query: Deadpool only appears in DC Comics.

pos: X-Force X-Force ' is a fictional team of superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics , most commonly in association with the X-Men . Conceived by writer/illustrator Rob Liefeld , the team first appeared in New Mutants # 100 ( April 1991 ) and soon afterwards was featured in its own series called X-Force '' . The group was originally a revamped version of the 1980s team , the New Mutants .   X-Force 's first leader was the mutant Cable . An offshoot of the X-Men , X-Force takes a more militant and aggressive approach towards its enemies compared to the X-Men .

pos: New Mutants The New Mutants are a group of teenaged mutant superheroes-in-training appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . They have been the main characters of three successive comic book series , which were spin-offs of the X-Men franchise .   The first team of New Mutants characters was created by Chris Claremont and artist Bob McLeod . They first appeared in 1982 's Marvel Graphic Novel # 4 and are subsequently featured in their own title from 1983 until 1991 . Like its parent title , The New Mutants highlighted interpersonal and group conflict as well as action and adventure , and featured a large ensemble cast , including the introduction of cult figure Deadpool . With the end of the first series , the characters were relaunched as X-Force in a new , eponymous series .   The second New Mutants series , launched in 2003 , featured a new group of teenage mutants . Unlike the original New Mutants , they were part of a huge cast of students at the Xavier Institute . In 2004 , it was relaunched as New X-Men : Academy X , after which the central group was formally dubbed the `` New Mutants . '' In the aftermath of the `` M-Day '' crossover storyline in late 2005 , the remaining students were merged into one junior team , the New X-Men .   The third New Mutants series , reuniting most of the original team , was launched in May 2009 .   A New Mutants film was announced in May 2015 .

pos: Cable & Deadpool Cable & Deadpool was a comic book series published by Marvel Comics beginning in 2004 . The title characters , Cable and Deadpool , shared the focus of the book . The series was launched following the cancellation of the characters ' previous ongoing solo series . The book 's mix of humor , action , and intricate plotting have won it a devoted fanbase . Marvel Comics canceled the series with issue # 50 to make way for a new Deadpool ongoing series that began on September 10 , 2008 , and a new Cable ongoing series that was launched in March 2008 . Cable & Deadpool were ranked # 7 on Marvel.com 's list of `` The 10 Greatest Buddy Teams '' of all time .

pos: Deadpool Deadpool ( Wade Winston Wilson ) is a fictional antihero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . Created by artist/writer Rob Liefeld and writer Fabian Nicieza , the character first appeared in The New Mutants # 98 ( cover-dated February 1991 ) . Initially Deadpool was depicted as a supervillain when he made his first appearance in The New Mutants and later in issues of X-Force , but later evolved into his more recognizable antiheroic persona . Deadpool , whose real name is Wade Wilson , is a disfigured and mentally unstable mercenary with the superhuman ability of an accelerated healing factor and physical prowess . The character is known as the `` Merc with a Mouth '' because of his talkative nature and tendency to break the fourth wall , which is used by writers for humorous effect and running gags .   The character 's popularity has seen him feature in numerous other media . In the 2004 series Cable & Deadpool , he refers to his own scarred appearance as `` Ryan Reynolds crossed with a Shar Pei '' . Reynolds himself would eventually portray the character in the 2009 film X-Men Origins : Wolverine and reprised the role in the 2016 film Deadpool .

