query: Rumi's influence transcends ethnic divisions.

pos: Rumi Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī , also known as Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhī , Mevlânâ / Mawlānā ( مولانا , `` our master '' ) , Mevlevî / Mawlawī ( مولوی , `` my master '' ) , and more popularly simply as Rumi ( 30 September 1207 -- 17 December 1273 ) , was a 13th-century Persian Sunni Muslim poet , jurist , Islamic scholar , theologian , and Sufi mystic . Rumi 's influence transcends national borders and ethnic divisions : Iranians , Tajiks , Turks , Greeks , Pashtuns , other Central Asian Muslims , and the Muslims of South Asia have greatly appreciated his spiritual legacy for the past seven centuries . His poems have been widely translated into many of the world 's languages and transposed into various formats . Rumi has been described as the `` most popular poet '' and the `` best selling poet '' in the United States .   Rumi 's works are written mostly in Persian , but occasionally he also used Turkish , Arabic , and Greek , in his verse . His Masnavi ( Mathnawi ) , composed in Konya , is considered one of the greatest poems of the Persian language . His works are widely read today in their original language across Greater Iran and the Persian-speaking world . Translations of his works are very popular , most notably in Turkey , Azerbaijan , the United States , and South Asia . His poetry has influenced Persian literature , but also Turkish , Ottoman Turkish , Azerbaijani , as well as the literature of some other Turkic , Iranian , and Indo-Aryan languages including Chagatai , Urdu , Pashto , and Bengali .

neg: Etiquette in the Middle East Many matters of etiquette in the Middle East are connected to Islam as it is written in the Qur ` an and how it has been traditionally understood and practiced throughout the centuries . Prescribed Islamic etiquette is referred to as Adab , and described as `` refinement , good manners , morals , ethics , decorum , decency , humaneness and righteousness '' .   As such , many points discussed in this article are applicable in other regions of the Islamic world . This holds especially true in Muslim majority countries outside Middle East .   The Middle East is home to many people who follow faiths besides Islam . Most notable among them are the churches of Eastern Orthodox Christianity , Copts and other adherents of Oriental Orthodoxy , Maronites , Melkites other Catholics of the Eastern Rites as well as the Roman Rite , Zoroastrians , Bahá ' ís , and various Jewish denominations .   In many cases , however , Muslims and non-Muslims in the Middle East will share characteristics , whether it is the prohibition against pork ordained by both Islamic and Jewish dietary restrictions , a preference for the beverage widely known elsewhere as `` Turkish coffee '' , or knowledge of how to conduct business in a crowded souk without being cheated . It is a place where people with different beliefs often share the same traditions .

neg: Hussein Al-Sadr Ayatollah Hussein Ismael Al-Sadr is a high-ranking Shi'a Muslim religious scholar in Iraq . He was born in the al-Kazimiya district of Baghdad , Iraq , where he resides to this day . He is widely seen as a highly respected unifying figure that has been called upon to reach across Iraq 's ethno-sectarian divides . His lineage goes back to the Prophet Muhammad , through the seventh Shia Imam , Musa al-Kazim .   By virtue of his esteemed position as a clergyman , as well as his reputation of being one of the most well respected and highly regarded public figures in Iraq , Hussein Al-Sadr is afforded a certain gravitas and is called on to mediate and advise on a plethora of issues beyond the religious or philanthropic spheres to which he is most accustomed . He has thus attained the role of `` Marji ''' , a level of scholarship awarded to a select few who have proven themselves worthy of the responsibility . The Marji ' ( translated literally to `` authority '' in English ) is referred to on virtually all matters of modern-day life , including occasionally , political issues .

neg: History of Afghanistan The written history of Afghanistan , ( تاریخ افغانستان د افغانستان تاريخ can be traced back to around 500 BCE when the area was under the Achaemenid Empire , although evidence indicates that an advanced degree of urbanized culture has existed in the land since between 3000 and 2000 BCE . The Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up to large parts of Afghanistan in the north , with several sites being known . Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army arrived at what is now Afghanistan in 330 BCE after conquering Persia during the Battle of Gaugamela . Since then , many empires have established capitals inside Afghanistan , including the Greco-Bactrians , Mauryas , Kushans , Hindu Shahi , Saffarids , Samanids , Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Timurids , Mughals , Hotakis and Durranis .   Afghanistan ( meaning `` land of the Afghans '' ) has been a strategically important location throughout history . The land served as `` a gateway to India , impinging on the ancient Silk Road , which carried trade from the Mediterranean to China '' . Sitting on many trade and migration routes , Afghanistan may be called the ` Central Asian roundabout ' since routes converge from the Middle East , from the Indus Valley through the passes over the Hindu Kush , from the Far East via the Tarim Basin , and from the adjacent Eurasian Steppe .   The archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranians ( Aryans ) before their split into separate language groups is generally seen as the Andronovo culture to the north of present-day Afghanistan . The Iranian languages were developed by one branch of these people ; the Pashto language spoken today in Afghanistan is one of the Eastern Iranian languages . Elena E. Kuz ` mina argues that the tents of Iranian-speaking nomads of Afghanistan developed from the light surface houses of the Eurasian steppe belt in the Bronze Age .   The Arab invasions influenced the culture of Afghanistan , and its pre-Islamic period of Zoroastrian , Macedonian , Buddhist and Hindu past has long vanished . Turkic empire-builders such as the Ghaznavids and Timurids made the region now called Afghanistan of major importance .   Mirwais Hotak followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani unified Afghan tribes and founded the last Afghan Empire in the early 18th century CE . Afghanistan 's sovereignty has been held during the Anglo-Afghan Wars , the 1980s Soviet war , and the 2001-present war by the country 's many and diverse people : the Pashtuns , Tajiks , Hazaras , Uzbeks , Turkmen , Aimak , Baloch and others . The Pashtuns form the largest group , claiming to be descendants of ancient Israelites or Qais Abdur Rashid but scholars believe that they are a confederation of various peoples from the past who united under Pashtunwali .

