query: Robert Chase worked under a fictional character.

pos: Robert Chase Robert Chase , MBBS is a fictional character on the Fox medical drama House . He is portrayed by Jesse Spencer . His character was a part of the team of diagnosticians who worked under Gregory House until the end of the third season when House fires him . However , he resumed work at the hospital as a surgeon , and was re-hired by House in season 6 . Robert Chase is the longest-serving member of House 's staff . Chase has been attracted to Allison Cameron since the beginning of the show and embarks on a romantic relationship with her in `` Human Error . '' In `` Post Mortem , '' he left the Diagnostic Team after realizing he was in the same position as he was 10 years earlier , unlike all of the other former members of the team . However , in the series finale , he rejoins the hospital as the new Head of Diagnostic Medicine , replacing House , who is thought to have died .

pos: Gregory House Gregory House , M.D. , commonly referred to by his surname House , is the title character of the American medical drama series House . Created by David Shore and portrayed by English actor Hugh Laurie , he leads a team of diagnosticians as the Head of Diagnostic Medicine at the fictional Princeton-Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in Princeton , New Jersey ( based on the real-life Yale -- New Haven Hospital in New Haven , Connecticut ) .   House 's character has been described as a misanthrope , cynic , narcissist , and curmudgeon , the last of which was named one of the top television words of 2005 in honor of the character . He is the only character to appear in all 177 episodes and , except for Wilson 's brief appearance , is the only regular character to appear in the season six premiere .   In the series , the character 's unorthodox diagnostic approaches , radical therapeutic motives , and stalwart rationality have resulted in much conflict between him and his colleagues . House is also often portrayed as lacking sympathy for his patients , a practice that allots him time to solve pathological enigmas . The character is partly inspired by Sherlock Holmes . A portion of the show 's plot centers on House 's habitual use of Vicodin to manage pain stemming from a leg infarction involving his quadriceps muscle some years earlier , an injury that forces him to walk with a cane . This addiction is also one of the many parallels to Holmes , who was a habitual user of cocaine .   Throughout the series ' run , the character received generally positive reviews and was included in several best lists . Tom Shales of The Washington Post called House `` the most electrifying character to hit television in years '' . For his portrayal , Laurie has won various awards , including two Golden Globe Awards for Best Actor in a Television Series -- Drama , two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Best Actor from Drama Series , two Satellite Awards for Best Actor in a Television Series -- Drama , two TCA Awards for Individual Achievement in Drama , and a total of six Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series .

pos: House (TV series) House ( also called House , M.D. ) is an American television medical drama that originally ran on the Fox network for eight seasons , from November 16 , 2004 to May 21 , 2012 . The series ' main character is Dr. Gregory House ( Hugh Laurie ) , an unconventional , misanthropic medical genius who , despite his dependence on pain medication , leads a team of diagnosticians at the fictional Princeton -- Plainsboro Teaching Hospital ( PPTH ) in New Jersey . The series ' premise originated with Paul Attanasio , while David Shore , who is credited as creator , was primarily responsible for the conception of the title character . The series ' executive producers included Shore , Attanasio , Attanasio 's business partner Katie Jacobs , and film director Bryan Singer . It was filmed largely in Century City .   House often clashes with his fellow physicians , including his own diagnostic team , because many of his hypotheses about patients ' illnesses are based on subtle or controversial insights . His flouting of hospital rules and procedures frequently leads him into conflict with his boss , hospital administrator and Dean of Medicine Dr. Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) . House 's only true friend is Dr. James Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) , head of the Department of Oncology . During the first three seasons , House 's diagnostic team consists of Dr. Robert Chase ( Jesse Spencer ) , Dr. Allison Cameron ( Jennifer Morrison ) , and Dr. Eric Foreman ( Omar Epps ) . At the end of the third season , this team disbands . Rejoined by Foreman , House gradually selects three new team members : Dr. Remy `` Thirteen '' Hadley ( Olivia Wilde ) , Dr. Chris Taub ( Peter Jacobson ) , and Dr. Lawrence Kutner ( Kal Penn ) . Kutner makes an appearance late in season five and then reappears in season 8 episode 22 . Chase and Cameron continue to appear in different roles at the hospital until early in season six . Cameron then departs the hospital , and Chase returns to the diagnostic team . Thirteen takes a leave of absence for most of season seven , and her position is filled by medical student Martha M. Masters ( Amber Tamblyn ) . Cuddy and Masters depart before season eight ; Foreman becomes the new Dean of Medicine , while Dr. Jessica Adams ( Odette Annable ) and Dr. Chi Park ( Charlyne Yi ) join House 's team .   House was among the top 10 series in the United States from its second through fourth seasons . Distributed to 66 countries , House was the most-watched television program in the world in 2008 . The show received numerous awards , including five Primetime Emmy Awards , two Golden Globe Awards , a Peabody Award , and nine People 's Choice Awards . On February 8 , 2012 , Fox announced that the eighth season , then in progress , would be its last . The series finale aired on May 21 , 2012 , following an hour-long retrospective .

neg: Racconti romani Racconti romani ( Roman Tales ) is a series of sixty-one short stories written by the Italian author , Alberto Moravia . Written and published initially in the Italian newspaper , Il Corriere della Sera , they were published as a collection in 1954 by Bompiani . All of the stories are set in Rome or its surroundings after World War II and focus on ` the common people of Rome ' ( Roma popolana ) . The characters in these stories tend to be the unemployed , ex-convicts , waiters , drivers , con artists , thieves and petty criminals , the average man ( or woman ) and the lower classes aspiring to climb out of poverty .   All the stories are told in the first person with the narrator often unnamed , although details are usually furnished to provide a clue to the narrator 's identity , such as their occupation , motivations and social status . Moravia 's Racconti Romani provide a snapshot on life in Rome after World War II , revealing much about the inhabitants of Rome in the early 1950s .

neg: Nuklo Nuklo ( Robert Frank , Jr. ) is a fictional character , a mutant in the Marvel Comics Universe .

neg: Eric Chase Anderson Eric Chase Anderson ( born 1973 ) is an American author , illustrator and actor .

neg: Peter Corbeau Peter Corbeau is a fictional character that appears in Marvel Comics .

neg: Edward Page Mitchell Edward Page Mitchell ( 1852 -- 1927 ) was an American editorial and short story writer for The Sun , a daily newspaper in New York City . He became that newspaper 's editor in 1897 , succeeding Charles Anderson Dana . Mitchell was recognized as a major figure in the early development of the science fiction genre . Mitchell wrote fiction about a man rendered invisible by scientific means ( `` The Crystal Man '' , published in 1881 ) before H.G. Wells 's The Invisible Man , wrote about a time-travel machine ( `` The Clock that Went Backward '' ) before Wells 's The Time Machine , wrote about faster-than-light travel ( `` The Tachypomp '' ; now perhaps his best-known work ) in 1874 , a thinking computer and a cyborg in 1879 ( `` The Ablest Man in the World '' ) , and also wrote the earliest known stories about matter transmission or teleportation ( `` The Man without a Body '' , 1877 ) and a superior mutant ( `` Old Squids and Little Speller '' ) . `` Exchanging Their Souls '' ( 1877 ) is one of the earliest fictional accounts of mind transfer . Mitchell retired in 1926 , a year before dying of a cerebral hemorrhage .   The gradual rediscovery of Mitchell and his work is a direct result of the publication in 1973 of a book-length anthology of his stories , compiled by Sam Moskowitz with a detailed introduction by Moskowitz giving much information about Mitchell 's personal life . Because Mitchell 's stories were not by-lined on original publication , nor indexed , Moskowitz expended major effort to track down and collect these works by an author whom Moskowitz cited as `` the lost giant of American science fiction '' .   Mitchell 's stories show the strong influence of Edgar Allan Poe . Among other traits , Mitchell shares Poe 's habit of giving a basically serious and dignified fictional character a humorous name , such as `` Professor Dummkopf '' in Mitchell 's `` The Man Without a Body '' . Since Mitchell 's fictions were originally published in newspapers , typeset in the same format as news articles and not identified as fiction , he may possibly have used this device to signal to his readers that this text should not be taken seriously .