pos: Deadpool (film) Deadpool is a 2016 American superhero film directed by Tim Miller and written by Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name . It is the eighth installment and a spin-off in the X-Men film series , and stars Ryan Reynolds as the titular character , as well as Morena Baccarin , Ed Skrein , T. J. Miller , Gina Carano , Leslie Uggams , Brianna Hildebrand , and Stefan Kapičić . In the film , antihero Deadpool hunts the man who nearly destroyed his life while also trying to reunite with his lost love .   Development began in February 2004 with New Line Cinema , but moved in March 2005 to 20th Century Fox who bought the film rights . In May 2009 , after Reynolds portrayed the character in X-Men Origins : Wolverine , to the general disappointment of fans , Fox lent the film to writers , and Miller was hired for his directorial debut in April 2011 . Enthusiastic acclaim for leaked CGI test footage by Miller in July 2014 led to Fox greenlighting the film in September . Additional casting began in early 2015 , and principal photography commenced in Vancouver from March to May .   Deadpool premiered in Paris on February 8 , 2016 , and was released on February 12 in the United States in IMAX , DLP , D-Box , and premium large format . Critics praised Reynolds ' performance as well as the film 's style , faithful depiction of the titular character , and action sequences , but criticized its plot as formulaic . It received various awards and nominations , including two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , and a Producers Guild of America Award nomination for Best Theatrical Motion Picture . It also won two Critics ' Choice Movie Awards for Best Comedy and Best Actor in a Comedy .   The film was also a significant commercial success , grossing over $ 783million worldwide and breaking numerous box-office records , becoming the ninth highest-grossing film of 2016 , the highest-grossing R-rated film of all time when unadjusted for inflation , and the highest-grossing X-Men film . Shortly after the film 's success , Fox ordered development of a sequel scheduled to be released on June 1 , 2018 .

neg: Dark Circle The Dark Circle is a fictional criminal organization in that appears in comic books from DC Comics , primarily part of the Legion of Super-Heroes comic books . They first appeared in 1968 , created by Jim Shooter as a criminal organization founded by five members and populated by a multitude of clones of the original five members .   The Dark Circle concept was later modified to consist of members from five core worlds instead of clones . A later version , after DC Comics rebooted their history , was led by Brainiac 4 and had several known Legion of Super-Heroes enemies among their ranks instead of the previous generic masked henchmen .

neg: Superman/Fantastic Four Superman/Fantastic Four , subtitled `` The Infinite Destruction , '' is an intercompany comic book jointly published by DC Comics and Marvel Comics in July 1999 . The tale unites DC 's first superhero Superman and Marvel 's first superhero team , the Fantastic Four -- pitting them against the Cyborg Superman ( who gained notoriety in 1993 during DC 's `` Reign of the Supermen '' story arc ) and the longtime FF foe Galactus .   It was written by Dan Jurgens , with art by Jurgens and Art Thibert . The cover features painted art by Alex Ross , based on a layout by Jurgens .

neg: Java (comics) Java is a fictional DC Comics supervillain .

neg: Death (comics) Death , in comics , may refer to :   Comic book death , the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry :  List of dead comic book characters  The personification of death :  Death ( DC Comics )  Death ( Marvel Comics )  Death , a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse   Other characters :  Death Adder ( comics ) , a Marvel supervillain  Death 's Head , a Marvel UK character  Death 's - Head ( comics ) , a Marvel character and enemy of Daredevil  Death Metal ( comics ) , a Marvel UK character  Death Squad ( comics ) , a Marvel Comics team of supervillains  Death-Stalker , a Marvel character  Death Wreck , a Marvel character  Doctor Death ( comics ) , a DC supervillain  Black Death ( comics ) , a Marvel supervillain  Lady Death  Lady Deathstrike   Storylines :  The Death of Superman  Death of Buffy ( Buffy comic )

neg: Events from the Modern Age of Comic Books One of the key aspects of the Modern Age of Comic Books was that it was the beginning of big events . In 1984 , Marvel Comics debuted the first large crossover , Secret Wars , a storyline featuring the company 's most prolific superheroes , which overlapped into a 12-issue limited series and many monthly comic books . A year later , DC Comics introduced its first large scale crossover , Crisis on Infinite Earths , which had long-term effects on the `` DC Universe '' continuity .   In the early and mid-1990s , big events were regularly published by Marvel and DC , often leading to extra publicity and sales . These events helped fend-off competition from Image Comics , and such events were more likely to become `` collector 's items . '' Some events , such as DC 's `` Zero Hour '' and Marvel 's `` Onslaught saga '' spanned a publisher 's entire line while others only affected a `` family '' of interrelated titles . The X-Men and Batman franchises featured crossovers almost annually .   Some of the most significant mid-1990s events , such as Spider-Man 's `` Clone Saga , '' Batman 's `` Batman : Knightfall '' and particularly , `` The Death of Superman '' caused dramatic changes to long-running characters and received coverage in the mainstream media .   These events led to significant sales boosts and publicity , but many fans began to criticize them as excessive and lacking compelling storytelling . They also complained that monthly series had become inaccessible because one had to follow a number of comics to understand the full storyline . By the end of the 1990s , the number of large crossovers decreased , but they were still launched sporadically .