neg: Greek National Awakening The concept and term `` National Awakening '' ( in Greek Εθνική αφύπνιση ) is used by many historians , intellectuals and lay authors to refer to the revival of the Greek national self-conscious , or modern Greek nationalism , which paved the way to the Greek Revolution of 1821 . Whereas most authors do not define the exact time-frame of this period , it is generally agreed that this awakening ( or revival ) occurred in the 18th century . According to the Greek historian Nikos Svoronos ( 1911-1989 ) , the period of the Greek National Awakening is 1715-1821 . The periodization of exhibits in the National Historical Museum of Athens sets the beginning of the Awakening era at 1670 . Other authors put the onset of this period in the mid 18th century . For example , a series of historical presentations by academic historians in the Greek State Television ( ERT ) , defined as `` National Awakening '' period the years 1750-1821 .   The Greek -- as well as other Balkan nations ' -- awakening was generated by internal and external forces . Opposition to the Ottomans was the main internal impetus . The main external factor was the assistance from Russia , on the ground of the common religion and long historical bonds . Since the fall of Constantinople to the Turks , the Greek national aspirations for liberation were expressed in the form of popular oracle and prophecies , some of them alleging to the intervention of fair-haired people ( xanthon genos ) to help Greeks . In 1656 a prominent Greek clergyman interpreted the `` fair-haired people '' as the Russians . With the emergence of Russia as a big power in Eastern Europe , the Greek-Russian ties assumed a military and political dimension . Beginning with the 1711 Pruth Campaign , Peter the Great called for the cooperation of all Orthodox people under the Russian leadership , to fight for `` the belief and the fatherland '' . After this campaign , the sultan appointed Greek Phanariots as governors of the Ottoman vassal territories of Wallachia and Moldavia . The Phanariots introduced an enlighted reform in their principalities , and produced a line of educated Greek and Balkan scholars who contributed to the national awakening of their respective countries .  The Greek communities in Russia , as well as in the Western and Central Europe , were also a key factor to the Greek awakening .  After the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji ( 1774 ) Russia assumed the role of protector of the Orthodox people subjects of the Ottoman Empire . After Peter the Great , Catherine II envisaged a `` Greek Project '' which involved a revival of a Greek state with Constantinople as capital , to be ruled by her grandson Constantine . The Russian expansionist policy greatly facilitated the modern Greek awakening , catalyzing key components such as military resistance , political activism , commercial growth , educational and cultural progress .  Russia 's wars against the Ottoman Empire in 18th early 19th century ( 1711 , 1737 -- 39 , 1768 -- 74 , 1787 -- 92 , 1806 -- 12 ) , as well as the short-lived Russian occupation of the Ionian islands after the Napoleonic wars , nourished the Greek tradition of armed resistance to the Ottomans and helped Greeks to receive fighting experience . The most important Russian influenced revolutionary activities of the Greeks in 18th c. were the failed Orlov expedition in 1769-1770 and the Lambros Katsonis ' flotilla raids against the Turks in 1778-1792 . Other independence movements of the 18th century , were those of the Souli and Souliotes .   Counter to the `` national awakening '' historiographic view is the one that emphasizes the importance of the French Revolution and Napoleon in the Greek and other Balkan national movements . Among the eminent works of this school in the 20th century are those of the Romanian historian N. Iorga ( 1934 ) and the Greeks A. Daskalakis ( 1937 ) , N. Moschopoulos ( 1939 ) and other subsequent .

neg: Genetic studies on Turkish people In population genetics , research has been made to study the genetic origins of the modern Turkish people in Turkey . These studies sought to determine whether the modern Turks have a stronger genetical affinity with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia from where the Seljuk Turks began migrating to Anatolia following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 , which led to the establishment of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate in the late 11th century ; or if they instead largely descended from the indigenous peoples of Anatolia who were culturally assimilated during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods , with assimilation policies such as the devshirme system and the jizya tax .   Autosomal studies with recent methodology estimate the Central Asian contribution in Turkish people at 13-15 % noting that results may indicate previous population movements ( e.g. migration , admixture ) or genetic drift , given the fact that Europe and South Asia have some genetic relatedness .   The largest autosomal study on Turkish genetics predicted that the weight of Central Asian migration legacy of the Turkish people is estimated at 21.7 % . The authors conclude on the basis of previous studies that `` South Asian contribution to Turkey 's population was significantly higher than East/Central Asian contributions , suggesting that the genetic variation of medieval Central Asian populations may be more closely related to South Asian populations , or that there was continued low level migration from South Asia into Anatolia . '' They note that these weights are not direct estimates of the migration rates as the original donor populations are not known , and the exact kinship between current East Asians and the medieval Oghuz Turks is uncertain . For instance , genetic pools of Central Asian Turkic peoples is particularly diverse and modern Oghuz Turkmens living in Central Asia are with slightly higher West Eurasian genetic component than East Eurasian .   Several studies have concluded that the genetic haplogroups indigenous to Western Asia have the largest share in the gene pool of the present-day Turkish population . An admixture analysis determined that the Anatolian Turks share most of their genetic ancestry with non-Turkic populations in the region and the 12th century is set as an admixture date . However , isolates with dominant Central Asian genetic makeup were found in an Afshar village near Ankara .

neg: North Africa North Africa is the term given to a group of Mediterranean countries situated in the northern-most region of the African continent . The term `` North Africa '' has no single accepted definition . It is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Morocco in the west , to the Suez Canal and the Red Sea in the east . Others have limited it to the countries of Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia , a region known by the French during colonial times as `` Afrique du Nord '' and by the Arabs as the Maghreb ( `` West '' ) .   The most commonly accepted definition includes Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia , as well as Libya and Egypt , It should be noted however that the term `` North Africa '' , when commonly used in North Africa and the Middle East , often refers only to the countries of the Maghreb and Libya . Egypt , due to its greater Middle Eastern associations , is typically viewed separately . The countries of North Africa share a common ethnic , cultural and linguistic identity that is unique to this region .   North west Africa has been inhabited by Berbers since the beginning of recorded history , while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Egyptians . Following the Muslim conquest in the seventh century C.E. , the region underwent a process of Arabization and Islamization that has defined its cultural landscape ever since .   The distinction between North Africa and much of Sub-Saharan Africa is historically and ecologically significant because of the effective barrier created by the Sahara Desert for much of modern history . From 3500 BC , following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to gradual changes in the Earth 's orbit , this barrier has culturally separated the North from the rest of the continent . As the seafaring civilizations of the Phoenicians , Greeks , Romans , Muslims and others facilitated communication and migration across the Mediterranean Sea , the cultures of North Africa became much more closely tied to Southwestern Asia and Europe than Sub-Saharan Africa . The Islamic influence in the area is also significant , and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world .   Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration .

neg: Art of Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is a small , landlocked country north of Ghana and south of Mali and Niger . Economically , it is one of the four or five poorest countries in the world . Culturally , it is extremely rich . In part this is because so few people from Burkina have become Muslim or Christian . Many of the ancient artistic traditions for which Africa is so well known have been preserved in Burkina Faso because so many people continue to honor the ancestral spirits , and the spirits of nature . In great part they honor the spirits through the use of masks and carved figures . Many of the countries to the north of Burkina Faso had become predominantly Muslim , while many of the countries to the south of Burkina Faso are heavily Christian . In contrast many of the people of Burkina Faso continue to offer prayers and sacrifices to the spirits of nature and to the spirits of their ancestors . The result is that they continue to use the sorts of art that we see in museums in Europe and America .   One of the principal obstacles to understanding the art of Burkina Faso , including that of the Bwa , has been a confusion between the styles of the Bwa , `` gurunsi '' , and Mossi , and a confusion of the Bwa people with their neighbors to the west the Bobo people . This confusion was the result of the use by French colonial officers of Jula interpreters at the turn of the century . These interpreters considered the two peoples to be the same and so referred to the Bobo as `` Bobo-Fing '' and to the Bwa as `` Bobo-Oule . '' In fact , these two peoples are not related at all . Their languages are quite different , their social systems are quite different , and certainly their art is quite different . In terms of artistic styles the confusion stems from the fact that the Bwa , `` gurunsi ' '' and Mossi make masks that are covered with red white and black geometric graphic patterns . This is simply the style of the Voltaic or Gur peoples , and also includes the Dogon and other peoples who speak Voltaic languages .

