear , to attorney Abraham Lincoln Jones , played by James Whitmore ( 1921 -- 2009 ) . A second costar , Conlan Carter ( born 1934 ) , portrayed the legal assistant , C.E. Carruthers . Carter later joined the cast of ABC 's Combat ! .   Thereafter , De Gore played the young widow Louise Howard , the attractive romantic interest of Richard Crenna ( 1927 -- 2003 ) in his revised role as the recently widowed Luke McCoy on CBS ' The Real McCoys . The situation comedy starring Walter Brennan had premiered on ABC in 1957 but switched networks and nights from Thursday to Sunday opposite Bonanza on NBC for its final year . Kathleen Nolan , who played Crenna 's on-screen wife , Kate McCoy , left the series after five years ; it was announced that Nolan 's character had died . Butch Patrick , later of CBS 's The Munsters , played Greg Howard , Louise 's 9-year-old son , in the revised The McCoys .   Most of De Gore 's acting occurred between 1952 and 1966 . Her early roles were in dramatic anthologies , including Hallmark Hall of Fame , the Philco Television Playhouse , and Kraft Television Theatre . In 1960-1961 , as she joined Four Star 's The Law and Mr. Jones cast , she also appeared in episodes of two Warner Brothers series , Will Hutchins ' western Sugarfoot and Efrem Zimbalist , Jr. 's detective series , 77 Sunset Strip , both on ABC .   In 1964 , she appeared as a flight attendant in the episode `` Second Chance '' of the ABC science fiction series The Outer Limits . In 1965 , she appeared on Chuck Connors ' short-lived NBC western Branded . In 1966 , her last year of television credits , De Gore appeared on The Farmer 's Daughter ( ABC ) with Inger Stevens , Perry Mason ( CBS ) with Raymond Burr , and NBC 's powerhouse western Bonanza , which had destroyed The McCoys in the 1962-1963 ratings . Her Bonanza role on the episode entitled `` Tommy '' was that of Allie Miller .   She is believed to reside in the Greater Los Angeles Area .

neg: United States presidential election in Arizona, 2000 The 2000 United States presidential election in Arizona took place on November 7 , 2000 throughout all 50 states and D.C. , which was part of the 2000 United States presidential election . Voters chose 8 representatives , or electors to the Electoral College , who voted for President and Vice President .   Arizona was won by Governor George W. Bush by a 6.3 % margin of victory . Ralph Nader received 3 % , as all of the other candidates received a combined 1 % . Pre-election polling showed that Bush had a solid lead of Gore . Bush won all the congressional districts , except Arizona 's 2nd congressional district . The key for Bush 's victory was Maricopa County , which has by far the highest population in the state . Bush made history by winning Greenlee County . This thinly populated working class county , which has been dependent on copper mining as the basis for its economy , had voted Democratic in every election since Arizona achieved statehood from 1912 to 1996 , and now is a Republican stronghold in the 21st century .

neg: James C. Kennedy James Cox Kennedy ( born 1948 ) is an American media executive and the current chair of Cox Enterprises , the media conglomerate founded by his grandfather , James M. Cox . According to the Forbes 400 list in 2008 , he is the 49th richest person in the United States , through his $ 6.5 billion stake in the company . He was featured in a Forbes article entitled `` This Billionaire Knows The Secret To Saving A Family Business '' .

