query: The Chernobyl disaster ultimately involved more than 500,000 workers.

pos: Chernobyl disaster The Chernobyl disaster , also referred to as the Chernobyl accident , was a catastrophic nuclear accident . It occurred on 26 April 1986 in the No. 4 light water graphite moderated reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat , in what was then part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union ( USSR ) .   During a late night safety test which simulated a station blackout power-failure and in which safety systems were deliberately turned off , a combination of inherent reactor design flaws , together with the reactor operators arranging the core in a manner contrary to the checklist for the test , eventually resulted in uncontrolled reaction conditions that flashed water into steam generating a destructive steam explosion and a subsequent open-air graphite fire.Although most reports on the Chernobyl accident refer to a number of graphite fires , it is highly unlikely that the graphite itself burned . According to the General Atomics website < http://gt-mhr.ga.com/safety.php > : `` It is often incorrectly assumed that the combustion behavior of graphite is similar to that of charcoal and coal . Numerous tests and calculations have shown that it is virtually impossible to burn high-purity , nuclear-grade graphites . '' On Chernobyl , the same source states : `` Graphite played little or no role in the progression or consequences of the accident . The red glow observed during the Chernobyl accident was the expected color of luminescence for graphite at 700 ° C and not a large-scale graphite fire , as some have incorrectly assumed . '' Similarly , nuclear physicist Yevgeny Velikhov , < http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4918742.stm > noted some 2 weeks after the accident that `` Until now the possibility of a catastrophe really did exist : A great quantity of fuel and graphite of the reactor was in an incandescent state '' That is , all the nuclear-decay heat that was generated inside the uranium fuel ( heat which would normally be extracted by back-up coolant pumps , in an undamaged reactor ) was instead responsible for making the fuel itself and any graphite in contact with it , to glow red-hot . This is contrary to the oft cited interpretation , which is that the graphite was red-hot chiefly because it was chemically oxidizing with the air . This fire produced considerable updrafts for about 9 days , that lofted plumes of fission products into the atmosphere , with the estimated radioactive inventory that was released during this very hot fire phase , approximately equal in magnitude to the airborne fission products released in the initial destructive explosion . Practically all of this radioactive material would then go on to fall-out/precipitate onto much of the surface of the western USSR and Europe .   The Chernobyl accident dominates the Energy accidents sub-category , of most disastrous nuclear power plant accident in history , both in terms of cost and casualties . It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents classified as a level 7 event ( the maximum classification ) on the International Nuclear Event Scale , the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011 . The struggle to safeguard against scenarios which were , at many times falsely , perceived as having the potential for greater catastrophe and the later decontamination efforts of the surroundings , ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles . During the accident , blast effects caused 2 deaths within the facility and later 29 firemen and employees died in the days-to-months afterward from acute radiation syndrome , with the potential for long-term cancers still being investigated .   The remains of the No. 4 reactor building were enclosed in a large sarcophagus ( radiation shield ) by December 1986 , at a time when what was left of the reactor was entering the cold shut-down phase ; the enclosure was built quickly as occupational safety for the crews of the other undamaged reactors at the power station , with No. 3 continuing to produce electricity into 2000 .   The accident motivated safety upgrades on all remaining Soviet-designed reactors in the RBMK ( Chernobyl No. 4 ) family , of which eleven continued to power electric grids as of 2013 .

neg: Pyongnam Line The P'yŏngnam Line is an electrified standard-gauge trunk line of the North Korean State Railway linking P'yŏngyang with the port city of Namp ' o and the hot springs at P'yongnam Onch ` on . The length of the line is 89.9 km . It also serves as a connection between the various trunk lines starting at P'yŏngyang that serve the north and east of the country with the lines in the southwestern part of North Korea by means of a connection to the Sŏhae Kammun Line . It also connects to the Ryonggang Line and the freight-only Taean Line .   On 21 October 2014 a groundbreaking ceremony for the Sŭngri ( `` Victory '' ) project to modernise the P'yŏngnam Line from Namp ' o to P'yŏngyang and the P'yŏngdŏk Line from P'yŏngyang to Chedong was held . The project , supported by Russia , is intended to form the first stage of a larger-scale cooperation with the Russian Railways as part of a 20-year development project that would modernise around 3,500 km of the North Korean rail network , and would include the construction of a north-south freight bypass around P'yŏngyang . The overall project cost is estimated to be around US $ 25 billion , and it is expected that exports of coal , rare earth and non-ferrous metals from the DPRK to Russia will provide the funding for the project .

neg: Podolsk Podolsk ( -LSB- Подольск , p =p ɐˈdolʲsk -RSB- ) is an industrial city , center of Podolsk Urban Okrug , Moscow Oblast , Russia , located on the Pakhra River ( a tributary of the Moskva River ) . Population : 187,961 ( 2010 Census ) ; 180,963 ( 2002 Census ) ; 209,178 ( 1989 Census ) ; 183,000 ( 1974 ) ; 129,000 ( 1959 ) ; 72,000 ( 1939 ) .

neg: Commonwealth of Independent States The Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ; -LSB- Содружество Независимых Государств , СНГ , r = Sodruzhestvo Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv , SNG -RSB- ) , also called the Russian Commonwealth ( to distinguish it from the British Commonwealth of Nations ) , is a regional organization formed during the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Nine out of the 15 former Soviet Republics are member states , and two are associate members ( Ukraine and Turkmenistan ) . Georgia withdrew its membership in 2008 , while the Baltic states , which regard their membership in the Soviet Union as an illegal occupation , ( Estonia , Lithuania and Latvia ) chose not to participate .   The CIS has few supranational powers but aims to be more than a purely symbolic organization , nominally possessing coordinating powers in the realms of trade , finance , lawmaking , and security . It has also promoted cooperation on cross-border crime prevention . Furthermore , eight of the nine CIS member states participate in the CIS Free Trade Area . Three organizations are under the overview of the CIS , namely the Collective Security Treaty Organization , the Eurasian Economic Union ( alongside subdivisions , the Eurasian Customs Union and the Eurasian Economic Space , which comprises territory inhabited by over 180 million people ) , and the Union State . While the first and the second are military and economic alliances , the third aims to reach a confederation of Russia and Belarus with a common government , flag , currency , etc. .

neg: Vorkutlag The Vorkutlag , sometimes Vorkuta Gulag , was one of the major Soviet era GULAG labor camps , full name Воркутинский исправительно-трудовой лагерь ( Vorkuta Corrective Labor Camp ) . It was located in the Pechora River Basin , in the Komi Republic , part of the Siberian region of Russia , located 1,900 km from Moscow and 160 km above the Arctic Circle . Vorkuta Gulag was established in 1932 to exploit the resources of the Pechora Coal Basin , the second largest coal basin in the former U.S.S.R. . The city of Vorkuta was established to support the camp . There were approximately 132 sub-camps in the Vorkuta Gulag system during the height of its use in the Soviet prison system . From 1939 , Polish prisoners were held here until Russia joined the allies , after it was attacked by Germany . The camp was then also used to hold German P.O.W.s captured on the Eastern Front in World War II as well as Soviet citizens and those from Soviet occupied countries deemed to be dissidents and enemies of the state during the Soviet era .   Although the camp was closed in 1962 there are large numbers of Soviet citizens who were former prisoners still living in Vorkuta , originally due to their former status as enemies of the state , then as a result of their poor financial situation . Memorial , a Russian human rights organization that focuses on recording and publicising the human rights violations of the Soviet Union 's totalitarian era , estimates that of the 40,000 people collecting state pensions in the Vorkuta area 32,000 are trapped former gulag inmates , or their descendants .   Inmates at Vorkuta who were forced to work in the region 's coal mines went on strike during the Vorkuta uprising in July 1953 . The mostly passive strike which lasted approximately two weeks was put down on August 1 , when camp chief Derevyanko ordered troops to fire at the strikers resulting in the deaths of at least 53 workers , although estimates vary .