neg: Romanian language Romanian ( obsolete spellings Rumanian , Roumanian ; autonym : limba română , or лимба ромынэ in Moldovan Cyrillic , -LSB- ˈlimba roˈmɨnə -RSB- , `` the Romanian language '' , or românește , lit . `` in Romanian '' ) is a Romance language spoken by around 24 million people as a native language , primarily in Romania and Moldova , and by another 4 million people as a second language . It has official status in Romania and the Republic of Moldova . It is one of the official languages of the European Union and the Latin Union .   Romanian is a part of the Balkan-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin separated from the Western Romance during the 5th -- 8th centuries . To distinguish it within that group in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives , Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian .   During Soviet times -- and to some extent even today -- Romanian was called Moldovan in the Republic of Moldova , although the Constitutional Court ruled in 2013 that `` the official language of the republic is Romanian '' .   Romanian speakers are scattered across many other countries , notably Australia , Italy , Spain , Ukraine , Bulgaria , the United States , Canada , Brazil , Mexico , Argentina , Greece , Turkey , Russia , Portugal , the United Kingdom , Cyprus , France and Germany .

neg: Political Islam The term Political Islam is a recently developed term . It is used to label the wide-scale activities of individuals or organizations heading towards the transformation of the state and entire society according to '' Islamic '' rules . It is based on Islam which is a complex of political persuasion and fundamental Islamic books -- Koran , Sira ( the biography of Mohammed ) , and Hadith ( Mohammed 's traditions ) . The term is often used in connection with the movements which represent the current political powers in the name of Islam , emerging at the end of 20th century . It is also used as a term describing political activities stemming from basic Islamic books aiming predominantly at Non-Muslims .   Political Islam is often confused with Islamism . However , Political Islam is not only a synonym for violent , radical or extreme Islamism . On the contrary , an overwhelming majority of Islamic political activity is carried out by peaceful means and often within a constitutional framework ( e.g. Arbitration Act from 1996 , where Sharia courts became a part of official British Law ) . International activities of extremists including terrorist acts are an exception not the rule if we talk about political activities executed in the name of Islam . Although this term is often used for organized groups , movements or parties , it can also concern a great number of the individuals who share basic goals and background of Political Islam without any direct connection to a party or group .

neg: Ottoman studies Ottoman studies is an interdisciplinary branch of the humanities that addresses the history , culture , costumes , religion , art , such as literature and music , science , economy , and politics of the Ottoman Empire . It is a sub-category of Oriental studies and Middle Eastern studies , and also Turkish studies .

neg: Ahmad al-Bakkai al-Kunti Ahmad al-Bakkai al-Kunti ( 1803 in the Azawad region north of Timbuktu -- 1865 in Timbuktu ) was a West African Islamic and political leader . He was one of the last principal spokesmen in precolonial Western Sudan for an accommodationist stance towards the threatening Christian European presence , and even provided protection to Heinrich Barth from an attempted kidnapping by the ruler of Massina , Amadu III . In a letter to the ruler , which was rather a fatwa he denied the former 's right to have Barth arrested or killed and his belongings confiscated , as the Christian was neither a dhimmi ( a non-Muslim subject of a Muslim ruler ) nor an enemy of Islam , but the native of a friendly country , that is Great Britain . He went as far as to deny Ahmad Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo the right to proclaim a jihad and called him `` the ruler over a few huts at the outskirts of the Islamic world '' .   Al-Bakkai was also one of the last Kunta family shaykhs , whose prestige and religious influence were interwoven with the Qadiri brotherhood and the economic fortunes of the Timbuktu region . His voluminous correspondence provides a rare , detailed glimpse into political and religious thought in 19th century West Africa regarding the primary concerns of ; the nature of the Imamate / caliphate in Sahelian and Sudanese communities , issues surrounding the encroaching Christian powers , and the growing politicalization of Sufi tariqah affiliation .

neg: Al-Nahda Al-Nahda ( النهضة / ALA-LC : an-Nahḍah ; Arabic for `` awakening '' or `` renaissance '' ) was a cultural renaissance that began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Egypt , then later moving to Ottoman-ruled Arabic-speaking regions including Lebanon , Syria and others . It is often regarded as a period of intellectual modernization and reform .   In traditional scholarship , the Nahda is seen as connected to the cultural shock brought on by Napoleon 's invasion of Egypt in 1798 , and the reformist drive of subsequent rulers such as Muhammad Ali . However , recent scholarship has shown that the Middle Eastern and North African Renaissance was a cultural reform program that was as `` autogenetic '' as it was Western inspired , linked to the Ottoman Tanzimat and internal changes in political economy and communal reformations in Egypt and Syro-Lebanon .   The Egyptian nahda was articulated in purely Egyptian terms , and its participants were mostly Egyptians , and Cairo was the geographical center of the movement . But al-Nahda was also felt in neighboring Arab capitals , notably Beirut and Damascus . The shared language of Arabic-speaking nations ensured that the accomplishments of the movement could be quickly picked up by intellectuals in Arab countries .   In the Ottoman-ruled Arabic regions , major influence and motive were the 19th century tanzimat reforms of the Ottoman Empire , which brought a constitutional order to Ottoman politics and engendered a new political class and later the Young Turk Revolution , which allowed proliferation of press and other publications .

neg: Rise of the Ottoman Empire The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in , and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29 , 1453 . This period witnessed the foundation of a political entity ruled by the Ottoman Dynasty in the northwestern Anatolian region of Bithynia , and its transformation from a small principality on the Byzantine frontier into an empire spanning the Balkans and Anatolia . For this reason , this period in the empire 's history has been described as the Proto-Imperial Era . Throughout most of this period , the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region , and relied upon the support of local warlords and vassals to maintain control over their realm . By the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman sultans were able to accumulate enough personal power and authority to establish a centralized imperial state , a process which was brought to fruition by Sultan Mehmed II ( r. 1451-1481 ) .   The cause of Ottoman success can not be attributed to any single factor , and they varied throughout the period as the Ottomans continually adapted to changing circumstances .   The earlier part of this period , the fourteenth century , is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources . Not a single written document survives from the reign of Osman I , and very little survives from the rest of the century . The Ottomans , furthermore , did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century , more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe . It is thus a great challenge for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in analyzing the stories contained in these later chronicles , so much so that one historian has even declared it impossible , describing the earliest period of Ottoman history as a `` black hole . ''

neg: Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World ( 2004 ) is a history book written by Jack Weatherford , Dewitt Wallace Professor of Anthropology at Macalester College . It is a narrative of the rise and influence of Genghis Khan and his successors , and their influence on European civilization . Weatherford provides a different slant on Genghis Khan than has been typical in most Western accounts , attributing positive cultural effects to his rule .   In the last section , he reviews the historiography of Genghis Khan in the West and argues that the leader 's early portrayal in writings as an `` excellent , noble king '' changed to that of a brutal pagan during the Age of Enlightenment . Weatherford made use of three major non-Western sources : The Secret History of the Mongols , the Ta ' rīkh-i jahān-gushā of Juvayni and the Jami al-Tawarikh of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani .

neg: Persianism The word Persianism is used to describe any process of forming or transforming a phenomenon into something which has Persian ( Iranian ) traits and peculiarities .   Persianism can also mean a school of thought which emphasises the study of Persian culture and informing others about it . It is said by the scholar Ofira Seliktar that Shi'ism and Persianism overlap in Iran .   The scholar Muhammad Iqbal wrote , `` The conquest of Persia meant not the conversion of Persia to Islam , but the conversion of Islam to Persianism ! ''   Speaking of how the Persians regained governance of their country , the scholar Philip Khuri Hitti writes , `` Arabianism fell , but Islam under a new guise , that of Persianism , marched on triumphantly . ''   In the field of linguistics , Persianism is the Persian pronunciation of a word .

neg: Jawid Mojaddedi Jawid Mojaddedi is Professor of Religion at Rutgers University . He was born in Kabul , Afghanistan . At the age of five , he along with his mother and brother moved to Great Britain . He lived in several British cities and towns , including Glasgow , Bristol , Birmingham , Manchester , Westcliff-on-Sea , and Exeter .   During the nineties , Jawid Mojaddedi attended University of Manchester , where he earned his BA and PhD in Middle Eastern Studies . After graduating from the University of Manchester , he worked as a full-time faculty member of the Department of Middle Eastern Studies , where he taught Arabic and Islamic Studies .   In 1998 , Jawid moved from Great Britain to the United States . He worked at Columbia University for two years as an editor of Encyclopædia Iranica . He has been teaching at Rutgers University since 2003 . He is a former director of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies in Rutgers University , and Director of Graduate Studies in the Department of Religion .   Jawid Mojaddedi is known worldwide as a Rumi expert . He has published several books , including translations of Rumi 's longest poem , known as the Masnavi , into simple English . The Masnavi : Book One was published in 2004 and was awarded the Lois Roth Prize for excellence in translation of Persian literature by the American Institute of Iranian Studies . The Masnavi : Book Two was published in 2007 and The Masnavi : Book Three in 2013 . All three volumes were published as Oxford World 's Classics Editions . Jawid Mojaddedi 's analytical study , Beyond Dogma : Rumi 's Teachings on Friendship with God and Early Sufi Theories , was published by Oxford University Press in 2012 .

neg: Ar-Rum Sūrat ar-Rūm ( سورة الروم , `` The Romans '' ) is the 30th surah of the Quran . It consists of 60 ayat . The term Rûm originated in the word `` Romans '' and in the time of Muhammad referred to the Greek-speaking Romans ( Byzantine Empire ) , hence the title is sometimes also translated as `` The Byzantines '' .

neg: Santri The Santri is a cultural ` stream ' of people within the population of Javanese who practice a more orthodox version of Islam , in contrast to the abangan classes .   The American sociologist , Clifford Geertz , identified three main cultural streams ( aliran in Indonesian ) in Javanese society . Namely , the santri , abangan , and priyayi . Members of the Santri class are more likely to be urban dwellers , and tend to be oriented to the mosque , the Qur ` an , and perhaps to Islamic canon law ( Sharia ) . In contrast , the abangan tend to be from village backgrounds and absorb both Hindu and Muslim elements , forming a culture of animist and folk traditions , it is also claimed that this particular class originated from Sindhi sailors , who had settled in Java . The santri are sometimes referred to as Puthihan ( the white ones ) as distinct from the ` red ' abangan . The priyayi stream are the traditional bureaucratic elite and were strongly driven by hierarchical Hindu-Javanese tradition . Initially court officials in pre-colonial kingdoms , the stream moved into the colonial civil service , and then on to administrators of the modern Indonesian republic .   The santri played a key role in Indonesian Nationalist movements , and formed the strongest opposition to President Suharto 's New Order army-based administration . In contrast , the abangan have tended to follow the prevailing political wind ; they supported Sukarno 's overt nationalism , while during Suharto 's subsequent presidency , they loyally voted for his Golkar party . Poorer abangan areas became strongholds of the Indonesian Communist Party ( PKI ) in stark opposition to the orthodox Muslim santri . The cultural divisions descended into bloody conflict in 1965/66 when santri were opposed to communists , many of whom were from abangan streams . An estimated 500,000 alleged communists were killed during the transition to the New Order , and bitter political and social rivalries remain .

neg: Punjabis The Punjabis ( Punjabi : , ਪ ਜਾਬੀ ) , or Punjabi people , are an ethno-linguistic group associated with the Punjab , who speak Punjabi , an Indo-Aryan language . Punjab literally means the land of five waters ( Persian : panj ( `` five '' ) āb ( `` waters '' ) . The name of the region was introduced by the Greeksas Pentapotamia , which was later translated into Persian by the Turko-Persian conquerors of South Asia and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire . Punjab is often referred to as the breadbasket in both Pakistan and India .   The coalescence of the various tribes , castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab into a broader common `` Punjabi '' identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE . Prior to that the sense and perception of a common `` Punjabi '' ethno-cultural identity and community did not exist , even though the majority of the various communities of the Punjab had long shared linguistic , cultural and racial commonalities .   Traditionally , Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic , geographical and cultural . Its identity is independent of historical origin or religion , and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region , or associate with its population , and those who consider the Punjabi language their mother tongue . Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture , since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections . More or less all Punjabis share the same cultural background .   Historically , the Punjabi people were a heterogeneous group and were subdivided into a number of clans called biradari ( literally meaning `` brotherhood '' ) or tribes , with each person bound to a clan . However , Punjabi identity also included those who did not belong to any of the historical tribes . With the passage of time , tribal structures are coming to an end and are being replaced with a more cohesive and holistic society , as community building and group cohesiveness form the new pillars of Punjabi society .

neg: Hyderabadi Muslims Hyderabadi Muslims are an ethnoreligious community of Urdu-speaking Muslims , part of a larger group of Dakhini Muslims , from the area that used to be the princely state of Hyderabad , India , including cities like Hyderabad , Aurangabad , Gulbarga and Bidar . While the term `` Hyderabadi '' now only refers to residents in and around the city of Hyderabad , the term Hyderabadi Muslims can refer to those native Muslim residents of the erstwhile princely state.The native language of the Hyderabadi Muslims is Hyderabadi Urdu , which is a form of the Dakhini language . With their origins in the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate and then the Deccan sultanates , Hyderabadi Muslim culture became defined in the latter half of the reign of the Asif Jahi Dynasty in Hyderabad . The culture exists today mainly in the old city of Hyderabad , Aurangabad , and among the Hyderabadi Muslim diaspora around the world , in particular , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , the Arab states of the Persian Gulf , USA , Canada and the United Kingdom .


query: Swedish Empire was ruled by Gustavus Adolphus from 1611 to 1632.