neg: Hammerhead (comics) Hammerhead is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . He is primarily an enemy of Spider-Man and a member of organized crime who exists in Marvel 's main shared universe , known as the Marvel Universe .   He is closely associated with the Hammerhead `` Family '' , a Maggia crime family . Hammerhead distinguishes himself from other villains in that he dresses up and acts somewhat like a gangster from the 1920s . Due to an injury he suffered , much of his skull was replaced with an unbendable steel alloy by Jonas Harrow , giving his head a flattened shape .

neg: Puff Adder (comics) Puff Adder ( Gordon Fraley ) is fictional character , a mutant supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . He made his debut in Captain America # 337 ( January 1988 ) , created by writer Mark Gruenwald and artist Tom Morgan . The character is depicted primarily as a member of the Serpent Society .   Fraley made his debut as Puff Adder as part of the fourth version of the Serpent Squad alongside Copperhead , Fer-de-Lance and Black Racer , robbing a casino in Las Vegas . The heist was a ploy to gain acceptance into the Serpent Society by Society leader Sidewinder . Once part of the Society they help Viper take control of the Serpent Society and support her in a plot to take control of the President of the United States . The plot is eventually foiled by Captain America and several members of the Serpent Society who remained loyal to Sidewinder . After Viper is defeated the Serpent Society is reformed and Puff Adder becomes a regular member of the group . He later becomes a member of Serpent Solutions as the Serpent Society was reorganized .

neg: Firefly (DC Comics) Firefly is the name of two fictional supervillains appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics , with both being enemies of Batman .

neg: All Star DC Comics All Star was an imprint of ongoing comic book titles published by American company DC Comics that ran from 2005 to 2008 . DC has published two titles under the All-Star banner , featuring Batman and Superman .   The premise of the imprint was to partner DC Comics ' top tier characters with the most popular and acclaimed writers and artists . The creators had access to all elements in the characters ' histories to present their interpretation for a modern audience that have not read these DC characters ' comics previously , or had not seen them lately . The creative teams were not beholden to any previous and present continuities , and told stories that featured `` the most iconic versions of these characters '' .   The project had been compared to the Ultimate line of Marvel Comics , which was a successful attempt to re-introduce Marvel 's most popular characters to a new generation of readers by presenting new , updated versions unburdened by decades of plotlines . There were several differences between the two imprints , though . While the Ultimate titles have closely interrelated storylines , of the two All-Star series released , there has been no effort to make them conform to each other or indicate they exist in the same continuity . Another is that All-Star did not seek to introduce brand new versions of the characters so much as to present them in unhindered continuity . Robin 's origin was the only one `` rebooted '' in this imprint .   Some observers , and DC themselves , had pointed to the return of DC 's major film franchises as an impetus for All-Star . `` No one can doubt that some kind of continuity shedding is necessary with Superman and Batman coming to the big screens , '' the website Comicon.com wrote . `` Moviegoers entertained by these films would find the current comics storylines impenetrable '' .   With the end of Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely 's All-Star Superman and the rebranding of Frank Miller and Jim Lee 's All Star Batman and Robin as Dark Knight : Boy Wonder as well as the introduction of the DC : Earth One line of OGNs , the imprint is effectively defunct .

neg: André LeBlanc André LeBlanc is a fictional character in DC Comics .

neg: Ultimate Nick Fury General Nicholas Joseph `` Nick '' Fury is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics ' Ultimate Marvel section as a different version of Nick Fury . He has a substantial presence in all the Ultimate Marvel comics , appearing first in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up and Ultimate X-Men and later reappearing regularly in Ultimate Spider-Man and finally securing a regular , recurring role as the general of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the leader of the Ultimates , a re-imagining of the Avengers . His character was redesigned to look like Samuel L. Jackson , the actor who later went on to portray Nick Fury in several Marvel movies and television shows set in the established Marvel Cinematic Universe .