neg: History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present) The People 's Republic of China became more influential economically in the 1990s and 2000s and was beginning to be widely recognized as an emerging superpower . In 2010 , China became the world 's second largest economy by GDP . At the same time , numerous social problems emerged and intensified . As Paramount leader Jiang Zemin , NPCSC Chairman Li Peng and PRC Premier Zhu Rongji , gradually retired from their position of power , `` fourth-generation '' leaders , led by CPC General Secretary Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao , faced with increasing social unrest , attempted to steer the country towards a new direction . From the path of focusing solely on economic development , Hu and Wen placed focus on creating an overall balance under the idea of the Scientific Outlook on Development to create a socialist harmonious society . In this process , there was an unprecedented shift in stance towards favouring rural development and farmers , as well as other generally populist policies . The Hu-Wen government , on the same token , attempted to restrict some personal freedoms , especially those associated with political content on the Internet .   China 's increased prominence on the global stage has also brought with it general skepticism and intense scrutiny , especially in the lead up to the 2008 Summer Olympics and after the March 2008 protests in Tibet . The government continues to be criticized on human rights abuses and the various product quality scandals that have increasingly damaged the country 's integrity and continues to raise suspicions about the country 's safety standards . The majority of China 's population , however , point to the immense progress the country has made and generally discredit criticisms of China as being embedded in cultural and historical misunderstandings and rooted in paranoia of China 's potential dominance on the world stage . These ideological clashes , fused with rhetoric from Beijing , has led to an intense wave of nationalism ( or Socialist patriotism ) surfacing in Chinese populations around the world .   As of mid-2012 , government statistics show that for the first time ever over 50 % of the Chinese population now live in urban areas , marking a milestone in the urbanization of China . The majority of modern city dwellers are migrants and their children who moved to cities during the economic boom of the last 30 years started by Deng Xiaoping 's policy of economic liberalization .

neg: 1953 Soviet nuclear tests The Soviet Union 's 1953 nuclear test series was a group of 5 nuclear tests conducted in 1953 . These tests followed the 1949-51 Soviet nuclear tests series and preceded the 1954 Soviet nuclear tests series .   -RCB- 279 m + 30 m  | air drop , weapons development  | RDS-6s  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' |  |  |  | aka RDS-6s . First thermonuclear explosion . Used `` sloika '' Layer-cake method , where primary is wrapped in shells of lithium and tamper . It worked , but could not be scaled up to megaton yields .  | -  ! 5 Tatyana ( Joe 5 )  | 02:00 : ??  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' | ALMT ( 6 hrs ) | | Ground Zero , Semipalatinsk , Kazakhstan ~  | 289 m + 600 m  | air drop , weapons development  | RDS-4  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' |  |  |  | Test of first production tactical weapon , used on Tu-4 and Tu-16 jets .  | -  ! 6 ( Joe 6 )  |  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' | ALMT ( 6 hrs ) | | Ground Zero , Semipalatinsk , Kazakhstan ~  | 280 m + 255 m  | air drop , weapons development  |  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' |  |  |  |  | -  ! 7  |  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' | ALMT ( 6 hrs ) | | Ground Zero , Semipalatinsk , Kazakhstan ~  | 280 m + 220 m  | air drop , weapons development  |  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' |  |  |  |  | -  ! 8 ( Joe 7 )  |  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' | ALMT ( 6 hrs ) | | Ground Zero , Semipalatinsk , Kazakhstan ~  | 280 m + 260 m  | air drop , weapons development  |  | style = `` text-align : center ; '' |  |  |  |  | -RCB-

neg: Offshore construction Offshore construction is the installation of structures and facilities in a marine environment , usually for the production and transmission of electricity , oil , gas and other resources .   Construction and pre-commissioning is typically performed as much as possible onshore . To optimize the costs and risks of installing large offshore platforms , different construction strategies have been developed .   One strategy is to fully construct the offshore facility onshore , and tow the installation to site floating on its own buoyancy . Bottom founded structure are lowered to the seabed by de-ballasting ( see for instance Condeep or Cranefree ) , whilst floating structures are held in position with substantial mooring systems .   The size of offshore lifts can be reduced by making the construction modular , with each module being constructed onshore and then lifted using a crane vessel into place onto the platform . A number of very large crane vessels were built in the 1970s which allow very large single modules weighing up to 14,000 tonnes to be fabricated and then lifted into place .   Specialist floating hotel vessels known as flotels are used to accommodate workers during the construction and hook-up phases . This is a high cost activity due to the limited space and access to materials .   Oil platforms are key fixed installations from which drilling and production activity is carried out . Drilling rigs are either floating vessels for deeper water or jack-up designs which are a barge with liftable legs . Both of these types of vessel are constructed in marine yards but are often involved during the construction phase to pre-drill some production wells .  Other key factors in offshore construction are the weather window which defines periods of relatively light weather during which continuous construction or other offshore activity can take place . Safety is another key construction parameter , the main hazard obviously being a fall into the sea from which speedy recovery in cold waters is essential .   The main types of vessels used for pipe laying are the `` Derrick Barge ( DB ) '' , the `` Pipelay Barge ( LB ) '' and the `` Derrick/Lay barge ( DLB ) '' combination . Diving bells in offshore construction are mainly used in water depths greater than 120 ft , less than that , the divers use a metal basket driven from an `` A '' frame from the deck . The basket is lowered to the water level , then the divers enter the water from it to a maximum of 120 ft. Bells can go to 1500 ft , but are normally used at 400 to .   Offshore construction includes foundations engineering , structural design , construction , and/or repair of offshore structures , both commercial and military , including :  Subsea oil and gas developments  Offshore platforms -- fixed platforms , semi-submersibles , spars , tension leg platforms ( TLPs ) , floating production storage and offloading ( FPSOs ) , etc. .  Floating oil and gas platforms -- semi-submersibles , spars , TLPs , FPSOs , etc. .  Offshore wind power  Submarine pipelines

neg: Communist revolution A communist revolution is a proletarian revolution often , but not necessarily inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism , typically with socialism as an intermediate stage . The idea that a proletarian revolution is needed is a cornerstone of Marxism ; Marxists believe that the workers of the world must unite and free themselves from capitalist oppression to create a world run by and for the working class . Thus , in the Marxist view , proletarian revolutions need to happen in countries all over the world .   Leninism argues that a communist revolution must be led by a vanguard of `` professional revolutionaries '' , men and women who are fully dedicated to the communist cause and who can then form the nucleus of the revolutionary movement . Some Marxists disagree with the idea of a vanguard as put forth by Lenin , especially left communists . Some who continue to consider themselves Marxist -- Leninists also oppose the vanguard despite disagreeing with the majority of left communism . These critics insist that the entire working class -- or at least a large part of it -- must be deeply involved and equally committed to the socialist or communist cause in order for a proletarian revolution to be successful . To this end , they seek to build massive communist parties with very large memberships .

neg: Donetsk Oblast Donetsk Oblast ( Доне́цька о́бласть , Donets ` ka oblast ' ; also referred to as Donechchyna -- Донеччина Donechchyna ; Доне́цкая о́бласть , Donetskaya oblast -LSB- dɐˈnʲɛtskəjə ˈobləsʲtʲ -RSB- ) is an oblast ( province ) of eastern Ukraine . It is the most populated oblast , with around 4.5 million residents . Its administrative center is Donetsk ; however , its Regional State Administration was relocated to Mariupol , a temporary measure due to the ongoing crisis in Donetsk . Historically , the region is an important part of the Donbas region . Until November 1961 , it bore the name Stalino Oblast , as its capital Donetsk was named Stalino in honour of Joseph Stalin at that time .   The oblast is known for its urban sprawl and is often associated with mining industry .   On April 7 , 2014 , following the annexation of Crimea by Russia , separatists occupying the Donetsk Oblast administrative building declared independence from Ukraine and held a referendum on separating from Ukraine on May 11 , 2014 . Subsequently , the War in Donbass started . After Donetsk was under control of the separatist government , the Donetsk Oblast administration was relocated to Mariupol , and later to Kramatorsk .