pos: Swedish Empire The Swedish Empire ( stormaktstiden , `` the era of great power '' ) refers to the Kingdom of Sweden 's territorial control of much of the Baltic region during the 17th and early 18th centuries , a time when Sweden was one of the great European powers . The beginning of the Empire is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus , who ascended the throne in 1611 , and the end as the loss of territories in 1721 following the Great Northern War . In Swedish history , the period is referred to as stormaktstiden , literally meaning `` the Great Power era '' .   After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 , the empire was , over lengthy periods , controlled by part of the high nobility , most prominently the Oxenstierna family , acting as tutors for minor regents . The interests of the high nobility contrasted with the uniformity policy ( i.e. , the upholding of the traditional equality in status of the Swedish estates favoured by the kings and peasantry ) . In territories acquired during the periods of de facto noble rule , serfdom was not abolished , and there was also a trend to set up respective estates in Sweden proper . The Great Reduction of 1680 put an end to these efforts of the nobility and required them to return estates once gained from the crown to the king . Serfdom , however , remained in force in the dominions acquired in the Holy Roman Empire and in Swedish Estonia , where a consequent application of the uniformity policy was hindered by the treaties by which they were gained .   After the victories in the Thirty Years ' War , the climax of the great power era was reached during the Second Northern War , when their primary adversary Denmark was neutralized by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 . However , in the further course of this war as well as in the subsequent Scanian War , Sweden was able to maintain her empire only with support of her closest ally , France . Charles XI of Sweden consolidated the empire and ensured a period of peace , before Russia , Saxony and Denmark started a concerted attack on his successor , Charles XII . After initial Swedish victories , Charles secured the empire for some time in the Peace of Travendal ( 1700 ) and the Treaty of Altranstädt ( 1706 ) , before the Battle of Poltava ( 1709 ) finally brought the great power era of Sweden to an end .

pos: Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden Gustav II Adolf ( 9 December 1594 -- 6 November 1632 , O.S. ) ; widely known in English by his Latinised name Gustavus Adolphus or as Gustav II Adolph , was the King of Sweden from 1611 to 1632 and is credited as the founder of Sweden as a Great Power ( Stormaktstiden ) . He led Sweden to military supremacy during the Thirty Years ' War , helping to determine the political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe . He was formally and posthumously given the name Gustavus Adolphus the Great ( Gustav Adolf den store , Gustavus Adolphus Magnus ) by the Riksdag of the Estates in 1634 .   He is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time , with innovative use of combined arms . His most notable military victory was the Battle of Breitenfeld . With a superb military machine with good weapons , excellent training , and effective field artillery , backed by an efficient government which could provide necessary funds , Gustavus Adolphus was poised to make himself a major European leader , but he was killed a year later at the Battle of Lützen in 1632 . He was ably assisted in his efforts by Count Axel Oxenstierna , the Lord High Chancellor of Sweden , who also acted as regent after his death .   In an era characterized by almost endless warfare , he led his armies as king from 1611 ( at age 16 ) until his death in battle in 1632 while leading a charge . Sweden rose from the status of a mere regional power to one of the great powers of Europe and a model of early modern era government . Within only a few years of his accession , Sweden had become the largest nation in Europe after Russia , Spain and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . Some have called him the `` father of modern warfare '' , or the first great modern general . Under his tutelage , Sweden and the Protestant cause developed a number of excellent commanders , such as Lennart Torstensson , who would go on to defeat Sweden 's enemies and expand the boundaries and the power of the empire long after Gustavus Adolphus ' death in battle .   He was known by the epithets `` The Golden King '' and `` The Lion of the North '' by neighboring sovereigns . He made Sweden one of the great powers of Europe in part by reforming the administrative structure . For example , he began Parish registration of the population , so that the central government could more efficiently tax and conscript the people . Historian Christer Jorgensen argues that his achievement in the field of economic reform , trade , modernization , and the creation of the modern bureaucratic autocracy was as great as his exploits on the battlefields . His domestic reforms , which transformed a backward , almost medieval economy and society , were in fact not only the foundations for his victories in Germany , but also absolutely crucial for the creation and survival of the Swedish Empire .

neg: 1812 in Sweden Events from the year 1812 in Sweden

neg: Caroline era The Caroline or Carolean era refers to the era in English and Scottish history during the Stuart period ( 1603 -- 1714 ) that coincided with the reign of Charles I ( 1625 -- 1642 ) , Carolus being Latin for Charles . The Caroline era followed the Jacobean era , the reign of Charles 's father James I ( 1603 -- 1625 ) ; it was followed by the English Civil War ( 1642 -- 1651 ) and the English Interregnum ( 1651 -- 1660 ) .

neg: Great Officers of the Realm The Great Officers of the Realm ( Swedish : De högre riksämbetsmännen ) were the five leading members of the Swedish Privy Council from the later parts of the 16th century to around 1680 . With the constitution of 1634 , the five officers became heads of five different branches of government ( Swedish : kollegium ) . The same constitution also declared that the great officers were to act as regents during the minorities of kings or regnal queens . All great officers of the realm were abolished by king Carl XI of Sweden . The Lord High Steward and the Lord High Chancellor offices were revived in the late 18th century , but were soon removed again .

neg: 1603 in Sweden Events from the year 1600 in Sweden

neg: Treaty of Stolbovo The Treaty of Stolbovo is a peace treaty of 1617 that ended the Ingrian War , fought between Sweden and Russia .   After nearly two months of negotiations , representatives from Sweden and Russia met at the ( now derelict ) village of Stolbova , south of Lake Ladoga , on .   From the outset , Sweden had gone into the negotiations with very high ambitions , with the hopes of fulfilling the old dream of making all Russian trade pass through Swedish territory . As a consequence of this ambition , the Swedes originally demanded far-reaching territorial gains into western Russia , including the important northern port of Arkhangelsk . At this point , however , James I of England sent a delegation to mediate , and so did the Dutch , mostly to make sure Arkhangelsk did not fall into Swedish hands , which would have made the extensive trade between Western Europe and Russia far more difficult . Arkhangelsk did not change hands in the resulting treaty , partly because of the Dutch and English efforts , but mostly because Russia finally managed to unite under one tsar , Michael Romanov . As word reached Russia that the Swedish war against Poland might soon be over , the Russians were quick to get negotiations going for real -- knowing that they could not afford Sweden 's renewal of the war effort on just one front .   In the resulting peace treaty , the tsar and the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus agreed to the following terms :   Sweden gained the province and fortress of Kexholm ( Käkisalmi ) ( now Priozersk ) , south-west Karelia and the province of Ingria -- including the fortress of Nöteborg , known as `` the key to Finland '' ( now Shlisselburg , Russia )  Members of the upper classes in these conquered areas were allowed to migrate within 14 days , if they wished to , a right not granted to regular priests and farmers  Russia renounced all claims to Estonia and Livonia  Russia would pay Sweden war indemnities of 20,000 rubles  Novgorod and other Swedish territorial gains during the war would be returned to Russia  Sweden had the right to keep all spoils of war collected before 20 November 1616  The Russian city of Gdov was to remain in Swedish hands until the peace had been confirmed and the borders fully established  Sweden recognized Michael Romanov as the rightful tsar of Russia , putting an end to further Swedish claims in Russia  Russia was allowed free trade at normal trade tariffs , making sure Sweden could not cripple Russia completely  Russia was allowed to establish merchant houses in Stockholm , Reval ( Tallinn ) and Viborg in exchange for Sweden being allowed to establish merchant houses in Novgorod , Pskov , and Moscow .   Gustavus Adolphus is known to have said about this treaty , which granted Sweden natural borders to Russia , partly in the form of Lake Ladoga and Lake Peipus : `` jag hoppas att det skall bliva svårt för ryssen att hoppa över den bäcken '' -- `` I hope it will be hard for the Russians to jump across that creek '' .   England is officially credited with brokering this peace , through their mediator John Mericke , though the Dutch efforts were also of great importance . After the war , the leader of the Dutch delegation , Reinoud van Brederode , was granted the title Baron and given the barony of Wesenberg ( Rakvere ) in Estonia by Gustavus Adolphus .