neg: Christ figure A Christ figure , also known as a Christ-Image is a literary technique that the author uses to draw allusions between their characters and the biblical Jesus . More loosely , the Christ Figure is a spiritual or prophetic character who parallels Jesus , or other spiritual or prophetic figures .   In general , a character should display more than one correspondence with the story of Jesus Christ as depicted in the Bible . For instance , the character might display one or more of the following traits : performance of miracles , manifestation of divine qualities , healing others , displaying kindness and forgiveness , fighting for justice , being guided by the spirit of the character 's father , and the character 's own death and resurrection . Christ figures are often martyrs , sacrificing themselves for causes larger than themselves .   In postmodern literature , the resurrection theme is often abandoned , leaving us with the image of a martyr sacrificing himself for a greater good . It is common to see Christ figures displayed in a manner suggestive of crucifixion as well .

neg: Desert island joke Desert island jokes are jokes about a person or group of people stranded on a desert island . This setting is typically used to play on stereotypes of the people present . This may refer to their profession , religion or nationality , or the people involved may be famous figures . The island setting highlights the absurdity of the stereotypical behaviour and prejudices of the protagonists , suggesting that they will find a way to express their own particular foibles even in a hostile setting .   This setting is also popular in cartoons . Bob Mankoff , cartoon editor of The New Yorker attributes the strips , which began appearing in the publication in the 1930s , to the popularity of Robinson Crusoe . He describes earlier cartoons as having a large island with a ship sinking in the distance , and later cartoons merely showing one or two people on a tiny island with a single palm tree .

neg: John Kirowan Professor John Kirowan is a fictional character from Robert E. Howard 's contributions to H.P. Lovecraft 's story cycle `` the Cthulhu Mythos '' .   Kirowan is often partnered with the character John Conrad , to the extent that these stories are often referred to under the group title Conrad & Kirowan . Professor Kirowan is a younger son of a titled Irish family and a scholar of the Mythos who travelled widely in search of forbidden knowledge . His ancestor , Sir Michael Kirowan was a medieval knight famous for killing a particularly fierce and notorious villain , whose ghost Kirowan will meet and escape from .   In Budapest he studied with a man called Yosef Vrolok but refused to `` descend to the foul depths of forbidden occultism and diabolism to which -LSB- he -RSB- sank '' . In revenge , Vrolok used his `` vile arts '' to turn '' the only woman Kirowan ever loved '' , against him and `` debauched '' her . In order to have his own revenge , Kirowan travelled the world seeking greater knowledge of the occult but became sickened by what he learned and renounced this knowledge .   In later life he joined the Wanderer 's Club , `` which is composed of the drift of the world , travelers , eccentrics , and all manner of men whose paths lie outside  the beaten tracks of life . ''   The story The Haunter of the Ring provides much of Kirowan 's background as well as establishing a link to Howard 's Conan stories . The ring of the title is Thoth-Amon 's Serpent Ring of Set , first mentioned in the short story The Phoenix on the Sword . Kirowan states that it has been `` handed down by foul cults of sorcerers since the days of forgotten Stygia . ''

neg: Charles James Apperley Charles James Apperley ( 1777 -- 19 May 1843 ) , English sportsman and sporting writer , better known as Nimrod , the pseudonym under which he published his works on the chase and on the turf , was born at Plasgronow , near Wrexham , in Denbighshire , North Wales in 1777 .

neg: The Ransom of Red Chief `` The Ransom of Red Chief '' is a 1910 short story by O. Henry first published in The Saturday Evening Post . It follows two men who kidnap and attempt to ransom a wealthy Alabaman 's son ; eventually , the men are driven crazy by the boy 's spoiled and hyperactive behavior , and end up having to pay the boy 's father to take him back .   The story and its main idea have become a part of popular culture , with many children 's television programs using a version of the story as one of their episodes . The tale is a light-hearted example of the ultimate in `` poetic justice '' and fortuitous intervention for the public good : the crooks had intended to use the ransom money to fund an even larger and much more elaborate scam that would likely have caused widespread monetary damage to the local populace , and so having their plans `` foiled in their infancy '' by Red Chief 's shrewd father saves countless other honest folks from financial ruin . It has also been often used as a classic example of two ultimate comic ironies -- a supposed `` hostage '' actually liking his abductors and enjoying being captured , and his captors getting their just deserts by having the tables turned on them , and being compelled to pay to be rid of him .

neg: A. J. Raffles (character) Arthur J. Raffles is a character created in the 1890s by E. W. Hornung , brother-in-law to Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , the creator of Sherlock Holmes . Raffles is , in many ways , a deliberate inversion of Holmeshe is a `` gentleman thief '' , living at the Albany , a prestigious address in London , playing cricket for the Gentlemen of England and supporting himself by carrying out ingenious burglaries . He is called the `` Amateur Cracksman '' , and often , at first , differentiates between himself and the `` professors `` professional criminals from the lower classes .   As Holmes has Dr. Watson to chronicle his adventures , Raffles has Harry `` Bunny '' Mandersa former schoolmate saved from disgrace and suicide by Raffles , whom Raffles persuaded to accompany him on a burglary . While Raffles often takes advantage of Manders ' relative innocence , and sometimes treats him with a certain amount of contempt , he knows that Manders ' bravery and loyalty are to be relied on utterly . In several stories , Manders saves the day for the two of them after Raffles gets into situations he can not get out of on his own .   One of the things that Raffles has in common with Holmes is a mastery of disguiseduring his days as an ostensible man-about-town , he maintains a studio apartment in another name in which he keeps the components of various disguises . He can imitate the regional speech of many parts of Britain flawlessly , and is fluent in Italian .

neg: David Chase David Chase ( born August 22 , 1945 ) is an American writer , director and television producer . Chase has worked in television for 40 years ; he has produced and written for such shows as The Rockford Files , I 'll Fly Away , and Northern Exposure . He has created two original series ; the first , Almost Grown , aired for 10 episodes in 1988 and 1989 . Chase is best known for his second original series , the influential and critically acclaimed HBO drama The Sopranos , which aired for six seasons between 1999 and 2007 . A prominent figure in American television , Chase has won seven Emmy Awards .