neg: Jericho (comics) Jericho ( real name Joseph William Wilson ) is a fictional character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics . The character was originally a superhero and member of the Teen Titans during The New Teen Titans period by Marv Wolfman and George Pérez . Since the early 1990s , Jericho has gone through periods of both sanity and insanity .

neg: Action Comics Action Comics is an American comic book series that introduced Superman , one of the first major superhero characters as the term is popularly defined . The publisher was originally known as National Allied Publications , and later as National Comics Publications and as National Periodical Publications , before taking on its current name of DC Comics . Its original incarnation ran from 1938 to 2011 and stands as one of the longest-running comic books with consecutively numbered issues . A second volume of Action Comics with issue # 1 ran from 2011 to 2016 . Action Comics returned to its original numbering beginning with issue # 957 ( Aug. 2016 ) .

neg: Wild Huntsman (comics) The Wild Huntsman is a fictional superhero published by DC Comics . He first appeared in Super Friends # 45 ( June 1981 ) , and was created by E. Nelson Bridwell and Romeo Tanghal .

neg: Blitzkrieg (DC Comics) Blitzkrieg was a short-lived 1970s war-themed comic book published by DC Comics .

neg: Thomas Jagger Tommy Jagger is a fictional character in the DC Universe . He first appeared in Checkmate Volume 2 # 1 , and was created by Greg Rucka and Jesus Saiz .

neg: Death's Head Death 's Head is a fictional character appearing in British comics and American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is depicted as a robotic bounty hunter ( or rather , as he calls himself , a `` freelance peace-keeping agent '' ) . The character was created by writer Simon Furman and artist Geoff Senior for the company 's Marvel UK imprint . Furman decided to use Death 's Head in his Transformers stories , but believed that characters appearing in Transformers `` were prone to be absorbed into that title 's catchall copyright '' ( allowing Hasbro to contest their ownership ) and led to a one-page strip titled `` High Noon Tex '' ( which was subsequently published in various Marvel UK titles ) being hastily created to establish Marvel 's ownership of the character . Furman has stated that he chose the name Death 's Head for the character while unaware of the `` Nazi-connotations of the name '' .   The character was later redesigned and relaunched as Death 's Head II , acting as one of the flagship characters for Marvel UK 's 1990s expansion . This version of Death 's Head also inspired two spin-off characters , Death Wreck and Death Metal , each of which starred in its own limited series .   Later , in 2005 , fans used a poll on Marvel 's website to vote for the character 's return . This led to a third version of Death 's Head , Death 's Head 3.0 , created by original Death 's Head writer Simon Furman . Simon Furman said in 2011 that the character was still popular because `` he 'll never change or compromise or grow or repent or agonise like most comic book characters . He 's this unchanging , uncompromising rock that other characters bounce off . But you still kind of love him . Weird . ''

neg: Dark X-Men The Dark X-Men are a fictional team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . They made their debut during the crossover between Dark Avengers and Uncanny X-Men written by Matt Fraction , as part of the broader Dark Reign storyline . Each member but Namor has been handpicked by then -- H.A.M.M.E.R. director Norman Osborn for his own criminal agenda .   The team was never officially called the `` Dark X-Men '' ( which was the name of the comics series , not the team ) . Instead , they were simply called the `` X-Men '' and were a government-sponsored team trying to take advantage of the name recognition of Charles Xavier 's X-Men , to which they had no official connection ( much like Osborn 's Avengers team was pretending to be the real Avengers ) .

neg: Marvel Zombies Marvel Zombies is a five-issue limited series published from December 2005 to April 2006 by Marvel Comics . The series was written by Robert Kirkman with art by Sean Phillips and covers by Arthur Suydam . It was the first series in the Marvel Zombies series of related stories . The story is set in an alternate universe where the world 's superhero population has been infected with a virus which turned them into zombies . The series was spun out of events of the `` Crossover '' story-arc of Ultimate Fantastic Four , where the zombie Reed Richards tricked his Ultimate counterpart into opening a portal to the zombie universe .

neg: Hulk 2099 Hulk 2099 ( John Eisenhart ) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character was created by Gerard Jones and Dwayne Turner and first appeared in 2099 Unlimited # 1 . As with many other Marvel 2099 characters , Hulk 2099 was a futuristic re-imagining of the original Hulk .