neg: Jesper Mattson Cruus af Edeby Jesper Mattson Cruus af Edeby ( 1576 -- 1622 ) was a Swedish soldier and politician , being appointed Privy Councilor in 1612 , Field Marshal in 1615 , Lord High Treasurer in 1615 , and Governor of Riga in 1621 . In the Kalmar War ( 1611 -- 1613 ) he led the Swedish troops to victory against the Danish forces , led by King Christian IV of Denmark , at the Battle of Kölleryd , on 21 February 1612 . In 1622 he died in Riga after being wounded in a dispute with a local clergyman .

neg: Frederick I of Sweden Frederick I , Fredrik I , ( 28 April 1676 -- 5 April 1751 ) was prince consort of Sweden from 1718 to 1720 , and King of Sweden from 1720 until his death and ( as Frederick I ) also Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel from 1730 . He ascended the throne following the death of his brother-in-law , absolutist Charles XII in the Great Northern War , as his sister and heir Ulrika Eleonora preferred to abdicate from her position as queen regnant after relinquishing most powers to the Riksdag of the Estates . His powerless reign saw his family 's elimination from the line of succession after the parliamentary government dominated by pro-revanchist Hat Party politicians ventured into a war with Russia , which ended in defeat and the Russian tsarina Elizabeth demanding Adolph Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp to be instated following the death of the king .

neg: Albert, Duke of Prussia Albert of Prussia ( German : Albrecht von Preussen , 17 May 149020 March 1568 ) was the 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights , who after converting to Lutheranism , became the first ruler of the Duchy of Prussia , the secularized state that emerged from the former Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights . Albert was the first European ruler to establish Lutheranism , and thus Protestantism , as the official state religion of his lands . He proved instrumental in the political spread of Protestantism in its early stage , ruling the Prussian lands for nearly six decades ( 1510 -- 1568 ) .   A member of the Brandenburg-Ansbach branch of the House of Hohenzollern , Albert became Grand Master , where his skill in political administration and leadership ultimately succeeded in reversing the decline of the Teutonic Order . But Albert , who was sympathetic to the demands of Martin Luther , rebelled against the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire by converting the Teutonic state into a Protestant and hereditary realm , the Duchy of Prussia , for which he paid homage to his uncle , the King of Poland , Sigismund I . That arrangement was confirmed by the Treaty of Kraków in 1525 . Albert pledged a personal oath to the King and in return was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs .   Albert 's rule in Prussia was fairly prosperous . Although he had some trouble with the peasantry , the confiscation of the lands and treasures of the Catholic Church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and provide for the expenses of the newly established Prussian court . He was active in imperial politics , joining the League of Torgau in 1526 , and acted in unison with the Protestants in plotting to overthrow Emperor Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548 . Albert established schools in every town and founded Königsberg University in 1544 . He promoted culture and arts , patronising the works of Erasmus Reinhold and Caspar Hennenberger . During the final years of his rule , Albert was forced to raise taxes instead of further confiscating now-depleted church lands , causing peasant rebellion . The intrigues of the court favourites Johann Funck and Paul Skalić also led to various religious and political disputes . Albert spent his final years virtually deprived of power and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568 . His son , Albert Frederick , succeeded him as Duke of Prussia .   Albert 's dissolution of the Teutonic State caused the founding of the Duchy of Prussia , paving the way for the rise of the House of Hohenzollern . He is therefore often seen as the father of the Prussian nation , and even as indirectly responsible for the unification of Germany .

neg: John of Sweden John of Sweden - Swedish : Johan , Jon and Hans - may refer to :   John I , King of Sweden 1216  John II , King of Sweden 1497  John III , King of Sweden 1569  John , Swedish prince , died 1152 , son of King Sweartgar I  John , Swedish prince , died 1205 , son of King Canute I  John , prince and heir apparent 1520 , son of King Christian II  John , Duke of Östergötland , Swedish prince 1589  John II Casimir Vasa , pretender to the Swedish throne as of 1609  John Casimir , Count Palatine of Kleeburg , Swedish prince 1652

neg: List of monarchs of Prussia The monarchs of Prussia were members of the House of Hohenzollern who were the hereditary rulers of the former German state of Prussia from its founding in 1525 as the Duchy of Prussia . The Duchy had evolved out of the Teutonic Order , a Roman Catholic crusader state and theocracy located along the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea . The Teutonic Knights were under the leadership of a Grand Master , the last of whom , Albert , converted to Protestantism and secularized the lands , which then became the Duchy of Prussia . The Duchy was initially a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland , as a result of the terms of the Prussian Homage whereby Albert was granted the Duchy as part of the terms of peace following the Prussian War . When the main line of Prussian Hohenzollerns died out in 1618 , the Duchy passed to a different branch of the family , who also reigned as Electors of Brandenburg in the Holy Roman Empire . While still nominally two different territories , Prussia under the suzerainty of Poland and Brandenburg under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire , the two states are known together historiographically as Brandenburg-Prussia . Following the Second Northern War , a series of treaties freed the Duchy of Prussia from any vassalage to any other state , making it a fully sovereign Duchy in its own right . This complex situation ( where the Hohenzollern ruler of the independent Duchy of Prussia was also a subject of the Holy Roman Emperor as Elector of Brandenburg ) laid the eventual groundwork for the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701 . For diplomatic reasons , the rulers of the state were known as the King in Prussia from 1701 to 1772 ; largely because they still owed fealty to the Emperor as Electors of Brandenburg , the `` King in Prussia '' title ( as opposed to `` King of Prussia '' ) avoided offending the Emperor . As the Prussian state grew through several wars and diplomatic moves throughout the 18th century , it became apparent that Prussia had become a Great Power that did not need to submit meekly to the Holy Roman Empire . By 1772 , the pretense was dropped , and the style `` King of Prussia '' was adopted . Thus it remained until 1871 , when in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War , the King of Prussia Wilhelm I was crowned German Emperor . From that point forward , though the Kingdom of Prussia retained its status as a constituent state of the German Empire , all remaining Kings of Prussia also served as German Emperor , and that title took precedence .