neg: Tecumseh Fox Tecumseh Fox was a fictional private detective created by Rex Stout to provide some diversity from his housebound and opinionated rival Nero Wolfe .   Although the character 's name sounds native American , he is not . In Double for Death , he explains that his full name is William Tecumseh Sherman Fox , so he was supposedly named for the American Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman . It seems probable that Stout chose this name in order to justify Fox 's nickname , `` Tec , '' which is also a slang term for detective . ( A similar motive was presumably behind the naming of another Stout detective , the beautiful Theodolinda `` Dol '' Bonner . ) The surname `` Fox '' was presumably chosen as an analogy to `` Wolf ( e ) . ''   Fox 's Westchester County is located in the same universe as Wolfe 's New York City . Even though the two men seem to be unaware of each other 's existence , both are acquainted with operatives from Bonner & Raffray and the Bascom Agency . Characters in both series dine at Rusterman 's , dance at the Flamingo Club , frequent the Churchill Hotel , read the Gazette , and drive Wethersill convertibles .   Stout created just three mystery novels with this title character ( two of which were adapted to Nero Wolfe stories ) , before devoting himself exclusively to writing Nero Wolfe books :  Double for Death  Bad for Business  The Broken Vase   Fox , Tecumseh  Category : Rex Stout

neg: The American Senator The American Senator is a novel written in 1875 by Anthony Trollope . Although not one of Trollope 's better-known works , it is notable for its depictions of rural English life and for its many detailed fox hunting scenes . In its anti-heroine , Arabella Trefoil , it presents a scathing but ultimately sympathetic portrayal of a woman who has abandoned virtually all scruples in her quest for a husband . Through the eponymous Senator , Trollope offers comments on the irrational aspects of English life .

neg: Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc. Edgar Rice Burroughs , Inc. is an American company founded in 1923 by author Edgar Rice Burroughs . It is based in Tarzana , California . The company holds the rights to the literary works of Burroughs that are still protected by copyright ( a number of Burroughs ' early works have passed out of copyright and consequently are in the public domain ) .   Burroughs was one of the first artists to incorporate , which he did for tax reasons and for more control over his works . Burroughs ' books were published through the company from 1931 ( Tarzan the Invincible ) through 1948 ( Llana of Gathol ) , with one additional title ( I Am a Barbarian ) appearing in 1967 .   The company remains in the ownership of the Burroughs family and manages and licenses Burroughs ' works and characters , including Tarzan and John Carter of Mars .

neg: Robert Reuland Robert Charles Reuland ( born 1963 ) is an American novelist and attorney . He commenced his legal career in 1990 in the litigation department of the Wall Street law firm of Winthrop , Stimson , Putnam & Roberts and later Brown & Wood . A graduate of Cambridge University and the Vanderbilt School of Law , Reuland specialized in international law and authored several law review articles on various topics of international jurisdiction and litigation . In 1996 he left private practice to join the District Attorney 's Office in Brooklyn , New York , where he served as Senior Assistant District Attorney in the Homicide Bureau .   Since 2001 Reuland has had a parallel career as a novelist . He is the author of five novels , including a series originating with his first novel , Hollowpoint ( Random House 2001 ) , which was nominated for a Dashiell Hammett Award in 2002 , and followed by Semiautomatic ( Random House 2004 ) , and Represent '' ( 2011 ) . All three books are set in the Brooklyn D.A. 's office , where Reuland worked an assistant district attorney between 1996 and 2001 .   Influenced by Graham Greene and James Salter , Reuland 's hard-edged but elegant writing is known for its gritty realism and has drawn praise from Dennis Lehane , Alan Furst , and George Pelecanos . A reviewer for the Washington Post referred to Semiautomatic as `` the best-written legal thriller I 've ever read , hands down . '' Marilyn Stasio of the New York Times called Reuland `` a daring writer . His cityscapes are ugly to the point of insult , his characters have no hearts , and his abrasive dialogue will rub you raw . It 's an irritating voice for a new writer -- too quick and smart to toy with civilizing subtleties -- and I like it a lot . '' Of Reuland 's second novel , `` Semiautomatic , '' Kirkus , in a starred review wrote , `` Reuland is a real-life ADA , and if he prosecutes as effectively as he writes , Brooklyn is a lucky borough . ''   Following the critical success of his first two novels , Reuland wrote `` Way of the World , '' a fictionalized account of the Abner Louima affair in Brooklyn , told from the perspective of a police union representative . `` Way of the World , '' Reuland 's first novel after the completion of his two-book contract with Random House , was rejected by his publisher as too difficult and remains unpublished .   In 2006 , in something of a literary departure , Reuland completed `` The Convict Maiden , '' a sprawling historical novel set in the penal colony of New South Wales in 1827 . Written in the voice of the female protagonist , `` The Convict Maiden '' is Reuland 's first work of historical fiction and first to be set outside his home of Brooklyn , New York .   Reuland gained additional national notoriety in 2001 when fired from his position in the Brooklyn D.A. 's office shortly after the publication of his first book , Hollowpoint . In an interview with New York Magazine '' , Reuland observed that Brooklyn had `` more bodies per square inch than anyplace else , '' which angered Brooklyn District Attorney , Charles J. Hynes . Hynes demoted then fired Reuland , who brought a federal lawsuit claiming infringement of his First Amendment rights . Reuland prevailed after trial in 2004 .   Upon leaving the D.A. 's Office in 2001 , Reuland established himself in private practice specializing in state and federal criminal defense . As a member of the Homicide Panel of the Mayor 's Assigned Counsel Program , he represents indigent or poor persons accused of homicide or other serious felonies . Reuland is the first criminal defense attorney ever to successfully assert an alibi defense to a felony charge based upon his client 's use of Facebook at the time of the crime .   Born in Dallas , Texas and raised in Dubuque , Iowa , Reuland has lived in Park Slope , Brooklyn since 1990 .

neg: The Red Rover The Red Rover is a novel by American writer James Fenimore Cooper . It was originally published in Paris on November 27 , 1827 , before being published in London three days later on November 30 . It was not published in the United States until January 9 , 1828 , in Philadelphia . Soon after its publication it was adapted for theater both in the United States and in England .   The novel follows the activities of the sailor Dick Fid , free black sailor Scipio Africanus and Royal Navy officer James Wilder as they encounter the famous pirate , `` The Red Rover '' . A contemporary reviewer in the North American Review noted how Cooper was particularly good at writing sea novels such as The Red Rover , the sea being his more natural element than what the author calls wilderness novels which focused on an Indian introducing a white man to the wilderness , like The Last of the Mohicans . In addition , The Red Rover presents some of the first serious depictions of characters of African lineage in American literature .

neg: James Steerforth James Steerforth is a character in the novel David Copperfield by Charles Dickens . He is a handsome young man noted for his wit and romantic charm . Though he is well liked by his friends , he proves himself to be lacking in consideration for others .

neg: Cormac Fitzgeoffrey Cormac Fitzgeoffrey is a fictional character created by Robert E. Howard . He is a half-Norman , half-Gael taking part in the Third Crusade . Howard wrote two short stories featuring the character and a synopsis that was later completed by another author . Although Howard was most famous for his fantasy fiction , especially Conan the Barbarian , the Cormac stories have a purely historical setting , albeit one with a heroic theme .