neg: Technological unemployment Technological unemployment is the loss of jobs caused by technological change . Such change typically includes the introduction of labour-saving `` mechanical-muscle '' machines or more efficient `` mechanical-mind '' processes ( automation ) . Just as horses employed as prime movers were gradually made obsolete by the automobile , humans ' jobs have also been affected throughout modern history . Historical examples include artisan weavers reduced to poverty after the introduction of mechanised looms . During World War II , Alan Turing 's Bombe machine compressed and decoded thousands of man-years worth of encrypted data in a matter of hours . A contemporary example of technological unemployment is the displacement of retail cashiers by self-service tills .   That technological change can cause short-term job losses is widely accepted . The view that it can lead to lasting increases in unemployment has long been controversial . Participants in the technological unemployment debates can be broadly divided into optimists and pessimists . Optimists agree that innovation may be disruptive to jobs in the short term , yet hold that various compensation effects ensure there is never a long-term negative impact on jobs . Whereas pessimists contend that at least in some circumstances , new technologies can lead to a lasting decline in the total number of workers in employment . The phrase `` technological unemployment '' was popularised by John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s . Yet the issue of machines displacing human labour has been discussed since at least Aristotle 's time .   Prior to the 18th century both the elite and common people would generally take the pessimistic view on technological unemployment , at least in cases where the issue arose . Due to generally low unemployment in much of pre-modern history , the topic was rarely a prominent concern . In the 18th century fears over the impact of machinery on jobs intensified with the growth of mass unemployment , especially in Great Britain which was then at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution . Yet some economic thinkers began to argue against these fears , claiming that overall innovation would not have negative effects on jobs . These arguments were formalised in the early 19th century by the classical economists . During the second half of the 19th century , it became increasingly apparent that technological progress was benefiting all sections of society , including the working class . Concerns over the negative impact of innovation diminished . The term `` Luddite fallacy '' was coined to describe the thinking that innovation would have lasting harmful effects on employment .   The view that technology is unlikely to lead to long term unemployment has been repeatedly challenged by a minority of economists . In the early 1800s these included Ricardo himself . There were dozens of economists warning about technological unemployment during brief intensifications of the debate that spiked in the 1930s and 1960s . Especially in Europe , there were further warnings in the closing two decades of the twentieth century , as commentators noted an enduring rise in unemployment suffered by many industrialised nations since the 1970s . Yet a clear majority of both professional economists and the interested general public held the optimistic view through most of the 20th century .   In the second decade of the 21st century , a number of studies have been released suggesting that technological unemployment may be increasing worldwide . Further increases are forecast for the years to come . While many economists and commentators still argue such fears are unfounded , as was widely accepted for most of the previous two centuries , concern over technological unemployment is growing once again . A report in Wired in 2017 quotes knowledgeable people such as economist Gene Sperling and management professor Andrew McAfee on the idea that handling existing and impending job loss to automation is a `` significant issue '' . Regarding a recent claim by a political appointee that automation is not `` going to have any kind of big effect on the economy for the next 50 or 100 years , '' says McAfee , `` I do n't talk to anyone in the field who believes that . '' Innovations like Watson have the potential to render humans obsolete with the professional , white-collar , low-skilled , creative fields , and other `` mental jobs '' .

neg: Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union Throughout the history of the Soviet Union ( 1922 -- 1991 ) , there were periods where Soviet authorities suppressed and persecuted various forms of Christianity to different extents depending on State interests . Soviet Marxist-Leninism policy consistently advocated the control , suppression , and ultimately , the elimination of religious beliefs , and actively encouraged atheism in the Soviet Union . Most religions were never outlawed .   The state advocated the destruction of religion , and it officially pronounced religious beliefs to be superstitious and backward . The Communist Party destroyed churches , mosques and temples , ridiculed , harassed , incarcerated and executed religious leaders , flooded the schools and media with anti-religious teachings , and it introduced a belief system called `` scientific atheism , '' with its own rituals , promises and proselytizers . In 1925 the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the persecution . The total number of Christian victims under the Soviet regime has been estimated to range between 12-20 million .   Religious beliefs and practices persisted among the majority of the population , in the domestic and private spheres but also in the scattered public spaces allowed by a state that recognized its failure to eradicate religion and the political dangers of an unrelenting culture war .

neg: East Siberian Railway The East Siberian Railway is a railway in Russia ( a branch of the Russian Railways and a part of the Trans-Siberian Railway ) , which runs across Irkutsk Oblast , Chita Oblast , Buryatia , and Yakutia . The railway administration is located in Irkutsk . The East Siberian Railway borders with the Krasnoyarsk Railway ( railway station of Yurty ) , Trans-Baikal Railway ( railway station of Petrovsky Zavod ) , and Baikal Amur Mainline ( railway station of Lena-Vostochnaya ) . To the south , the East Siberian Railway runs close to the Russo-Mongolian border ( railway station of Naushki ) . As of 2008 , the total working length of the East Siberian Railway was 3848.1 km ; number of employees -- 46,233 ( 61,418 in 2005 ) ; net weight hauled -- 76 million tonnes ( 75.934 million in 2005 ) ; long-distance passenger traffic -- 3.6 million people ( 4.838 million in 2005 ) ; suburban traffic -- 29 million people ( 26.225 million in 2005 ) . Annual cargo turnover is 278 million tonnes .   The East Siberian Railway consists of four divisions , namely the Irkutsk Railway Division , Severobaikalsk Railway Division , Taishet Railway Division , and Ulan-Ude Railway Division . The railway connects the regions of East Siberia , Transbaikal , and Russian Far East with the rest of the railroad network nationwide . The East Siberian Railway services major industrial areas of iron ore and coal mining , oil refining , logging and wood processing , companies and factories in energy , chemical , machine building and machine-tool industries , nonferrous metallurgy , etc. . In addition , the railway services agricultural grain-producing and cattle-breeding regions . The biggest points of cargo departure and arrival are Cheremkhovo , Korshunikha , Kitoy-Kombinatskaya , Sukhovskaya , Irkutsk-Sortirovochniy , Ulan-Ude , Lena , and Bratsk .

neg: Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis Media portrayals of the Ukrainian crisis , including 2014 unrest and the 2014 Ukrainian revolution following the Euromaidan movement , differed widely between Ukrainian , western and Russian media . In particular , the Russian media was accused of propagandizing , and of waging an information war during its coverage of the events . Russian channels were repeatedly criticized for the use of misleading images , false narratives , misrepresentation , suppression , and fabricated news stories , such as a child 's crucifixion and the death of a 10-year-old in shelling . The BBC reported that Russian state television `` appears to employ techniques of psychological conditioning designed to excite extreme emotions of aggression and hatred in the viewer '' , which , according to The Guardian , is part of a coordinated `` informational-psychological war operation '' .   A regular theme in the Russian media was that the Ukrainian army , which has many Russian-speaking members , was committing `` genocide '' against Russian-speakers and that they strongly desired Russia to `` protect '' them against Kiev . This presentation contradicted a poll showing that less than 20 % of eastern residents wanted Russia 's protection . There was also no refugee exodus from Kiev , which has a large Russian-speaking population . While asserting that Ukraine was overrun by fascists whom the western media was `` ignoring '' , Russia has forged close relationships with far-right politicians in the West . Its claims about Ukraine were contradicted by Ukrainian election results . Russian media have also denied the Holodomor , a Soviet-organised famine that killed millions of Ukrainians . They supported Russia 's denials of involvement in the Crimean crisis , until Vladimir Putin boasted about the key role of Russian soldiers , and continue denying its involvement in the war in Donbass , despite evidence that Russia regularly shelled across the border .