query: Jennifer Jason Leigh had a role in a film.

pos: Fast Times at Ridgemont High Fast Times at Ridgemont High is a 1982 American coming-of-age comedy film written by Cameron Crowe , adapted from his 1981 book of the same name . Crowe went undercover at Clairemont High School in San Diego and wrote about his experiences .   The film was directed by Amy Heckerling ( in her directorial debut ) and chronicles a school year in the lives of sophomores Stacy Hamilton ( Jennifer Jason Leigh ) and Mark Ratner ( Brian Backer ) , and their respective older friends Linda Barrett ( Phoebe Cates ) and Mike Damone ( Robert Romanus ) , both of whom believe themselves wiser in the ways of romance than their younger counterparts . The ensemble cast of characters form two subplots with Jeff Spicoli ( Sean Penn ) , a stoned surfer , facing off against uptight history teacher Mr. Hand ( Ray Walston ) , and Stacy 's brother , Brad ( Judge Reinhold ) , a senior who works at a series of entry-level jobs in order to pay off his car , and who is pondering ending his relationship with his girlfriend ( Amanda Wyss ) , until she dumps him .   In addition to Penn , Reinhold , Cates and Leigh , the film marks early appearances by several actors who later became stars , including Nicolas Cage , Forest Whitaker , Eric Stoltz , and Anthony Edwards . Among these actors , Penn , Cage , and Whitaker would later win the Academy Award for Best Actor , with Penn winning twice .   In 2005 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' .

pos: Margot at the Wedding Margot at the Wedding is a 2007 bittersweet comedy film written and directed by Noah Baumbach . The film premiered on August 31 , 2007 at the 34th Telluride Film Festival .

pos: Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle is a 1994 American film scripted by screenwriter/director Alan Rudolph and former Washington Star reporter Randy Sue Coburn . Directed by Rudolph , it starred Jennifer Jason Leigh as the writer Dorothy Parker and depicted the members of the Algonquin Round Table , a group of writers , actors and critics who met almost every weekday from 1919 to 1929 , at Manhattan 's Algonquin Hotel .   The film was an Official Selection at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Palme d'Or . The film was a critical but not a commercial success .   Peter Benchley , who played editor Frank Crowninshield , was the grandson of Robert Benchley , the humorist who once worked underneath Crowninshield . Actor Wallace Shawn was the son of William Shawn , the longtime editor of The New Yorker .

pos: Anomalisa Anomalisa is a 2015 American adult stop motion animated comedy-drama film directed and produced by Charlie Kaufman and Duke Johnson , based on Kaufman 's 2005 play Anomalisa . It was released on 30 December 2015 , by Paramount Pictures . The film follows a lonely customer service expert ( voiced by David Thewlis ) who perceives everyone ( Tom Noonan ) as identical until he meets a unique woman ( Jennifer Jason Leigh ) in a Cincinnati hotel .   Anomalisa was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature ( the first R-rated film to be nominated ) , a Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film , and five Annie Awards . It became the first animated film to win the Grand Jury Prize at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival , after premiering at the Telluride Film Festival on 4 September 2015 .

pos: Backdraft (film) Backdraft is a 1991 American drama thriller film directed by Ron Howard and written by Gregory Widen . The film stars Kurt Russell , William Baldwin , Scott Glenn , Jennifer Jason Leigh , Rebecca De Mornay , Donald Sutherland , Robert De Niro , Jason Gedrick and J. T. Walsh . It is about Chicago firefighters on the trail of a serial arsonist .   The film grossed $ 77.9 million domestically and $ 74.5 million in foreign markets , for a total gross of $ 152.4 million , making it the highest-grossing film ever made about firefighters . The film received three Academy Award nominations .

pos: Road to Perdition Road to Perdition is a 2002 American crime film directed by Sam Mendes . The screenplay was adapted by David Self from the graphic novel of the same name by Max Allan Collins . The film stars Tom Hanks , Paul Newman , Jude Law , and Daniel Craig . The plot takes place in 1931 , during the Great Depression , following a mob enforcer and his son as they seek vengeance against a mobster who murdered the rest of their family .   Filming took place in the Chicago area . Mendes , having recently finished 1999 's acclaimed American Beauty , pursued a story that had minimal dialogue and conveyed emotion in the imagery . Cinematographer Conrad L. Hall took advantage of the environment to create symbolism for the film , for which he won several awards , including a posthumous Academy Award for Best Cinematography . The film explores several themes , including the consequence of violence and father-son relationships .   The film was released on July 12 , 2002 , and eventually grossed over $ 180 million worldwide . The cinematography , setting , and the lead performances by Hanks and Newman were well received by critics . It was released on home media on February 25 , 2003 .