neg: Jacob Marley Jacob Marley is a fictional character who appears in Charles Dickens ' 1843 novella A Christmas Carol . He is Scrooge 's deceased business partner , now a chained and tormented ghost , damned to wander the earth forevermore as punishment for his greedy , selfish and uncaring attitude towards mankind . Marley roams restlessly , witnessing the hardships others suffer and lamenting that he has lost his chance to help them forever . Through unknown means , it is Marley who arranges for the three spirits to visit Scrooge and gives him his opportunity for redemption , which Marley tells him was '' ... a chance and hope of my procuring . ''


query: Psychological findings link to research and perspectives from natural sciences.

pos: Psychology Psychology is the science of behavior and mind , embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought . It is an academic discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases .   In this field , a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social , behavioral , or cognitive scientist . Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior , while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors .   Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes , including perception , cognition , attention , emotion ( affect ) , intelligence , phenomenology , motivation ( conation ) , brain functioning , and personality . This extends to interaction between people , such as interpersonal relationships , including psychological resilience , family resilience , and other areas . Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind . Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables . In addition , or in opposition , to employing empirical and deductive methods , some -- especially clinical and counseling psychologists -- at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques . Psychology has been described as a `` hub science '' , with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences , natural sciences , medicine , humanities , and philosophy .   While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems , it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity . By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society . The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role , practicing in clinical , counseling , or school settings . Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior , and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings ( e.g. , medical schools , hospitals ) . Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings , or in other areas such as human development and aging , sports , health , and the media , as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law .

neg: Biologist A biologist , is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology , the scientific study of life . Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter . Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding , in fields such as medicine , industry and agriculture .   While `` biologist '' can apply to any scientist studying biology , most biologists research and specialise in specific fields . In this way , biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions ( ecology ) , whole multicellular organisms , organs , tissues , cells , and small-scale cellular and molecular processes . Other biologists study less direct aspects of life , such as phylogeny and evolution .   Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method , to test the validity of a theory , with hypothesis formation , experimentation and documentation of methods and data .   There are many types of biologists . Some work on microorganisms , while others study multicellular organisms . There is much overlap between different fields of biology such as botany , zoology , microbiology , genetics and evolutionary biology , and it is often difficult to classify a biologist as only one of them . Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree . A doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research , and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology . Many biological scientists work in research and development . Some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms , including bacteria and other pathogens . This research enhances understanding and adds to the scientific database of literature . Furthermore , it often aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health and the natural environment . These biological scientists mostly work in government , university , and private industry laboratories . Many expand on specialized research that they started in post-graduate qualifications , such as a doctorate .

neg: Language of thought hypothesis The language of thought hypothesis ( LOTH ) , sometimes known as Thought Ordered Mental Expression ( TOME ) , is a view in linguistics , philosophy of mind and cognitive science , forwarded by American philosopher Jerry Fodor . It describes the nature of thought as possessing `` language-like '' or compositional structure ( sometimes known as mentalese ) . On this view , simple concepts combine in systematic ways ( akin to the rules of grammar in language ) to build thoughts . In its most basic form , the theory states that thought , like language , has syntax .   Using empirical data drawn from linguistics and cognitive science to describe mental representation from a philosophical vantage-point , the hypothesis states that thinking takes place in a language of thought ( LOT ) : cognition and cognitive processes are only ` remotely plausible ' when expressed as a system of representations that is `` tokened '' by a linguistic or semantic structure and operated upon by means of a combinatorial syntax . Linguistic tokens used in mental language describe elementary concepts which are operated upon by logical rules establishing causal connections to allow for complex thought . Syntax as well as semantics have a causal effect on the properties of this system of mental representations .   These mental representations are not present in the brain in the same way as symbols are present on paper ; rather , the LOT is supposed to exist at the cognitive level , the level of thoughts and concepts . The LOTH has wide-ranging significance for a number of domains in cognitive science . It relies on a version of functionalist materialism , which holds that mental representations are actualized and modified by the individual holding the propositional attitude , and it challenges eliminative materialism and connectionism . It implies a strongly rationalist model of cognition in which many of the fundamentals of cognition are innate .

neg: Environmental social science Environmental social science is the broad , transdisciplinary study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment . Environmental social scientists work within and between the fields of anthropology , communication studies , economics , geography , history , political science , psychology , and sociology ; and also in the interdisciplinary fields of environmental studies , human ecology and political ecology , among others .

neg: Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology The theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology are the general and specific scientific theories that explain the ultimate origins of psychological traits in terms of evolution . These theories originated with Charles Darwin 's work , including his speculations about the evolutionary origins of social instincts in humans . Modern evolutionary psychology , however , is possible only because of advances in evolutionary theory in the 20th century .   Evolutionary psychologists say that natural selection has provided humans with many psychological adaptations , in much the same way that it generated humans ' anatomical and physiological adaptations . As with adaptations in general , psychological adaptations are said to be specialized for the environment in which an organism evolved , the environment of evolutionary adaptedness , or EEA . Sexual selection provides organisms with adaptations related to mating . For male mammals , which have a relatively fast reproduction rate , sexual selection leads to adaptations that help them compete for females . For female mammals , with a relatively slow reproduction rate , sexual selection leads to choosiness , which helps females select higher quality mates . Charles Darwin described both natural selection and sexual selection , but he relied on group selection to explain the evolution of self-sacrificing behavior . Group selection is a weak explanation because in any group the less self-sacrificing animals will be more likely to survive and the group will become less self-sacrificing .   In 1964 , William D. Hamilton proposed inclusive fitness theory , emphasizing a `` gene 's - eye '' view of evolution . Hamilton noted that individuals can increase the replication of their genes into the next generation by helping close relatives with whom they share genes survive and reproduce . According to `` Hamilton 's rule '' , a self-sacrificing behavior can evolve if it helps close relatives so much that it more than compensates for the individual animal 's sacrifice . Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how `` altruism '' evolved . Other theories also help explain the evolution of altruistic behavior , including evolutionary game theory , tit-for-tat reciprocity , and generalized reciprocity . These theories not only help explain the development of altruistic behavior but also account for hostility toward cheaters ( individuals that take advantage of others ' altruism ) .   Several mid-level evolutionary theories inform evolutionary psychology . The r/K selection theory proposes that some species prosper by having many offspring while others follow the strategy of having fewer offspring but investing much more in each one . Humans follow the second strategy . Parental investment theory explains how parents invest more or less in individual offspring based on how successful those offspring are likely to be , and thus how much they might improve the parents ' inclusive fitness . According to the Trivers-Willard hypothesis , parents in good conditions tend to invest more in sons ( who are best able to take advantage of good conditions ) , while parents in poor conditions tend to invest more in daughters ( who are best able to have successful offspring even in poor conditions ) . According to life history theory , animals evolve life histories to match their environments , determining details such as age at first reproduction and number of offspring . Dual inheritance theory posits that genes and human culture have interacted , with genes affecting the development of culture and culture , in turn , affecting human evolution on a genetic level ( see also the Baldwin effect ) .   Critics of evolutionary psychology have sometimes challenged its theoretical underpinnings , saying that humans never developed powerful social instincts through natural selection and that the hypotheses of evolutionary psychologists are merely just-so-stories .