neg: Great Purge The Great Purge or the Great Terror was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union which occurred from 1936 to 1938 . It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and government officials , repression of peasants and the Red Army leadership , and widespread police surveillance , suspicion of `` saboteurs '' , `` counter-revolutionaries '' , imprisonment , and arbitrary executions . In Russian historiography , the period of the most intense purge , 1937 -- 1938 , is called Yezhovshchina ( Ежовщина literally , `` Yezhov phenomenon '' , According to the dictionary , the suffix - shchina in this case produces a word which refers to some kind of phenomenon associated with the word to which the suffix is attached . Quote : `` 1 . Словообразовательная единица , образующая имена существительные женского рода , которые обозначают бытовое или общественное явление , идейное или политическое течение , характеризующееся признаком , названным < ... > ''  Juraj Sipko ( Sipko J. Etnopsyholingvisticke predpoklady slovensko-ruskych a rusko-slovenskych porovnavani , Presov , 2003 ) comparing Russian and Slovak languages , points out that in Russian the suffix - shchina ( in meaning 1 given by Efremova ) most commonly bears openly negative or derisive connotations . commonly translated as `` times of Yezhov '' or `` doings of Yezhov '' ) , after Nikolai Yezhov , the head of the Soviet secret police , NKVD . Mobile gas vans were invented to kill people . It has been estimated between 600,000 and 3 million people died at the hands of the Soviet government during the Purge .   In the Western world , Robert Conquest 's 1968 book The Great Terror popularized that phrase . Conquest 's title was in turn an allusion to the period called the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution ( French : la Terreur , and , from June to July 1794 , la Grande Terreur , the Great Terror ) .

neg: Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert The Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert was held at the Dynama Stadium in Minsk , BSSR on April 23 and 24 , 1991 , five years after the nuclear reactor 's meltdown . The event featured bands from around the world and served to raise awareness of the terrible legacy of Chernobyl disaster as representatives from the United Nations and AEA met to discuss the causes and effects of the disaster with government officials . A documentary called Playing for Time ( Let the Requiem Begin ) about the concert and related issues was produced by Ian Stewart and narrated by Glenda Jackson .   Russian DJ Dimitri Korziouk became concerned about the aftermath of Chernobyl after visiting relatives in 1989 . He solicited the help of Liverpool 's Katharine Watford Cook , and together they came up with the idea to hold a benefit concert . As UK Production Manager , Cook contacted a colleague who managed Guy Pratt and Gary Wallis of Pink Floyd ( post Roger Waters era ) ; in return they went to Belarus with Korziouk to present the idea to Stanislav Shushkevich , an official head of the Supreme Soviet of BSSR . Later an agreement was signed between MAAP International and the Belarus Ministry of Culture . At the same time , MAAP International and the Daily Express Newspaper began administering the UK 's Children of Chernobyl Charity .   David A. Stewart from Eurythmics served as the charity 's chairman , and the UK artists involved included Echo & The Bunnymen , China Crisis , Lindisfarne band , Martin Chambers ( The Pretenders ) , Sian , The Big Still and The Real East . Bands from South Africa and the USA also participated , along with Russian stars , including Boris Grebenshchikov , DDT and Igor Talkov . Religious charities from the United States were also present .

neg: WASH-740 WASH-740 was a report published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( USAEC ) in 1957 . This report , called `` Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants '' ( also known as `` The Brookhaven Report '' ) , estimated maximum possible damage from a meltdown with no containment building at a large nuclear reactor .   The conclusions of this study estimated the possible effects of a `` maximum credible accident '' for nuclear reactors then envisioned as being 3400 deaths , 43,000 injuries and property damage of $ 7 billion ( $ 57bn adjusted for inflation in 2012 since 1957 ) . The estimate of probability was one in a hundred thousand to one in a billion per reactor-year . When WASH-740 was revised in 1964-65 to account for the larger reactors then being designed , the new figures indicated that there could be as many as 45,000 deaths , 100,000 injuries , and $ 17 billion in property damage ( $ 125bn adjusted for inflation since 1964 ) .   However ; the assumptions underlying the results were unrealistic ( including the worst meteorological conditions , no containment building , and that half the reactor core is released into the atmosphere as micrometre-sized pellets without any examination of how this might occur ) . These were due to conservatism ( estimating the maximum possible damage ) and the need to use atomic bomb fallout data , which had been collected from tests ( computers in 1955 being greatly insufficient to do the calculations ) .   As knowledge , models and computers improved the conclusions of this report were replaced by those of first WASH-1400 ( 1975 , The Rasmussen Report ) , then CRAC-II ( 1982 ) , and most recently NUREG-1150 ( 1991 ) . Now all of these studies are considered obsolete ( see the disclaimer to NUREG-1150 ) , and are being replaced by the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses study .

neg: Six-Year Plan Six-Year Plan ( 1950 -- 1955 ) was the second - after the Three-Year Plan ( 1947 -- 1949 ) - centralized plan of the People 's Republic of Poland . It concentrated on increasing the heavy industry sector .   By 1950 the Polish government was dominated by Stalinist hardliners , such as Hilary Minc , and liberal economists responsible for creation of the Three-Year Plan were no longer influencing government policy . The Six-Year Plan , designed to bring the economy of Poland in line with the Soviet economy , concentrated on heavy industrialization , with projects such as Nowa Huta . The plan was accepted by the Sejm on July 21 , 1950 . Later on , it was modified several times , and never fully completed .   Polish society paid a heavy price for badly thought-out and quick industrialization . Living standards were reduced , since investments in other fields , such as construction , were cut . In agriculture , the idea of collectivization was promoted , to the protests of Polish farmers . The plan was fashioned after similar Soviet plans , and was based on certain Soviet-style principles , such as central planning of economy , limiting the so-called Capitalist elements , and close cooperation with other Eastern Bloc nations . New urban districts were built in big cities , attracting residents of overpopulated villages . At the same time , however , the balance between supply and demand deepened , and shortages of basic products were common . As a result , rationing was re-introduced in the early 1950s .   The only real achievement of the Six-Year Plan was quick development of heavy industry . At the same time , however , other fields of Polish economy , such as services and food industry , remained underdeveloped , as all state funds were directed at construction of shipyards , steel plants , chemical plants and car factories . Among major investments of the plan are :   Skawina Aluminum Factory ,  development of Oswiecim Chemical Works ( formerly Buna Werke ) ,  development of Zaklady Azotowe Kedzierzyn ( formerly IG Farben Heydebreck ) ,  development of Synthetic Fibres Plant Stilon Gorzow Wielkopolski ( formerly IG Farben-Werks Landsberg ( Warthe ) ) ,  Shoe Factory at Nowy Targ ,  Lenin Steelworks at Nowa Huta ,  Warsaw Steelworks ,  FSO Warszawa ,  FSC Lublin ,  FSC Star at Starachowice ,  Wierzbica Cement Plant ,  development of Jaworzno Power Station ,  development of Czestochowa Steelworks ,  development of Gdansk Shipyard ( formerly Schichau-Werft and Danziger Werft ) ,  development of Szczecin Shipyard ( formerly AG Vulcan Stettin ) .   Category : Economic history of Poland  Category : Economic planning  Category :1950 s in Poland

neg: Andrei Kirilenko (politician) Andrei Pavlovich Kirilenko ( -LSB- Андре́й Па́влович Кириле́нко , p = ɐnˈdrʲej ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ kʲɪrʲɪˈlʲɛnkə -RSB- -- 12 May 1990 ) was a Soviet statesman from the start to the end of the Cold War . In 1906 , Kirilenko was born at Alexeyevka in Belgorod Oblast to a Ukrainian working-class family . He graduated in the 1920s from a local vocational school , and again in the mid-to-late 1930s from the Rybinsk Aviation Technology Institute . He became a member of the All-Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1930 . As many like him , Kirilenko climbed up the Soviet hierarchy through the `` industrial ladder '' ; by the 1960s , he was Vice-Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) . After Nikita Khrushchev 's forced resignation , Kirilenko became Leonid Brezhnev 's `` chief lieutenant '' within the Central Committee .   His main objective was to ensure Brezhnev 's power base and , if possible , to strengthen Brezhnev 's position within the Party . He was the first organisational secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) from Khrushchev 's ouster to the death of Leonid Brezhnev . Kirilenko was responsible for personnel selection and detailed supervision of the economic planning of the CPSU during most of the Brezhnev Era . In 1976 , Brezhnev appointed Konstantin Chernenko to be his `` counterweight '' in the Central Committee ( CC ) . He became a member of the Political Bureau ( Politburo ) in 1965 . He was forced to resign from active politics due to health reasons and because Yuri Andropov was appointed to the General Secretaryship . When Andropov became General Secretary in 1982 , Kirilenko was pushed aside . He died on 12 May 1990 in Moscow .