neg: Battle of the Sound The naval Battle of the Sound took place on 8 November 1658 ( 29 October O.S. ) during the Second Northern War , near the Sound or Øresund , just north of the Danish capital , Copenhagen . Sweden had invaded Denmark and an army under Charles X of Sweden had Copenhagen itself under siege . The Dutch fleet was sent to prevent Sweden from gaining control of both sides of the Sound and thereby controlling access to the Baltic Sea as well as of its trade .   The Dutch , under the command of Lieutenant-Admiral Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam with Egbert Bartholomeusz Kortenaer as his flag captain , who had sailed to the Baltic in support of Denmark , had 41 ships with 1413 guns while the Swedes , under Lord High Admiral Carl Gustaf Wrangel , had 45 ships with 1838 guns . The Dutch were grouped into three squadrons , while the Swedes separated their ships into four . The seven Danish ships with about 280 guns were unable to assist their Dutch allies because of adverse northern winds and could only watch . Obdam , who first received very complicated written instructions from the Grand Pensionary , Johan de Witt , and went so far as to request them again `` in three words '' , summed up his mission in a single sentence : `` Save Copenhagen and punch anyone in the face who tries to prevent it '' . This was a direct reference to the English , whose powerful fleet had recently defeated the Dutch in the First Anglo-Dutch War ; in the event , however , the English did not intervene . The Swedes attacked aggressively , but failed to gain the upper hand , primarily because the approaching Dutch had the weather gage . The Dutch forced the Swedish fleet to end the blockade of the Danish capital , enabling its resupply by Dutch armed transport ships , which eventually forced Charles to abandon the siege entirely .   The Swedes lost five ships in the action compared to one Dutch ship , however , remaining allied ships were more damaged . Also , considering the slightly fewer losses of men in the Swedish navy ; 1,200 compared to 1,400 ( 439 killed , 269 captured and slightly more than 650 wounded allies ) , the battle is considered a tactical draw . Strategically , however , it was a major allied victory .

neg: King in Prussia King in Prussia was a title used by the Electors of Brandenburg from 1701 to 1772 . Subsequently , they used the title King of Prussia .   The House of Hohenzollern ruled Brandenburg as Prince-Electors , and were subjects of the Holy Roman Emperor . Since 1618 , the Electors of Brandenburg had also ruled the Duchy of Prussia , which lay outside of the empire , in a personal union . The dual state was known as Brandenburg-Prussia . The Duchy of Prussia was originally a fief that the dukes held of the King of Poland , of whom they were vassals , until the Treaties of Labiau ( 1656 ) and Bromberg ( 1657 ) , with which Frederick William , the Great Elector , had achieved full sovereignty from the Polish Crown . In 1701 Elector Frederick III wanted to show his greatness by adopting the title king .   In return for Hohenzollern assistance in the War of the Spanish Succession and support for the Habsburg candidate in the subsequent election , Emperor Leopold I allowed Frederick to crown himself `` King in Prussia '' .   Legally , Frederick was only an elector in his domains within the borders of the empire ; he was only king in his former duchy . Even though Brandenburg was still legally part of the empire and ruled in personal union with Prussia , it soon came to be treated as a de facto part of Prussia .   On 17 January 1701 , Frederick dedicated the royal coat of arms , the Prussian black eagle with the motto `` suum cuique '' imprinted . On 18 January , he crowned himself and his wife Sophie Charlotte in a baroque ceremony in Königsberg Castle .   Even so , Frederick 's move was controversial , and only became widely accepted after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 . The title `` King of Prussia '' implied lordship over the entire Prussian region , not simply the former Duchy of Prussia , now Kingdom of Prussia , and the assumption of such a title by the Hohenzollern margraves would have threatened neighboring Poland ; because the province of Royal Prussia was part of the Kingdom of Poland , the Kings of Poland titled themselves Kings of Prussia until 1742 .   Throughout the 18th century the power of the Kings in Prussia continued to increase . They were victorious over the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in the three Silesian Wars , greatly increasing their power through the acquisition of Silesia . King Frederick II adopted the title King of Prussia in 1772 , the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland . The kings of Prussia continued to be Electors of Brandenburg until the empire 's dissolution in 1806 . Brandenburg was then made a province of the Kingdom of Prussia , Berlin officially gaining the status of capital of the Kingdom .

neg: Treaty of Labiau The Treaty of Labiau was a treaty signed between Frederick William I , Elector of Brandenburg and Charles X Gustav of Sweden on 10 November ( O.S. ) / 20 November ( N.S. ) 1656 in Labiau ( now Polessk ) . With several concessions , the most important being the elevation of Frederick William I from a Swedish vassal to a full sovereign in the Duchy of Prussia and in Ermland ( Ermeland , Warmia ) , Charles X Gustav strove to `` buy Frederick William 's support '' in the ongoing Second Northern War .

neg: The Estates The Estates or the States ( États , Landstände , Staten ) was the assembly of the representatives of the estates of the realm , the divisions of society in feudal times , called together for purposes of deliberation , legislation or taxation . A meeting of the estates that covered an entire kingdom was called an estates general .   In many states , the first estate comprised the clergymen , the second estate the nobility , and the third estate the commoners ( bourgeoisie , artisans and peasants ) . The actual representation of these three estates in the assembly could vary from country to country . Bourgeoisie , peasants and people with no estate from birth were separated in Sweden and Finland as late as in 1905 .   In some countries , the parliament kept the same name when its feudal organization was replaced with a more modern kind of representation , like census or universal suffrage . In Sweden , the Riksdag of the Estates was replaced with the Riksdag in 1866 .

neg: History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764) History of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1648 -- 1764 ) covers a period in the history of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , from the time their joint state became the theater of wars and invasions fought on a great scale in the middle of the 17th century , to the time just before the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski , the last king of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth .   From the 17th century , the nobles ' democracy , experienced devastating wars and fell into internal disorder and then anarchy , and as a result declined . The once powerful Commonwealth had become vulnerable to internal warfare and foreign intervention . In 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east of the vast Polish -- Lithuanian state , and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion , which raged through core Polish lands . Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided ; the eastern part , lost by the Commonwealth , became a dependency of the Tsardom of Russia . John III Sobieski , who fought protracted wars against the Ottoman Empire , revived the Commonwealth 's military might once more . In one decisive engagement he helped in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught .   Further disintegration followed nevertheless . The Commonwealth , subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720 , suffered devastating population losses and massive damage to its economy and social structure . The economic regression had not been fully compensated for the duration of the Commonwealth 's existence . The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts ( e.g. Lubomirski 's Rokosz against John II Casimir and rebellious confederations ) , corrupted legislative processes ( such as the infamous use of the liberum veto ) and manipulation by foreign interests . The nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains , the urban population and infrastructure fell into ruin , together with most peasant farms .   The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty , Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III , brought the Commonwealth more political damage and little meaningful reform . The Great Northern War , a period seen by the contemporaries as a passing eclipse , may have been the decisive blow that critically weakened the Polish-Lithuanian state . The Kingdom of Prussia became a strong regional power and took Silesia from the Habsburg Monarchy . The Commonwealth-Saxony personal union , however , gave rise to the emergence of the reform movement in the Commonwealth , and the beginnings of the Polish Enlightenment culture .