neg: Al Smith Alfred Emanuel `` Al '' Smith ( December 30 , 1873 -- October 4 , 1944 ) was an American statesman who was elected Governor of New York four times and was the Democratic U.S. presidential candidate in 1928 .   Smith was the foremost urban leader of the Efficiency Movement in the United States and was noted for achieving a wide range of reforms as governor in the 1920s . The son of an Irish-American mother and a Civil War veteran father , he was raised in the Lower East Side of Manhattan near the Brooklyn Bridge , where resided for his entire life . Like many other New York politicians of his era , he was also linked to the notorious Tammany Hall political machine that controlled New York City 's politics , although he remained personally untarnished by corruption . Smith was a strong opponent of Prohibition , which he did not think could be enforced , and viewed it as an over-extension of the government 's constitutional power . He was also the first Catholic nominee for President . His candidacy mobilized Catholic votes , especially from women , who had only recently received federal suffrage . It also brought out the anti-Catholic vote , which was especially strong among white conservative Democrats in the South , although Smith was still successful within the states of the traditional Deep South .   As a committed `` wet , '' or anti-Prohibition , candidate , Smith attracted not only drinkers but also voters angered by the corruption and lawlessness that developed alongside prohibition . Many Protestants feared his candidacy , including German Lutherans and Southern Baptists , believing that the Catholic Church and the Pope would dictate his policies . Most importantly , this was a time of national prosperity under a Republican White House . Smith lost in a landslide to Republican Herbert Hoover , who gained electoral support from six southern states . Four years later Smith sought the 1932 nomination but was defeated by Franklin D. Roosevelt , his former ally and successor as Governor of New York . Smith entered business in New York City and became an increasingly vocal opponent of Roosevelt 's New Deal , believing that its true agenda was to make the American people less `` self-reliant and independent . '' He ultimately went on to support Republican nominees Alf Landon in the 1936 presidential election and Wendell Willkie in the 1940 presidential election .

neg: Al Duerr Alfred Herman `` Al '' Duerr ( born January 29 , 1951 ) is a Canadian former politician who served as the 34th Mayor of Calgary , Alberta from 1989 to 2001 , and a city alderman from 1983 to 1989 . He is the Chief Executive Officer of Emergo Projects International , and serves on the board of directors for two other companies in Calgary . He is a member of the Community and Partners Advisory Committee of the Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta .   Duerr attended the University of Saskatchewan and graduated with a degree in Urban Geography and Regional Urban Development and holds a Masters of Business Administration degree from Haskayne School of the University of Calgary .   He served two terms as an Alderman in Calgary before being elected mayor in 1989 . Duerr served for four terms as Calgary 's mayor , leaving office in 2001 , and was one of the most popular mayors in the city 's history . His conciliatory , managerial style and likeable personality made him well respected .   Duerr is married to Kit Chan , and has two children .

neg: Abdelmalek Sellal Abdelmalek Sellal ( عبد الملك سلال ` Abd al-Malik Sallāl ; born 1 August 1948 ) is an Algerian politician who was Prime Minister of Algeria from 3 September 2012 to 13 March 2014 and again from April 2014 to May 2017 .

neg: Dayo Gore Dayo Gore ( Dayo F. Gore ) is an African-American feminist scholar , former fellow of Harvard 's Warren Center for North American History , formerly employed as Assistant Professor of History and of Women 's Studies at the University of Massachusetts Amherst , Gore is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Ethnic Studies at University of California , San Diego . Gore is one of a new generation of young scholars active in preserving and exploring the infrequently chronicled history of 20th-century black women 's radicalism , in the US and beyond . Along with Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard , Gore edited a collection of essays Want to Start A Revolution ? Radical Women In The Black Freedom Struggle ( NYU Press , 2009 ) , to which she contributed the chapter `` From Communist Politics to Black Power : The Visionary Politics and Transnational Solidarities of Victoria Ama Garvin '' .   Ernesto Aguilar in Political Media Review summed up the importance of Want to Start A Revolution ? and similar work in forging connections between radical and progressive scholars and activism :     Feminist Review found the anthology also illuminating about the history of intersectionality as more than merely an academic method of analysis but as the theoretical and existential core of a radical praxis :   Gore 's book Radicalism at the Crossroads : African American Women Activists in the Cold War , was published by NYU Press in 2011 . It expands the author 's project to recuperate the voices and histories of radical black women in the US in the early Cold War era , and their militancy which produced the pre-history of the better-remembered civil rights and feminist/women 's movements . Vicki Garvin is again highlighted alongside other unjustly forgotten women such as Thelma Dale , Beah Richards , and the communist leader Claudia Jones .

neg: Winthrop Paul Rockefeller Winthrop Paul `` Win '' Rockefeller ( September 17 , 1948 -- July 16 , 2006 ) was a Republican politician who served as the 13th Lieutenant Governor of the US state of Arkansas from 1996 until his death in 2006 . He was also a member of the Rockefeller family .