neg: List of World Heritage Sites in Northern and Central Asia The UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) has designated 19 World Heritage Sites in six countries ( also called `` state parties '' ) of Central and North Asia : Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan and the Asian part of Russia . The European part of Russia is included in Eastern Europe .   Russia is home to the most inscribed sites with 7 sites , one of which is a transborder property shared with Mongolia in Eastern Asia . The first site from the region was the Itchan Kala in Uzbekistan inscribed in 1990 . Each year , UNESCO 's World Heritage Committee may inscribe new sites on the list , or delist sites that no longer meet the criteria . Selection is based on ten criteria : six for cultural heritage ( i -- vi ) and four for natural heritage ( vii -- x ) . Some sites , designated `` mixed sites , '' represent both cultural and natural heritage . In Northern and Central Asia , there are 11 cultural , 8 natural , and no mixed sites . All of the Russian sites ( 7 ) are natural and with the exception of Sayarka , all of the sites in Central Asia are cultural .   The World Heritage Committee may also specify that a site is endangered , citing `` conditions which threaten the very characteristics for which a property was inscribed on the World Heritage List . '' None of the sites in this region has ever been listed as endangered , but possible danger listing has been considered by UNESCO in a number of cases .

neg: Origins of the Cold War The Origins of the Cold War are widely regarded to lie most directly in the relations between the Soviet Union and the allies ( the United States , Great Britain and France ) in the years 1945 -- 1947 . Those events led to the Cold War that endured for just under half a century .   Events preceding the Second World War , and even the Russian Revolution of 1917 , underlay pre -- World War II tensions between the Soviet Union , western European countries and the United States . A series of events during and after World War II exacerbated tensions , including the Soviet-German pact during the first two years of the war leading to subsequent invasions , the perceived delay of an amphibious invasion of German-occupied Europe , the western allies ' support of the Atlantic Charter , disagreement in wartime conferences over the fate of Eastern Europe , the Soviets ' creation of an Eastern Bloc of Soviet satellite states , western allies scrapping the Morgenthau Plan to support the rebuilding of German industry , and the Marshall Plan .


query: Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi was a painter.

pos: Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi ( -LSB- fʁedeʁik oɡyst baʁtɔldi -RSB- ; 2 August 1834 -- 4 October 1904 ) was a French sculptor who is best known for designing Liberty Enlightening the World , commonly known as the Statue of Liberty .

neg: Flemish painting Flemish painting flourished from the early 15th century until the 17th century . The term does not refer to modern Flanders but to the County of Flanders and neighbouring areas of the Low Countries such as the Tournaisis and Duchy of Brabant which delivered the leading painters in Northern Europe and attracted many promising young painters from other countries . These painters were invited to work at foreign courts and had a Europe-wide influence . Since the end of the Napoleonic era , Flemish painters had again been contributing to a reputation that had been set by the Old Masters .   The Franco-Flemish School of musical composition flourished at the same time .

neg: Aesthetics Aesthetics ( -LSB- ɛsˈθɛtɪks -RSB- or -LSB- i : sˈθɛtɪks -RSB- also spelled æsthetics and esthetics also known in Greek as Αισθητική , or `` Aisthētiké '' ) is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art , beauty , and taste , with the creation and appreciation of beauty .   In its more technically epistemological perspective , it is defined as the study of subjective and sensori-emotional values , sometimes called judgements of sentiment and taste . More broadly , scholars in the field define aesthetics as `` critical reflection on art , culture and nature '' . In modern English , the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory : one speaks , for example , of the Cubist aesthetic .

neg: Henry Barraud (artist) Henry Barraud ( 16 May 1811 -- 17 June 1874 ) was an English portrait , subject and animal painter .   Barraud was born in London , one of 17 children of William Francis Barraud ( 1783 -- 1833 ) , a clerk in the Custom House , and Sophia ( née ) Hull . His paternal grandfather was Paul Philip Barraud an eminent chronometer maker in Cornhill , and his maternal grandfather , Thomas Hull , a miniature painter . The family was of French Huguenot origin that had come over to England at the time of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes . His elder brother William Barraud became a notable animal painter . Another brother , Edward , also had a talent for art , but did not pursue it professionally .   Like his brother , Henry excelled in painting animals , but his works were chiefly portraits , with horses and dogs , and subject pictures , such as ` The Pope blessing the Animals ' ( painted in 1842 ) , many of which were executed in conjunction with his brother . He exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1833 to 1859 , and at the British Institution and Society of British Artists between the years 1831 and 1868 . The two brothers shared a studio from 1835 until William 's death in 1850 , and in their joint pictures William painted the animals and Henry the figures . They also produced a book entitled `` Sketches of Figures and Animals '' , ( H. Graves and Co. , c. 1850 ) .   Barraud 's most popular works were : `` We praise Thee , O God '' ; `` The London Season , a scene in Hyde Park '' ; `` Lord 's Cricket Ground '' ; and `` The Lobby of the House of Commons '' ( painted in 1872 ) , all of which were engraved or autotyped . He was also commissioned to paint several royal portraits .   Barraud died at his home in Gloucester Place , London on 17 June 1874 , in his sixty-fourth year .   His son Francis Barraud ( 1856 -- 1924 ) was also an artist -- best remembered for his painting of `` Nipper '' the dog on the `` His Master 's Voice '' record label . Another son Herbert Rose Barraud ( 1845 -- c1896 ) was a noted portrait photographer .

neg: Art of Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is a small , landlocked country north of Ghana and south of Mali and Niger . Economically , it is one of the four or five poorest countries in the world . Culturally , it is extremely rich . In part this is because so few people from Burkina have become Muslim or Christian . Many of the ancient artistic traditions for which Africa is so well known have been preserved in Burkina Faso because so many people continue to honor the ancestral spirits , and the spirits of nature . In great part they honor the spirits through the use of masks and carved figures . Many of the countries to the north of Burkina Faso had become predominantly Muslim , while many of the countries to the south of Burkina Faso are heavily Christian . In contrast many of the people of Burkina Faso continue to offer prayers and sacrifices to the spirits of nature and to the spirits of their ancestors . The result is that they continue to use the sorts of art that we see in museums in Europe and America .   One of the principal obstacles to understanding the art of Burkina Faso , including that of the Bwa , has been a confusion between the styles of the Bwa , `` gurunsi '' , and Mossi , and a confusion of the Bwa people with their neighbors to the west the Bobo people . This confusion was the result of the use by French colonial officers of Jula interpreters at the turn of the century . These interpreters considered the two peoples to be the same and so referred to the Bobo as `` Bobo-Fing '' and to the Bwa as `` Bobo-Oule . '' In fact , these two peoples are not related at all . Their languages are quite different , their social systems are quite different , and certainly their art is quite different . In terms of artistic styles the confusion stems from the fact that the Bwa , `` gurunsi ' '' and Mossi make masks that are covered with red white and black geometric graphic patterns . This is simply the style of the Voltaic or Gur peoples , and also includes the Dogon and other peoples who speak Voltaic languages .