neg: Great Northern War The Great Northern War ( 1700 -- 21 ) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Central , Northern , and Eastern Europe . The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I of Russia , Frederick IV of Denmark -- Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony-Poland . Frederick IV and Augustus II were defeated by Sweden , under Charles XII , and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively , but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the battle of Poltava . George I of Great Britain and of Brunswick-Lüneburg ( Hanover ) joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain , and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715 .   Charles XII led the Swedish army . Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp , several Polish magnates under Stanisław I Leszczyński ( 1704 -- 10 ) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa ( 1708 -- 10 ) . The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.   The war began when an alliance of Denmark -- Norway , Saxony , Poland and Russia sensing an opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young Charles XII , declared war on the Swedish Empire , and launched a threefold attack on Swedish Holstein-Gottorp , Swedish Livonia , and Swedish Ingria . Sweden parried the Danish and Russian attacks at Travendal ( August 1700 ) and Narva ( November 1700 ) respectively , and in a counter-offensive pushed Augustus II 's forces through the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth to Saxony , dethroning Augustus on the way ( September 1706 ) and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in the Treaty of Altranstädt ( October 1706 ) . The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul , architect of the alliance seven years earlier . Peter I 's forces had meanwhile recovered from its defeat at Narva and gained ground in Sweden 's Baltic provinces , where he cemented Russia 's access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter , but the campaign ended with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive 1709 Battle of Poltava ( in present-day Ukraine ) , and Charles ' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender . The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign , but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia 's position .   After Poltava , the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it . The remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted , with the last city , Riga , falling in 1710 . The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves , destroying the Swedish dominium maris baltici . Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark -- Norway and from the east by Russia , which had occupied Finland by 1714 . Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg ( 1710 ) . Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front , but was killed in Fredriksten in 1718 .   The war ended with Sweden 's defeat , leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics . The Western powers , Great Britain and France , became caught up in the separate War of the Spanish Succession ( 1702-1715 ) , which broke out over the Bourbon Philip of Anjou 's succession to the Spanish throne and a possible joining of France to Spain . The formal conclusion of the Great Northern War came with the Swedish-Hanoverian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm ( 1719 ) , the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg ( 1720 ) , and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad ( 1721 ) . By these treaties Sweden ceded her exemption from the Sound Dues , and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania . The peace treaties also ended her alliance with Holstein-Gottorp . Hanover gained Bremen-Verden , Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary ( Stettin Lagoons ) , Russia secured the Baltic Provinces , and Denmark strengthened her position in Schleswig-Holstein . In Sweden , the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII , and Sweden 's Age of Liberty began .

neg: Johannes Matthiae Gothus John Matthiae Gothus ( born December 29 , 1592 in Västra Husby - died February 18 , 1670 in Stockholm ) was an Uppsala University professor , the rector of the Collegium illustrious in Stockholm ( 1626 -- 1629 ) and the most eminent teacher in Sweden during the seventeenth century . He was Bishop of Strängnäs from 1643 to 1664 .   Gothus was the son of the vicar and became court chaplain , teacher and mentor to Crown Princess Christina . Some of his contemporaries believed that he was the greatest advocate for ecumenism in Sweden . He had travelled in England and Holland was influenced by Comenius and had a general view of Christian humanism . Gothus wanted to work for a reconciliation between the warring churches .   John Matthiae received gifts and great fiefs from Christina , Queen of Sweden and the Queen Mother . He owned more than 33 large estates and farms and a number of smaller properties in different parts of Sweden . The farms were part of the crown payment . John Matthiae Gothus authored numerous publications which spread over Europe .   Category : Swedish chaplains  Category : Uppsala University alumni  Category : Uppsala University faculty  Category :1592 births  Category :1670 deaths  Category :17 th-century Swedish people  Category : Bishops of Strängnäs

neg: 1632 in Sweden Events from the year 1632 in Sweden

neg: Magnus Brahe (1564–1633) Count Magnus Brahe ( 1564 -- 1633 ) was a Swedish noble . Being both Lord High Constable and Lord High Steward of Sweden , he was a notable figure in the 17th century Sweden .   Magnus Brahe , a son of Per Brahe the Elder and Beata Stenbock and nephew of queen dowager Catherine Stenbock , was born at Tynnelsö Palace on 25 September 1564 . He was the brother of Erik Brahe ( 1552 -- 1614 ) , Gustaf Brahe ( 1558 -- 1615 ) , Margareta Brahe ( 1559 -- 1638 ) , Sigrid Brahe and Abraham Brahe ( 1569 -- 1630 ) .   He became a chamberlain of King Sigismund in 1590 . Four years later , he left Sigismund and started to support Sigismund 's cousin Duke Carl , who was an enemy of Sigismund and challenged the king for the throne . Brahe received various important assignments from Duke Carl , and eventually , in 1602 , Brahe became Lord High Constable ( Swedish : riksmarsk ) and a member of the Swedish Privy Council .   Brahe 's older brothers had supported Sigismund which led to them losing the Visingsborg County . Having been a trustful supporter of Duke Carl , who became regent of Sweden in 1599 and king 1604 , Brahe was declared Count of Visingsborg instead . When King Carl IX died and was succeeded by his son Gustavus Adolphus in 1611 , Brahe remained a close confidant of the new king . The same year , he was appointed Lord High Steward ( Swedish : riksdrots ) , becoming arguably the most prominent member of the Privy Council .   Brahe married Countess Brita Stensdotter Leijonhufvud ( 1567 -- 1611 ) at Gräfsnäs Palace on 10 November 1594 . They were parents of Ebba Brahe ( 1596 -- 1674 ) , who was the subject of king Gustav Adolphus ' love . The countess died in 1611 , and Brahe remarried at Strömsholm Palace on 18 October 1618 , this time with Baroness Helena Bielke ( 1592 -- 1651 ) .   In 1614 , he was made president of Svea Court of Appeal , when this court was created . Brahe was knighted at the coronation of Gustavus Adolphus in October 1617 .   He died in Stockholm on 3 March 1633 due to an illness , which possibly was caused by the great grief Brahe felt when king Gustavus Adolphus died four months earlier . He was buried on 12 May the same year in Västerås Cathedral .

neg: List of wars involving Sweden This is a list of wars involving the Kingdom of Sweden . There are legendary accounts of Swedish kings well into prehistory and they are mentioned by Tacitus in his Germania , but St. Olof Skötkonung ( 995 -- 1022 ) was the first ruler documented to have been accepted by both the Swedes around Lake Mälaren and by the Geats around Lake Vättern . The modern state of Sweden considers itself to have been established on 6 June 1523 by the acclamation of Gustav Vasa as king which finally ended the Kalmar Union with Denmark , although the current Swedish constitution dates to 1974 .   Military engagements since 1814 have not been formally declared wars .