pos: Jennifer Jason Leigh Jennifer Jason Leigh ( born Jennifer Leigh Morrow on February 5 , 1962 ) is an American actress . Leigh began her career as a teenager in the 1970s , guest-starring on several television shows . Her film breakthrough came in 1982 for her performance as Stacy Hamilton in Fast Times at Ridgemont High . Leigh continued performing past her teen years , receiving critical praise for her roles in the 1990 films Miami Blues and Last Exit to Brooklyn . In 1991 , she appeared in Ron Howard 's Backdraft , and in 1992 she acted in the drama-thriller Single White Female .   In 1993 , Leigh appeared in the ensemble film Short Cuts , directed by Robert Altman and , in 1994 , she starred in the Coen brothers ' The Hudsucker Proxy . Leigh was nominated for a Golden Globe for her portrayal of Dorothy Parker in Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle ( 1994 ) . She starred in a 1995 film written by her mother , screenwriter Barbara Turner , titled Georgia . In 2001 , she co-directed a film with Alan Cumming titled The Anniversary Party .   In 2002 , Leigh appeared in the crime-drama Road to Perdition . In 2007 , she starred in Margot at the Wedding , which was directed by her then-husband , Noah Baumbach . She had a recurring role on the Showtime television series Weeds as Jill Price-Gray . In 2015 , she received critical acclaim for her voice-work as Lisa in Charlie Kaufman 's Anomalisa , and for her role as Daisy Domergue in Quentin Tarantino 's The Hateful Eight , for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe , Critic 's Choice , BAFTA and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress .   For her stage work , Leigh was nominated for a Drama Desk award for her Off-Broadway performance as Beverly Moss in Mike Leigh 's Abigail 's Party . Leigh 's Broadway debut occurred in 1998 when she became the replacement for the role of Sally Bowles in Cabaret .

neg: Everly (film) Everly is a 2014 American action thriller film directed by Joe Lynch and written by Yale Hannon based on a story by Lynch and Hannon . The film stars Salma Hayek as the title character with Akie Kotabe , Jennifer Blanc , Masashi Fujimoto , Togo Igawa , Gabriella Wright , Caroline Chikezie , Laura Cepeda , and Hiroyuki Watanabe in supporting roles .   The film was released via iTunes on January 23 , 2015 , and received a limited theatrical release on February 27 , 2015 , by Dimension Films .

neg: Trust (2010 film) Trust is a 2010 American drama thriller film directed by David Schwimmer and based on a screenplay by Andy Bellin and Robert Festinger , and an uncredited story by Schwimmer . It stars Viola Davis , Clive Owen , Catherine Keener , Jason Clarke , and Liana Liberato .   The film is about a teenage girl who becomes a victim of sexual abuse when she befriends a man on the Internet .

neg: Winter's Bone Winter 's Bone is a 2010 American independent drama film , an adaptation of Daniel Woodrell 's 2006 novel of the same name . Written and directed by Debra Granik , the film stars Jennifer Lawrence as a teenaged girl in the rural Ozarks of the central United States who , to protect her family from eviction , must locate her missing father . The film explores the interrelated themes of close and distant family ties , the power and speed of gossip , self-sufficiency , and poverty as they are changed by the pervasive underworld of illegal methamphetamine labs .   Winter 's Bone won several awards , including the Grand Jury Prize : Dramatic Film at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival . It also received four 2011 Academy Award nominations : Best Picture , Best Adapted Screenplay , Best Actress and Best Supporting Actor .

neg: Hillside Cannibals Hillside Cannibals is a 2006 American horror film directed by Leigh Scott and produced by The Asylum . The film is a mockbuster of the film The Hills Have Eyes , another film released around the same month , but its plot also incorporates elements from other films , including Cannibal Holocaust , The Texas Chainsaw Massacre and House of 1000 Corpses .