neg: Online research methods Online research methods ( ORMs ) are ways in which researchers can collect data via the internet . They are also referred to as Internet research , Internet science or iScience , or Web-based methods . Many of these online research methods are related to existing research methodologies but re-invent and re-imagine them in the light of new technologies and conditions associated with the internet . The field is relatively new and evolving . With the growth of social medias a new level of complexity and opportunity has been created . Inclusion of social media research can provide unique insights into consumer and societal segments and gaining an `` emotional '' measure of a population on issues of interest .   Some specific types of method include :  Cyber-ethnography  Online content analysis  Online focus groups  Online interviews  Online qualitative research  Online questionnaires  Social network analysis  Web-based experiments  Online clinical trials -- or see below

neg: Hard and soft science Hard science and soft science are colloquial terms used to compare scientific fields on the basis of perceived methodological rigor , exactitude , and objectivity . Roughly speaking , the natural sciences are considered `` hard '' , whereas the social sciences are usually described as `` soft '' .

neg: Making Social Science Matter Making Social Science Matter : Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again is a 2001 book by Bent Flyvbjerg , who is critical of social sciences . First , he argues that social sciences have failed as science . Second , he develops an argument that in order to matter again , social sciences must model themselves after phronesis ( as opposed to episteme , which is at the core of natural science ) . Finally , he develops methodological guidelines and shows practical examples of how a phronetic social science may be employed for research purposes .   Flyvbjerg rejects the natural science model as an ideal for the social sciences and suggests that social sciences are more relevant to people , e.g. , ordinary citizens and policy makers . Flyvbjerg argues that to gain relevance , social science must inform practical reason ; accordingly , this is best done by a focus on values and power . In terms of philosophy and history of science , Flyvbjerg is influenced by Aristotle rather than by Socrates and Plato .   Flyvbjerg 's book Rationality and Power : Democracy in Practice is an example of the methodology and theory developed in Making Social Science Matter employed in practice .

neg: Phenotype A phenotype is the composite of an organism 's observable characteristics or traits , such as its morphology , development , biochemical or physiological properties , behavior , and products of behavior ( such as a bird 's nest ) . A phenotype results from the expression of an organism 's genetic code , its genotype , as well as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions between the two . When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species , the species is called polymorphic . A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring ; while the coat color depends on many genes , it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow , black and brown .   This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism 's heredity and what that heredity produces . The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann , who distinguished between germ plasm ( heredity ) and somatic cells ( the body ) . The genotype-phenotype distinction should not be confused with Francis Crick 's central dogma of molecular biology , which is a statement about the directionality of molecular sequential information flowing from DNA to protein , and not the reverse .   Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that bird nests and other built structures such as caddis fly larvae cases and beaver dams can be considered as `` extended phenotypes '' .

neg: Branches of science The branches of science ( also referred to as `` sciences '' , `` scientific fields '' , or `` scientific disciplines '' ) are commonly divided into three major groups :  Natural sciences : the study of natural phenomena ( including fundamental forces and biological life )  Formal sciences : the study of mathematics and logic , which use an a priori , as opposed to factual , methodology )  Social sciences : the study of human behavior and societies .   Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences , meaning that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions .   Natural , social , and formal science make up the fundamental sciences , which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine . Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises .

neg: Science book A science book is a work of nonfiction , usually written by a scientist , researcher , or professor like Stephen Hawking ( A Brief History of Time ) , or sometimes by a non-scientist such as Bill Bryson ( A Short History of Nearly Everything ) . Usually these books are written for a wide audience presumed to have a general education rather than a specifically scientific training , as opposed to the very narrow audience that a scientific paper would have , and are therefore referred to as popular science . As such , they require considerable talent on the part of the author to sufficiently explain difficult topics to  people who are totally new to the subject , and a good blend of storytelling and technical writing . In the UK , the Royal Society Prizes for Science Books are considered to be the most prestigious awards for science writing . In the US , the National Book Awards briefly had a category for science writing in the 1960s , but now they just have the broad categories of fiction and nonfiction .   There are many disciplines that are well explained to lay people through science books . A few examples include Carl Sagan on astronomy , Jared Diamond on geography , Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Dawkins on evolutionary biology , David Eagleman on neuroscience , Donald Norman on usability and cognitive psychology , Steven Pinker , Noam Chomsky , and Robert Ornstein on linguistics and cognitive science , Donald Johanson and Robert Ardrey on paleoanthropology , and Desmond Morris on zoology and anthropology , and Fulvio Melia on black holes .

neg: Human behavioral ecology Human behavioral ecology ( HBE ) or human evolutionary ecology applies the principles of evolutionary theory and optimization to the study of human behavioral and cultural diversity . HBE examines the adaptive design of traits , behaviors , and life histories of humans in an ecological context . One aim of modern human behavioral ecology is to determine how ecological and social factors influence and shape behavioral flexibility within and between human populations . Among other things , HBE attempts to explain variation in human behavior as adaptive solutions to the competing life-history demands of growth , development , reproduction , parental care , and mate acquisition .   HBE overlaps with evolutionary psychology , human or cultural ecology , and decision theory . It is most prominent in disciplines such as anthropology and psychology where human evolution is considered relevant for a holistic understanding of  human behavior or in economics where self-interest , methodological individualism , and maximization are key elements in modeling behavior . It has been resisted in fields such as sociology and political science where the findings on human evolution are either ignored or regarded as irrelevant .

neg: Harvard Department of Social Relations The Department of Social Relations for Interdisciplinary Social Science Studies , more commonly known as the `` Department of Social Relations '' was an interdisciplinary collaboration among three of the social science departments at Harvard University ( anthropology , psychology , and sociology ) beginning in 1946 . Originally , the program was headquartered in Emerson Hall at Harvard before moving to William James Hall in 1965 . While the name `` Social Relations '' is often associated with the program 's long-time chair and guiding spirit , sociologist Talcott Parsons , many major figures of mid-20th-century social science also numbered among the program 's faculty , including psychologists Gordon Allport ( personality and motivation ) , Jerome Bruner ( cognitive psychology and narrative analysis ) , Roger Brown ( social psychology and psycholinguistics ) , and Henry Murray ( personality ) ; anthropologists Clyde and Florence Kluckhohn ( value orientations ) , John and Beatrice Whiting ( cross-cultural child development ) , Evon Z. Vogt ( comparative religion ) ; and sociologist Alex Inkeles ( Soviet studies and national character ) . Many of its graduate students also went on to be major figures in U.S. social sciences during the latter part of the twentieth century ; their work tends towards strong interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary approaches .   Allport and Boring discussed the origins of the department 's name in the April 1946 issue of the American Psychologist :  While -LSB- academic -RSB- departmental lines have remained rigid , there has been developing during the last decade , a synthesis of socio-cultural and psychological sciences which is widely recognized within the academic world in spite of the fact that there is no commonly accepted name to designate the synthesis . We propose that Harvard adopt , and thus help establish , the term Social Relations to characterize the emerging discipline which deals not only with the body of fact and theory traditionally recognized as the subject matter of sociology , but also with that portion of psychological science that treats the individual within the social system , and that portion of anthropological science that is particularly relevant to the social and cultural patterns of literate societies .   Social Relations sponsored or collaborated in a number of research studies characterized by explicit cross-cultural comparisons and multidisciplinary approaches to problems of policy or social theory . Major projects included the Six Cultures Study ( headed by John and Beatrice Whiting , an anthropological study of child development in six different cultures , including a New England Baptist community ; a Philippine barrio ; an Okinawan village ; an Indian village in Mexico ; a northern Indian caste group ; and a rural tribal group in Kenya ) ; a multidisciplinary analysis of Soviet culture and society , published in part as How the Soviet System Works ; and the Comparative Study of Values in Five Cultures during the 1950s , which examined five very different communities living in the same region of Texas : Zuni , Navajo , Mormon ( LDS ) , Spanish-American ( Mexican-American ) , and Texas Homesteaders .   The curriculum of the Harvard Social Relations had four inter-related components :  Sociology ;  Social Psychology ;  Social Anthropology ; and  Personality Theory .   The program disaggregated into its component departments around 1972 , though a certain interdisciplinarity remained throughout the 1970s .   A similar program at Yale , the Institute for Human Relations , also now disbanded , developed the Human Relations Area Files ( HRAF ) , a cross-cultural database for comparative research , administered by Carol and Melvin Ember .