neg: In the Conservatory __ NOTOC __   In the Conservatory ( French : Dans la serre ) is an 1879 oil painting by Édouard Manet in the Alte Nationalgalerie , Berlin . The setting is a conservatory at 70 in Paris , then owned by painter Otto Rosen and which Manet used as a studio for nine months in 1878 and 1879 . At first glance , we see a double portrait of a fashionable and attractive couple of some social rank . They are Manet 's friends , the Guillemets , who owned a clothing shop . Their married status is conveyed by their rings , and the proximity of their hands is the nearest hint of intimacy . The woman becomes the focus of the portrait , however , being more prominently placed and colourfully dressed . Their physical separation -- with the husband Jules slouching in dark clothing behind the bench -- and their lack of engagement with the viewer create a sense of detachment , which has been the primary theme in modern criticism of the work .   The painting was exhibited in the 1879 Paris Salon and was regarded as surprisingly conservative for Manet . Jules-Antoine Castagnary wrote , with tongue in cheek , `` But what is this ? Face and hands more carefully drawn than usual : is Manet making concessions to the public ? '' -- and said it portrayed `` the elegance of fashionable life '' . Yet the portrait is not entirely conventional -- the sense of dislocation carries to the background . Joris-Karl Huysmans called the subjects `` marvelously detached from the envelope of green surrounding them '' .  The interplay of lines formally defines the work . The woman has an erect posture echoed by the vertical slats of the bench , and the man , though leaning forward , does not break that vertical . The bench continues off the right side , reinforcing the horizontal and the separation of foreground and background . The diagonal pleats on the woman 's dress provide some relief from the linearity of the composition .   Jean-Baptiste Faure bought In the Conservatory from Manet , along with three other paintings , for the `` paltry sum '' of 11,000 francs .   In 1896 In the Conservatory was bought by the Deutsche Nationalgalerie in Berlin . The Nationalgalerie thus was the first museum worldwide that purchased a picture of Manet .   In 1945 by the end of the Second World War In the Conservatory was among the objects evacuated from the German National Gallery and the Berlin State Museums and put for safekeeping in a mine in Merkers . After the war the picture was discovered and secured by the Monuments Men . Its salvage was documented in several photographs which show soldiers from the U.S. Army posing with Manet 's painting in the mine in Merkers . These photographs have gained iconographic status over the years and are often falsely used as an illustration of Nazi looted art in prestigious publications like the Deutsche Welle , The Washington Post , The New York Times and even in academic papers .

neg: 27 rue de Fleurus 27 rue de Fleurus is the location of the former home of Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas in the 6th arrondissement of Paris on the Left Bank of Paris . It was also the home of Leo Stein for a time in the early nineteen-hundreds . It was a renowned Saturday evening gathering place for both expatriate American artists and writers and others noteworthy in the world of vanguard arts and letters , most notably Pablo Picasso . In the early decades of the century , hundreds of visitors flocked to the display of vanguard modern art , many came to scoff , but several went away converted .   Entrée into the Stein salon was a sought-after validation , and Stein became combination mentor , critic , and guru to those who gathered around her , including Ernest Hemingway , who described the salon in A Moveable Feast . The principal attraction was the collection of Paul Cézanne oils and watercolors and the early pictures by Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso which Gertrude and Leo had had the funds and the foresight to buy . The walls of their atelier at 27 were hung to the ceiling with now-famous paintings , the double doors of the dining room were lined with Picasso sketches . On a typical Saturday evening one would have found Gertrude Stein at her post in the atelier , garbed in brown corduroy , sitting in a high-backed Renaissance chair , her legs dangling , next to the big cast-iron stove that heated the chilly room . A few feet away , Leo Stein would expound to a group of visitors his views on modern art .   In 1933 , Stein published a kind of memoir of her Paris years , The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas , written in the voice of Toklas , her life partner . The book became a literary bestseller and vaulted Stein from the relative obscurity of cult literary figure into the light of mainstream attention .   The gatherings in the Stein home `` brought together confluences of talent and thinking that would help define modernism in literature and art . '' Dedicated attendees included Pablo Picasso , Ernest Hemingway , F. Scott Fitzgerald , Guillaume Apollinaire , Sinclair Lewis , James Joyce , Ezra Pound , Thornton Wilder , Juan Gris , Sherwood Anderson , Francis Cyril Rose , René Crevel , Élisabeth de Gramont , Francis Picabia , Claribel Cone , Mildred Aldrich , Carl Van Vechten and Henri Matisse . Saturday evenings had been set as the jour fixe for formal congregation so Stein could work at her writing uninterrupted by impromptu visitors . It was Stein 's partner Toklas who became the de facto hostess for the wives and girlfriends of the artists in attendance , who met in a separate room .   Stein herself attributed the beginnings of the Saturday evening salons to Matisse , as   Among Picasso 's acquaintances who frequented the Saturday evenings were : Fernande Olivier ( Picasso 's mistress ) , Georges Braque ( artist ) , André Derain ( artist ) , Max Jacob ( poet ) , Guillaume Apollinaire ( poet ) , Marie Laurencin ( artist , and Apollinaire 's mistress ) , Henri Rousseau ( painter ) , and Joseph Stella .   The 2014 opera 27 by Ricky Ian Gordon and Royce Vavrek is inspired by events at 27 rue de Fleurus .

neg: Jakob Salomon Bartholdy __ NOTOC __   Jakob Ludwig Salomon Bartholdy ( May 13 , 1779 -- July 27 , 1825 ) was a Prussian diplomat , born Jakob Salomon in Berlin of Jewish parentage , and educated at the University of Halle . He took the additional surname ` Bartholdy ' from a property owned by his family on his conversion to Christianity .   Bartholdy fought in the Austrian army against Napoleon , afterward entered the diplomatic service of Prussia , and accompanied the Allied armies to Paris in 1814 , whence he was dispatched to Rome in the following year as Prussian Consul-General . He was a great patron of the arts . The revival of fresco painting amongst young German artists in Italy was due largely to his patronage . A group of artists composed of Johann Friedrich Overbeck , Peter von Cornelius , Philipp Veit , and Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow decorated a room of his palace with frescoes . His valuable collection of antiques was bought for the Berlin Museum of Art , while the frescos of his mansion at Rome , the so-called Casa Zuccari , were transferred by Stefano Bardini in 1886-87 to the Berlin National Gallery .   Bartholdy 's sister Lea was married to Abraham Mendelssohn , and Bartholdy persuaded him to adopt his ` Christian ' surname ( which he took from a property owned by his family on his conversion to Christianity ) to differentiate the family from its connection with Abraham 's father , the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn .

neg: Paul Gustav Fischer Paul Gustav Fischer ( 22 July 1860 in Copenhagen -- 1 May 1934 in Gentofte ) was a Danish painter .   Paul Fischer belongs to the fourth generation of Fischers to live in Denmark . This Jewish family originally came from Poland . The family was upper middle class ; Paul 's father had started as a painter , but later succeeded in the business of manufacturing paints and lacquers .   His formal art education lasted only a short time in his mid teens when he spent two years at the Royal Danish Academy of Art in Copenhagen .   Fischer began to paint when he was still young , guided by his father . It was thanks to a painting he had published in Ude og Hjemme that his reputation began to evolve as he came in contact with young Danish naturalists . His earlier paintings depict city life . For this reason , he has been called `` Copenhagen 's painter '' or `` Københavns maler '' . After a stay in Paris from 1891 -- 1895 , his colours became richer and lighter . It was not long before Fischer gained fame as a painter of cities , not just Copenhagen , but scenes from Scandinavia , Italy and Germany , reaching his zenith between 1890 and 1910 . He benefited from contemporaries in Norway and Sweden , especially Carl Larsson . Around this time , he also painted bright , sunny bathing scenes , some with nude women , and developed an interest in posters , inspired by Théophile Steinlen and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec .   During the period when he actively painted , Danish art was dominated by Laurits Tuxen . Despite Fischer 's lack of critical recognition during his lifetime , his art sold well . One major event in which he succeeded over Tuxen was when Sweden transferred the sovereignty of Norway back to the Norwegians - Fischer rather than Tuxen got the commission from the King of Norway to paint the event .