neg: Natural selection Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype . It is a key mechanism of evolution , the change in heritable traits of a population over time . Charles Darwin popularised the term `` natural selection '' , and compared it with artificial selection .   Variation exists within all populations of organisms . This occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism , and offspring can inherit such mutations . Throughout the lives of the individuals , their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits . The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell , other cells , other individuals , populations , species , as well as the abiotic environment . Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other , less successful , variants ; therefore , the population evolves . Factors that affect reproductive success are also important , including sexual selection ( now often included in natural selection ) and fecundity selection .   Natural selection acts on the phenotype , or the observable characteristics of an organism , but the genetic ( heritable ) basis of any phenotype that gives a reproductive advantage may become more common in a population . Over time , this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches ( microevolution ) and may eventually result in speciation ( the emergence of new species , macroevolution ) . In other words , natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population . Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection , in which humans intentionally choose specific traits , whereas in natural selection there is no intentional choice .   Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology . The concept , published by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in a joint presentation of papers in 1858 , was elaborated in Darwin 's influential 1859 book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life , which described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection , a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction . The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity ; at the time of Darwin 's writing , science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics . The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the modern synthesis of the mid-20th century . The addition of molecular genetics has led to evolutionary developmental biology , which explains evolution at the molecular level . While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift , natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution .

neg: Social Science History Association The Social Science History Association , formed in 1976 , brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history .   Statement of Purpose : To bring together members of various disciplines ( including economics , sociology , demography , anthropology , and history ) who work with historical materials .   Social Science History is a quarterly , peer-reviewed academic journal . It is the official journal of the Social Science History Association . Its articles bring an analytic , theoretical , and often quantitative approach to historical evidence . The journal 's founders intended to `` improve the quality of historical explanation '' with `` theories and methods from the social science disciplines '' and to make generalizations across historical cases . The first issue came out in the fall of 1976 . The journal 's articles that are most-accessed and cited through JSTOR are about social and political movements and associated narratives .   The `` Social Science History Association '' was formed in 1976 as an interdisciplinary group with a journal Social Science History and an annual convention . The goal was to incorporate in historical studies perspectives from all the social sciences , especially political science , sociology and economics . The pioneers shared a commitment to quantification . However , by the 1980s the first blush of quantification had worn off , as critics complained that quantification undervalued the role of contingency , and warned against a naive positivism . Meanwhile quantification became well-established inside economics , in the field of cliometrics , as well as in political science . In history , quantification remained central to demographic studies , but slipped behind in political and social history .

neg: Social Psychological and Personality Science Social Psychological and Personality Science is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers research in social and personality psychology . Its editor-in-chief is Simine Vazire ( University of California , Davis ) . It was established in 2010 and is published by Sage Publications . The journal is jointly owned by four different societies : the Association for Research in Personality , European Association of Social Psychology , Society of Experimental Social Psychology , and Society for Personality and Social Psychology .

neg: Natural landscape A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture . `` The area prior to the introduction of man 's activity is represented by one body of morphologic facts . The forms that man has introduced are another set . We may call the former , with reference to man , the original , natural landscape . In its entirety it no longer exists in many parts of the world , but its reconstruction and understanding are the first part of formal morphonology . '' Carl O. Sauer , `` The Morphology of Landscape '' . University of California Publications in Geography , vol . 2 , No. 2 , 12 October 1925 , p. 37 . The natural landscape and the cultural landscape are separate parts of the landscape . `` The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture group . Culture is the agent , the natural area is the medium , the cultural landscape the result . '' Carl O. Sauer , `` The Morphology of Landscape '' , p. 46 . However , in the twenty-first century landscapes that are totally untouched by human activity no longer exist , so that reference is sometimes now made to degrees of naturalness within a landscape.The European Environment Agency 's planned forest naturalness index is an example of an attempt to define one type of natural landscape in Europe . The Agency lists forests in three categories : ( 1 ) Plantations ; ( 2 ) Semi-natural ; and ( 3 ) Naturally dynamic . The latter are `` forests whose structure , composition and function have been shaped by natural dynamics without substantial anthropogenic influence over a long period of time '' .   In Silent Spring ( 1962 ) Rachel Carson describes a roadside verge as it used to look : `` Along the roads , laurel , viburnum and alder , great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler 's eye through much of the year '' and then how it looks now following the use of herbicides : `` The roadsides , once so attractive , were now lined with browned and withered vegetation as though swept by fire '' . Even though the landscape before it is sprayed is biologically degraded , and may well contains alien species , the concept of what might constitute a natural landscape can still be deduced from the context .   The phrase `` natural landscape '' was first used in connection with landscape painting , and landscape gardening , to contrast a formal style with a more natural one , closer to nature . Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 -- 1859 ) was to further conceptualize this into the idea of a natural landscape separate from the cultural landscape . Then in 1908 geographer Otto Schlüter developed the terms original landscape ( Urlandschaft ) and its opposite cultural landscape ( Kulturlandschaft ) in an attempt to give the science of geography a subject matter that was different from the other sciences . An early use of the actual phrase `` natural landscape '' by a geographer can be found in Carl O. Sauer 's paper `` The Morphology of Landscape '' ( 1925 ) .

neg: Environmental science Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical , biological and information sciences ( including ecology , biology , physics , chemistry , zoology , mineralogy , oceanology , limnology , soil science , geology , atmospheric science , and geodesy ) to the study of the environment , and the solution of environmental problems . Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment . Today it provides an integrated , quantitative , and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems .   Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering . Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences for understanding human relationships , perceptions and policies towards the environment . Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect .   Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes , evaluating alternative energy systems , pollution control and mitigation , natural resource management , and the effects of global climate change . Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical , chemical , and biological processes . Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems . Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space , and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis .   Environmental science came alive as a substantive , active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by ( a ) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems , ( b ) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and ( c ) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems . Events that spurred this development included the publication of Rachel Carson 's landmark environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues becoming very public , such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill , and the Cuyahoga River of Cleveland , Ohio , `` catching fire '' ( also in 1969 ) , and helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study .