neg: Iconophor An Iconophor , in graphic and print art , is a form of illustration ( usually book illustration ) characterized by the fact that the names of the objects represented in it start with a given letter . Its origins lie in medieval illuminations , though the abecedarian connection was usually coincidental in the Middle Ages .   Etymologically , `` iconophor '' comes from Greek , meaning `` bearer '' or `` transporter '' ( ... phor ) of image ( ikono . . ) . It seems that it was used formerly in Byzantine Christianity , to define an `` icon bearer '' , in a direct or symbolic sense .   The word iconophor was coined by Thora van Male , a French university professor ; her book , Art Dico , presents a historical panorama of the use of such illustrations in French dictionaries . She is currently working on a website to facilitate the study of iconophors ( ART DICO homepage ) .   thumb | Diderot & d'Alembert ( suppl ) A | right  thumb | Landais ( 1834 ) A | right   The principle of creating an art form around a letter , and illustrating it with items whose name starts with that letter is not a recent invention . Some of the artists who designed them are :  16th century : Hans Holbein ( according to Anatole de Courde de Montaiglon , the letters M to Z of Holbein 's Alphabet de la Mort are based on this principle ) ; Paulini ( certain passages of Ovid 's Metamorphoses )  17th century : Claude Mellan ( French ) ; Giuseppe Maria Mitelli ( Italian , Alfabeto in Sogno )  The principle is also commonly used in ABC primers , and often their very mainspring .   In the late 17th century illustrations of this type started appearing in the ornamentation of French dictionaries . The earliest of these was César de Rochefort 's Dictionnaire général et curieux ( 1685 ) ; the only iconophor in it is the ornamental initial letter at A , for Annunciation .   The first lexicographical work to be ornamented with iconophors from A to Z was the supplement to Diderot and d'Alembert 's Encyclopédie published in 1776 . Congruent with the full title of the Encyclopédie itself ( Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences , des arts et des métiers ) , many of the ornamental initial letters portray occupations . Here , A for astronomer .   When , in the 1830s , the illustrated press and illustrated books took off in western Europe , the iconophoric ornamentation of dictionaries also took off . The first dictionary with ornamental head-pieces ( as opposed to mere initial letters ) from A to Z was Napoléon Landais ' Dictionnaire général et grammatical ( 1834 ) . These wood-engraved headpieces were produced in one of the large Parisian wood-engraving shops , Andrew Best and Leloir . A for abondance , agriculture , aigle ( eagle ) , alouettes ( larks ) , amitié ( friendship ) , ara ( South American parrot ) , Arab , archer , arquebusier , astronomie , avare ( scrooge ) , aveugle ( blind person ) .   Category : Book design  Category : Illustration  Category : Typography

neg: Lion of Belfort The Lion of Belfort is a monumental sculpture by Frédéric Bartholdi , sculptor of the Statue of Liberty ( Liberty Enlightening the World ) in New York , located in Belfort , France .

neg: Jacqueline Nesti Joseph Jacqueline Nesti Joseph , a Haitian painter , was born in Port-au-Prince in 1932 . During a career of over 50 years , Jacqueline has had exhibitions all over the world including the Guggenheim in New York .  At a very young age Jacqueline moved to Paris to finish her studies . Thanks to the teachings of Claude Perset and a pupil of Georges Braque she settled in France and at the home of the artist Manfredo Borsi meeting André Verdet and the poet Jacques Prévert and artists such as Picasso , Chagall , and Magnelli . 1955 , saw a turning point for Jacqueline when she travelled to Mexico and was introduced to Diego Rivera -- who became her mentor and friend . Her return to Haiti inspired her intense work of painting where her homeland and surrounding landscapes are depicted in her work .   Returning to Europe she met and married her husband Victor Nesti both inseparable until his death ( R.I.P. 03/08/2008 ) , Victor Nesti , born in Soho , London was an astounding artist in his own right and after working as a chef at the Hotel Carlton , he studied at the academy of Belle Arti studying with the master Ottone Rosai . With a number of personal exhibitions and listed viewings in the most accomplished galleries and museums worldwide .

neg: Notre-Dame, une fin d'après-midi Notre-Dame , une fin d'après-midi ( `` A Glimpse of Notre-Dame in the Late Afternoon '' ) is a painting by Henri Matisse from 1902 . Its somber coloration is typical of Matisse 's works executed between the end of 1901 and the end of 1903 , a period of personal difficulties for the artist . This episode has been called Matisse 's Dark Period .   Between 1896 and 1901 , Matisse 's painting had progressed from the subdued tones of his earliest works to an intense colorism that prefigured the Fauvism to come . In 1896 and 1897 he had traveled to Brittany , where the Australian painter John Peter Russell encouraged him to paint en plein air . Through Russell he met Camille Pissarro , whose influence was decisive in making a colorist of Matisse . In 1898 he traveled to London , where he studied the works of J. M. W. Turner ; then , after a year spent in Corsica and Toulouse , he returned to Paris , where the startling boldness of his work was admired by other young artists . His paintings found few buyers , however , and his wife , Amélie , had to open a dress shop to support their household .   In May 1902 a major financial scandal , the Humbert Affair , unexpectedly ensnared Amélie 's family . Her mother was the Humbert family 's housekeeper , and both she and her husband became scapegoats in the scandal . As a result , Matisse was forced to spend much of his time during the next year dealing with lawyers and journalists . His studio was searched by detectives , and his wife 's family was menaced by angry mobs of fraud victims . According to art historian Hilary Spurling , `` their public exposure , followed by the arrest of his father-in-law , left Matisse as the sole breadwinner for an extended family of seven . This is why he switched to painting canvases that were at least potentially saleable '' .   Inspired by Rodin and Barye , Matisse struggled to master volume in sculpture as well as in painting . He darkened his palette , with the results seen in the present work , and in such paintings as Carmelina ( 1903 , in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston ) .   The medium is oil on paper mounted on canvas and it measures 72.5 × 54.5 cm ( 28 1/2 × 21 1/2 in ) . The painting is in the Albright -- Knox Art Gallery , Buffalo , New York .

neg: Auguste Toulmouche Auguste Toulmouche ( September 21 , 1829 -- October 16 , 1890 ) was a French painter who painted in the academic realism style . This trend in art was towards realism but also towards greater idealism , which is contrary to realism . The figures depicted were made more abstract and idealized . His themes were in the Regency revival style of genre painting . This would involve both generalizing the forms seen in nature , and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork .   He studied with Charles Gleyre and is known mainly for his portraits of Parisian women ; Émile Zola spoke of `` Toulmouche 's delicious dolls . ''  He was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour .

neg: Frederic Shields Frederic James Shields ( 14 March 1833 -- 26 February 1911 ) was a British artist , illustrator and designer closely associated with the Pre-Raphaelites through Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Ford Madox Brown .

neg: Section d'Or The Section d'Or ( `` Golden Section '' ) , also known as Groupe de Puteaux ( or Puteaux Group ) , was a collective of painters , sculptors , poets and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism . Based in the Parisian suburbs , the group held regular meetings at the home of the Duchamp brothers in Puteaux and at the studio of Albert Gleizes in Courbevoie . Active from 1911 to around 1914 , members of the collective came to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the Salon des Indépendants in the spring of 1911 . This showing by Albert Gleizes , Jean Metzinger , Robert Delaunay , Henri le Fauconnier , Fernand Léger and Marie Laurencin ( at the request of Apollinaire ) , created a scandal that brought Cubism to the attention of the general public for the first time .   The Salon de la Section d'Or , held October 1912 -- the largest and most important public showing of Cubist works prior to World War I -- exposed Cubism to a wider audience still . After the war , with support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg , Cubism returned to the front line of Parisian artistic activity . Various elements of the Groupe de Puteaux would mount two more large-scale Section d'Or exhibitions , in 1920 and in 1925 , with the goal of revealing the complete process of transformation and renewal that had transpired since the onset of Cubism .   The group seems to have adopted the name `` Section d'Or '' as both an homage to the mathematical harmony associated with Georges Seurat , and to distinguish themselves from the narrower style of Cubism developed in parallel by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in the Montmartre quarter of Paris . In addition , the name was to highlight that Cubism , rather than being an isolated art-form , represented the continuation of a grand tradition : indeed , the golden ratio , or golden section ( Section d'Or ) had fascinated Western intellectuals of diverse interests for at least 2,400 years .

neg: Style (visual arts) In the visual arts , style is a '' ... distinctive manner which permits the grouping of works into related categories '' . or '' ... any distinctive , and therefore recognizable , way in which an act is performed or an artifact made or ought to be performed and made '' . It refers to the visual appearance of a work of art that relates it to other works by the same artist or one from the same period , training , location , `` school '' , art movement or archaeological culture : `` The notion of style has long been the art historian 's principal mode of classifying works of art . By style he selects and shapes the history of art '' .   Style is often divided into the general style of a period , country or cultural group , group of artists or art movement , and the individual style of the artist within that group style . Divisions within both types of styles are often made , such as between `` early '' , `` middle '' or `` late '' . In some artists , such as Picasso for example , these divisions may be marked and easy to see , in others they are more subtle . Style is seen as usually dynamic , in most periods always changing by a gradual process , though the speed of this varies greatly , between the very slow development in style typical of prehistoric art or ancient Egyptian art to the rapid changes in modern art styles . Style often develops in a series of jumps , with relatively sudden changes followed by periods of slower development .   After dominating academic discussion in art history in the 19th and early 20th centuries , so-called `` style art history '' has come under increasing attack in recent decades , and many art historians now prefer to avoid stylistic classifications where they can .

neg: Art Nouveau furniture Furniture created in the Art Nouveau style was prominent from the late 19th century to the advent of the First World War . Unlike furniture made by the British Arts and Crafts movement , from which it emerged in stylistic respects , most Art Nouveau furniture was produced in factories by normal manufacturing techniques , which led to tensions with Arts and Crafts figures in England , who criticised continental Art Nouveau furniture for not being '' ` honestly ' constructed . It also tended to be expensive , as a fine finish , usually polished or varnished , was regarded as essential , and continental designs were usually very complex , with curving shapes that were expensive to make . It by no means entirely replaced other styles of furniture , which continued to be popular , with Art Nouveau styles largely restricted to an expensive `` art furniture '' category . The style was named for Siegfried Bing 's Maison de l'Art Nouveau gallery and shop in Paris , which opened in 1895 , and in France and Belgium furniture designers took up the style with more enthusiasm than those of most countries .   Several notable designers were architects who designed furniture for specific buildings they had also designed , a way of working inherited from the Arts and Crafts movement ; these include Charles Rennie Mackintosh , Antoni Gaudí , Hector Guimard and Victor Horta . Mackintosh 's furniture was relatively austere and geometrical , marked by elongated dimensions and right-angles . Continental designs were much more elaborate , often using curved shapes both in the basic shapes of the piece , and in applied decorative motifs . In many ways the old vocabulary and techniques of classic French 18th-century Rococo furniture were re-interpreted in a new style . Luxury veneers were used in the furniture of leading cabinetmakers Georges de Feure and others .   Alphonse Mucha produced a few designs , but was little involved with production . The École de Nancy ( School of Nancy in France ) , the Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna and the Deutscher Werkbund were groupings including many designers of Art Nouveau furniture . The Exposition Universelle de Paris in 1900 was an important showcase for designers , and the Prima Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna at Turin in 1902 heavily featured the work of furniture designer Carlo Bugatti of Milan .

neg: Tomasz Rut Tomasz Rut ( pronounced root ) was born in 1961 and raised in Warsaw , Poland , the son of an Olympic athlete father and artist mother who together encouraged a love of art and the classics . During his childhood Rut was introduced to the Pompeiien Frescos as well as Renaissance and Baroque art , which have influenced his oils on canvas , murals , and graphic works . Rut had his first showing in Warsaw at the age of eleven .   Trained in Art Conservation at the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw , Rut continued his education in New York City at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn and at Columbia University in Manhattan . He eventually took a job in art conservation for the Biltmore House in Asheville , North Carolina , traveling the east coast restoring large scale murals in museums and mansions for such clients as the Smithsonian Institution and the U.S. Treasury Department in Washington , DC , the New Jersey State House in Trenton , the Gusman Center for the Arts and Vizcaya Museum in Miami .   It was during these travels he began to notice the void of figurative paintings from the past that one could purchase , so Rut invented a style aimed at filling this void . This style incorporated cracked canvasses that mimic aged Italian frescoes and figurative oils . `` The one element evident in all of my paintings is the superficial patina or aging , '' which is created with a variety of transparent and semitransparent glazes , giving each work the aged and classic appearance that exemplifies Rut 's style .   Rut 's mural size paintings are contemporary conversions of the classical vocabulary variously continued by Michelangelo , Raphael , Titian , and Rubens . In making them he returns to antiquity by a double detour . First , he sets in motion the charming unreal apparatus of the Quattrocento mise-en-scene , and more importantly its heroic nudity , vigorous modeling , expressive anatomic structure , powerful movement and fascinating physiognomy . Tinged with sadness , his super-human youths play once more on Arcadian pipes ( i.e. pan flute ) - a motif also reprised by Matisse . Alternatively , he offers us impossible delicate , gracile females - ` still unravished bride ( s ) of quietness ' - delimiting them with sylvan togas and braided tresses . Nor does he leave rearing steeds , which in the grand manner represent humanity 's turbulent passions .   Dorothy Keane-White , Art Curator & Director for Northwood University .   The subjects of Rut 's paintings , whether a figure , horse , or object , is at the center of every work , surrounded by compressed space with few background details to distract from the subject .

neg: The Fortune Teller (de La Tour) The Fortune Teller is an oil painting of circa 1630 by the French artist Georges de La Tour . The work was uncovered in about 1960 and purchased that year by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York . François Georges Pariset described the painting in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin , attributing it to La Tour -- a likely choice given the calligraphic signature at top right : `` G. de La Tour Fecit Luneuilla Lothar '' ( `` G -LSB- eorges -RSB- de La Tour made this , Lunéville , Lorraine '' ) . Its authenticity has been questioned in the intervening years , notably by the English art historian Christopher Wright , but The Fortune Teller is generally accepted as La Tour 's work . The artist is better known for his chiaroscuro religious compositions , in which the figures are illuminated by a single light source and lack the elaborate costume detail of the The Fortune Teller 's characters .   The painting catches a moment in which a young man of some wealth is having his fortune told by the old woman at right ; she takes the coin from his hand , not only in payment , but as part of the ritual in which she will cross his hand with it . Most or all of the women portrayed are gypsies , and , furthering the stereotype of the time , they are depicted as thieves . As the young man is engrossed in the fortune-telling -- an act which , if discovered , would have repercussions for both him and the gypsies -- the leftmost woman is stealing the coin purse from his pocket , while her companion in profile has a hand ready to receive the loot . The pale-faced girl on the boy 's left is less clearly a gypsy , but is also in on the act as she cuts a medal worn by the boy from its chain . The figures in the painting are close together , as if in a play , and the composition may have been influenced by a theatrical scene .   The modern discovery of the painting is said to be traced to a French prisoner of war who viewed La Tour 's works in a monograph and found a likeness with a painting hung in a relative 's castle . A knowledgeable priest identified it as a La Tour work and informed the Louvre , which entered negotiations to buy the painting . The art dealer Georges Wildenstein outbid the museum , however , purchasing the painting in 1949 for 7.5 million francs . For a decade it remained with the dealer , until in 1960 the Metropolitan Museum of Art paid an undisclosed but `` very high sum of money '' for The Fortune Teller . How the painting had been able to leave France became a matter of controversy in the French press , and the writer André Malraux , then French Minister of Culture , attempted to explain to the National Assembly why the work did not end up in the Louvre . It later emerged that the export licence was signed by the art historian Germain Bazin , who was head of old master paintings at the Louvre ; Wright speculates that he had sufficient doubt about the work not to want it for the Louvre .

neg: Alfred Stevens (painter) Alfred Émile Léopold Stevens ( 11 May 182324 August 1906 ) was a Belgian painter , known for his paintings of elegant modern women .   Alfred Stevens was born in Brussels . He came from a family involved with the visual arts : his older brother Joseph ( 1816 -- 1892 ) and his son Léopold ( 1866 -- 1935 ) were painters , while another brother Arthur ( 1825 -- 99 ) was an art dealer and critic . His father , who had fought in the Napoleonic wars in the army of William I of the Netherlands , was an art collector who owned several watercolors by Eugène Delacroix , among other artists . His mother 's parents ran Café de l'Amitié in Brussels , a meeting place for politicians , writers , and artists . All the Stevens children benefited from the people they met there , and the social skills they acquired in growing up around important people .