neg: Health psychology Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health , illness , and healthcare . It is concerned with understanding how psychological , behavioral , and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness . Psychological factors can affect health directly . For example , chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis , cumulatively , can harm health . Behavioral factors can also affect a person 's health . For example , certain behaviors can , over time , harm ( smoking , excessive alcohol consumption ) or enhance health ( exercise , diet low in saturated fat ) . Health psychologists take a biopsychosocial approach . In other words , health psychologists understand health to be the product not only of biological processes ( e.g. , a virus , tumor , etc. ) but also of psychological ( e.g. , thoughts and beliefs ) , behavioral ( e.g. , habits ) , and social processes ( e.g. , socioeconomic status and ethnicity ) .   By understanding psychological factors that influence health , and constructively applying that knowledge , health psychologists can improve health by working directly with individual patients or indirectly in large-scale public health programs . In addition , health psychologists can help train other healthcare professionals ( e.g. , physicians and nurses ) to take advantage of the knowledge the discipline has generated , when treating patients . Health psychologists work in a variety of settings : alongside other medical professionals in hospitals and clinics , in public health departments working on large-scale behavior change and health promotion programs , and in universities and medical schools where they teach and conduct research .   Although its early beginnings can be traced to the field of clinical psychology , four different divisions within health psychology and one related field , occupational health psychology ( OHP ) , have developed over time . The four divisions include clinical health psychology , public health psychology , community health psychology , and critical health psychology . Professional organizations for the field of health psychology include Division 38 of the American Psychological Association ( APA ) , the Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society ( BPS ) , and the European Health Psychology Society . Advanced credentialing in the US as a clinical health psychologist is provided through the American Board of Professional Psychology .

neg: Phenomenology (philosophy) Phenomenology ( from Greek phainómenon `` that which appears '' and lógos `` study '' ) is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness . As a philosophical movement it was founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl and was later expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich in Germany . It then spread to France , the United States , and elsewhere , often in contexts far removed from Husserl 's early work .  Phenomenology should not be considered as a unitary movement ; rather , different authors share a common family resemblance but also with many significant differences . Accordingly : A unique and final definition of phenomenology is dangerous and perhaps even paradoxical as it lacks a thematic focus . In fact , it is not a doctrine , nor a philosophical school , but rather a style of thought , a method , an open and ever-renewed experience having different results , and this may disorient anyone wishing to define the meaning of phenomenology.Phenomenology , in Husserl 's conception , is primarily concerned with the systematic reflection on and study of the structures of consciousness and the phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness . Phenomenology can be clearly differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis which sees the world as objects , sets of objects , and objects acting and reacting upon one another .   Husserl 's conception of phenomenology has been criticized and developed not only by himself but also by students , such as Edith Stein and Roman Ingarden , by hermeneutic philosophers , such as Martin Heidegger , by existentialists , such as Nicolai Hartmann , Gabriel Marcel , Maurice Merleau-Ponty , Jean-Paul Sartre , and by other philosophers , such as Max Scheler , Paul Ricoeur , Jean-Luc Marion , Michel Henry , Emmanuel Levinas , Jacques Derrida , and sociologists Alfred Schütz and Eric Voegelin .

neg: Scientific theory A scientific theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can , in accordance with the scientific method , be repeatedly tested , using a predefined protocol of observations and experiments . Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and are a comprehensive form of scientific knowledge .   It is important to note that the definition of a `` scientific theory '' ( often ambiguously contracted to `` theory '' for the sake of brevity , including in this page ) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word `` theory '' . Per NAS 2008 : `` The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word . It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence . '' In everyday non-scientific speech , `` theory '' can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess , conjecture , idea , or , hypothesis ; such a usage is the opposite of the word `` theory '' in science . These different usages are comparable to the differing , and often opposing , usages of the term `` prediction '' in science versus `` prediction '' in vernacular speech , denoting a mere hope .   The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain . As additional scientific evidence is gathered , a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new empirical findings ; in such circumstances , a more accurate theory is then desired . In certain cases , the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful ( due to its sheer simplicity ) as an approximation under specific conditions ( e.g. , Newton 's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light ) .   Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions . They describe the causal elements responsible for a particular natural phenomenon , and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry ( e.g. , electricity , chemistry , astronomy ) . Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge , as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease .   As with other forms of scientific knowledge , scientific theories are both deductive and inductive in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability .   Paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and science historian Stephen Jay Gould said , `` ... facts and theories are different things , not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty . Facts are the world ′ s data . Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts . ''


query: Kiefer Sutherland is a producer.

pos: Kiefer Sutherland Kiefer William Frederick Dempsey George Rufus Sutherland ( born 21 December 1966 ) is a British born Canadian actor , producer , director , and singer-songwriter . One of his better-known roles was Jack Bauer on the Fox drama series 24 ( 2001 -- 2010 ) , for which he earned an Emmy Award , a Golden Globe Award , two Screen Actors Guild Awards and two Satellite Awards .   He has also starred as Martin Bohm in the Fox drama Touch , and provided the facial motion capture and English voices for Big Boss and Venom Snake in the video games Metal Gear Solid V : Ground Zeroes and Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain . He currently stars as President Tom Kirkman in the ABC political drama series Designated Survivor .   Sutherland got his first leading film role in the Canadian drama The Bay Boy ( 1984 ) , which earned him a Genie Award nomination . Since that time he has had a successful movie career , starring in films like Stand by Me ( 1986 ) , The Lost Boys ( 1987 ) , Young Guns ( 1988 ) , Flatliners ( 1990 ) , A Few Good Men ( 1992 ) , The Three Musketeers ( 1993 ) , A Time to Kill ( 1996 ) , Dark City ( 1998 ) , Phone Booth ( 2002 ) , Melancholia ( 2011 ) , Pompeii ( 2014 ) and Forsaken ( 2016 ) .   Sutherland has been inducted to Hollywood Walk of Fame and Canada 's Walk of Fame , and further has been bestowed with a Lifetime Achievement Award from Zurich Film Festival .

neg: Marvel Productions Marvel Productions Ltd. , later known as New World Animation Ltd. , was the television and film studio subsidiary of the Marvel Entertainment Group , based in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California . It later became a subsidiary of New World Entertainment and eventually of News Corporation ( Fox Entertainment Group ) .   Marvel Productions produced animated television series , motion pictures , and television specials such as Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends , The Incredible Hulk , My Little Pony : The Movie , The Transformers : The Movie , and G.I. Joe : The Movie as well as the Transformers and G.I. Joe : A Real American Hero television series . Most of Marvel Productions ' back catalog ( mostly non-Hasbro related productions ) is currently owned by The Walt Disney Company .

neg: Golden Boot Awards The Golden Boot Awards is an American acknowledgment of achievement honoring actors , actresses , and crew members who have made significant contributions to the genre of Western television and movies . The award is sponsored and presented by the Motion Picture & Television Fund . Money raised at the award banquet is used to help finance various services offered by the Fund to those in the entertainment industry .   Actor Pat Buttram conceived the idea of the Golden Boot Award , and the first ones were presented in 1983 . The awards appear to have been discontinued since 2007 .

neg: Film director A film director is a person who directs the making of a film . Generally , a film director controls a film 's artistic and dramatic aspects and visualizes the screenplay ( or script ) while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision . The director has a key role in choosing the cast members , production design , and the creative aspects of filmmaking . Under European Union law , the director is viewed as the author of the film .   The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized , or noticed . Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the boundaries of the film 's budget . There are many pathways to becoming a film director . Some film directors started as screenwriters , cinematographers , film editors or actors . Other film directors have attended a film school . Directors use different approaches . Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue , while others control every aspect , and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely . Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners . Some directors edit or appear in their films , or compose the music score for their films .

neg: Scream Awards The Scream Awards were an award show dedicated to the horror , sci-fi , and fantasy genres of feature films . Originally only having Scream Queen and Heroic Performance awards for actors , the personnel awards have expanded to include actors and actresses of all three recognized genres . In addition , comic books awards were also given and have been recently expanded . It is broadcast on Spike TV and has been branded in the past as the Spike TV Scream Awards . Subsequently , the show was relabeled simply Scream with the respective year , i.e. Scream 2009 . The show was created by executive producers Michael Levitt , Cindy Levitt , and Casey Patterson .   The Scream Awards ceremonies were cancelled following the 2011 Scream Awards .

neg: Mandeville Films Mandeville Films is an American independent film production company headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios . Founded in 1995 by film producer David Hoberman , the company re-formed as Mandeville Films and Television in 2002 after a short hiatus , with Hoberman and Todd Lieberman as partners and co-owners .

neg: Grant Heslov Grant Heslov ( born May 15 , 1963 ) is an American actor , film producer , screenwriter and director , known for his producing and writing collaborations with George Clooney , which have earned him three Academy Award nominations . As a co-producer of Argo ( 2012 ) , he received the Academy Award for Best Picture in 2013 . As an actor , he has appeared in films including True Lies ( 1994 ) , Black Sheep ( 1996 ) , Enemy of the State ( 1998 ) and The Scorpion King ( 2002 ) , as well as performing supporting roles in several films made with Clooney .

neg: Paul Sutherland Paul Sutherland is the name of :   Paul Sutherland ( TV producer ) ( 1930 -- 2004 ) , Canadian television producer  Paul Sutherland ( politician ) ( born c. 1955 ) , Canadian politician  Paul Sutherland ( dancer ) ( born 1935 ) The Joffrey Ballet and The Harkness Ballet , sole repétiteur authorized to teach Agnes deMille 's Rodeo ( ballet )

neg: Sandy Stern Sandy Stern is an American film producer , best known for his work on the films Pump Up the Volume ( 1990 ) , Being John Malkovich ( 1999 ) and Saved ! ( 2004 ) .

neg: Kevin Kearney Kevin Kearney ( born August 22 , 1936 in Campsie , New South Wales ) is an Australian analogue location sound recordist , film producer , director , actor and digital producer , director and editor .

neg: Producers Guild of America Awards 2007 19th PGA Awards  2 February 2008   Best Producer - Motion Picture :  No Country for Old Men   Best Producer - Animated Feature :  Ratatouille  The 19th Producers Guild of America Awards was given on 2 February 2008 , honouring the best film and television producers of 2007 .

neg: Producers Guild of America Award The Producers Guild of America Award was originally established in 1990 by the Producers Guild of America as the Golden Laurel Awards , created by PGA Treasurer Joel Freeman with the support of Guild President Leonard Stern , in order to honor the visionaries who produce and execute motion picture and television product . The ceremony has been hosted each year by celebrity host/presenters , including Nick Clooney , Michael Douglas , Robert Guillaume , James Earl Jones , Jack Lemmon , Shirley MacLaine , Garry Marshall , Walter Matthau , Ronald Reagan , Marlo Thomas , Grant Tinker , and Ted Turner , among others .

neg: Rossif Sutherland Rossif Sutherland ( born September 25 , 1978 ) is a Canadian actor .

neg: BAFTA Award for Best Film The BAFTA Award for Best Film is given annually by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and presented at the British Academy Film Awards . It has been given since the 1st BAFTA Awards , representing the best films of 1947 , but until 1969 it was called the BAFTA Award for Best Film From Any Source . It is possible for films from any country to be nominated , although British films are also recognised in the category BAFTA Award for Best British Film and ( since 1983 ) foreign-language films in BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language . As such , there have been multiple occasions of a film being nominated in two of these categories .   There has been one tie for the Best Film award when , in 1962 , Ballad of a Soldier tied with The Hustler for Best Film from any Source . Until 1981 , the award was given to the director , except in 1976 and 1977 , when it was given to the producers . From 1981 to 1985 , it was given solely to the producers , and then in 1986 , it was shared between the Director and Producer . In 1998 , it was once again given to only the producers .   In the following lists , the titles and names in bold with a dark grey background are the winners and recipients respectively ; those not in bold are the nominees . The years given are those in which the films under consideration were released , not the year of the ceremony , which always takes place the following year .

neg: To End All Wars To End All Wars is a 2001 war film starring Robert Carlyle , Kiefer Sutherland and Sakae Kimura and directed by David L. Cunningham .

neg: Karen Johnson (producer) Karen Johnson is an American television soap opera director , producer , writer and editor .

neg: FenceSitter Films FenceSitter Films is a film production and television production company founded by Kyle Schickner an American film producer , writer , director , actor and a bisexual civil rights activist , devoted to creating entertainment for women , and sexual and ethnic minorities .

neg: Jeb Rand Jeb Rand ( born October 22 , 1965 ) is an American live show writer , producer and director . He specializes in creating , developing and producing original theatrical ice shows , extreme sports productions , and branded content special events around the world . Rand is the president and executive producer of Rand Enterprises And Productions , Inc. , a Las Vegas , Nevada based production company .

neg: Line producer A line producer is a type of film producer who is the key manager during daily operations of a feature film , television film , or an episode of a TV program . A line producer works on one film at a time . They are responsible for human resources and handling any problems that come up during production .

neg: Carolyn Pfeiffer Carolyn Pfeiffer is an American film producer .

neg: Orion Pictures Orion Pictures Corporation is an American motion picture producer and distributor that produced and released films from 1978 until 1999 , and was also involved in television production and syndication throughout the 1980s until the early 1990s . It was formed in 1978 as a joint venture between Warner Bros. and three former top-level executives of United Artists . Although it was never a large motion picture producer , Orion achieved a comparatively high reputation for Hollywood quality . Woody Allen , James Cameron , Jonathan Demme , Oliver Stone , and several other prominent directors worked with Orion during its most successful years from 1978 to 1992 . Of the films distributed by Orion , four won Academy Awards for Best Picture : Amadeus ( 1984 ) , Platoon ( 1986 ) , Dances with Wolves ( 1990 ) , and The Silence of the Lambs ( 1991 ) . Two other Orion films , Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) and Mississippi Burning ( 1988 ) , were nominated for that same category . In 2013 , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer revived the Orion name for television ; a year later Orion Pictures was quietly relaunched by the studio .