neg: Mindhunters Mindhunters is a 2004 American-British crime thriller film directed by Renny Harlin and starring Kathryn Morris , LL Cool J , Jonny Lee Miller , Patricia Velásquez , Clifton Collins , Jr. , Christian Slater and Val Kilmer . It was written by Wayne Kramer and Kevin Brodbin ( with an uncredited rewrite by Ehren Kruger ) . Unusually , the last country to receive this film was the United States in 2005 , because of the film 's distribution rights being changed from 20th Century Fox to Dimension Films .

neg: A Gun for Jennifer A Gun for Jennifer is a 1997 rape and revenge film directed by Todd Morris and starring Deborah Twiss . It follows a feminist vigilante group who castrate suspected rapists and batterers while a female police officer attempts to stop them . It is shot in a retro grindhouse style and premiered at the Fantasia Festival in July 1997 , where it was sold-out an hour before screening and received a standing ovation . The film has not left the festival circuit ; Fangoria reported that it had been picked up for distribution by Mondo Macabro , but the release never came to fruition .   The movie was covered in the documentary In the Belly of the Beast , which detailed Morris and Twiss 's discovery that their financier ( whom Twiss had met while working as an exotic dancer ) had been embezzling money .

neg: Janet Leigh Janet Leigh ( born Jeanette Helen Morrison ; July 6 , 1927 -- October 3 , 2004 ) was an American actress , singer , dancer and author . She is best remembered for her performance in Psycho , for which she was awarded the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and received an Academy Award nomination . She was the first wife of actor Tony Curtis and the mother of Kelly Curtis and Jamie Lee Curtis .   Discovered by actress Norma Shearer , Leigh made her acting debut on radio in 1946 and secured a contract with MGM the following year . Early in her career , she appeared in popular films spanning a wide variety of genres , including Act of Violence ( 1948 ) , Little Women ( 1949 ) , Angels in the Outfield ( 1951 ) , Scaramouche ( 1952 ) , The Naked Spur ( 1953 ) and Living It Up ( 1954 ) . She played mostly dramatic roles during the latter half of the 1950s , in such films as Safari ( 1956 ) and Touch of Evil ( 1958 ) , but achieved her most lasting recognition as the doomed Marion Crane in Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) .   Her highly publicized marriage to Curtis ended in divorce in 1962 , and after starring in The Manchurian Candidate that same year , Leigh scaled back her career . Intermittently , she continued to appear in notable films , including Bye Bye Birdie ( 1963 ) , Harper ( 1966 ) and Night of the Lepus ( 1972 ) as well as two films with her daughter , Jamie Lee : The Fog ( 1980 ) and Halloween H20 : 20 Years Later ( 1998 ) . She also wrote four books between 1984 and 2002 , including two novels .   Leigh died in 2004 at age 77 , following a year-long battle with vasculitis , an inflammation of the blood vessels . Among her survivors was her husband of 42 years , Robert Brandt .

neg: Did You Hear About the Morgans? Did You Hear About the Morgans ? is a 2009 American romantic comedy film directed and written by Marc Lawrence . Golden Globe winners Hugh Grant and Sarah Jessica Parker portray the film 's protagonists , Paul and Meryl Morgan , a recently separated New York power couple on the verge of divorce until they witness the murder of Meryl 's client . They are forced to enter into temporary witness protection , given new identities , and relocated to a small Wyoming town ( the fictional Ray , Wyoming , 45 minutes out of Cody ) . Supporting roles are played by Sam Elliott , Academy Award winner Mary Steenburgen , Elisabeth Moss , and Wilford Brimley . It is the second collaboration of Grant and Parker , following the 1996 film Extreme Measures .   The film premiered in New York on December 14 , 2009 and in London the following day . It was released to the United States on December 18 and to most of Europe in January 2010 . It received mostly negative reviews from critics . Compiled ratings from the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an average rating of 3.5 out of 10 . The film grossed $ 6,616,571 in its opening weekend and earned $ 85 million worldwide . Did You Hear About the Morgans ? was the 70th most successful film worldwide for 2009 .

neg: The Tuxedo The Tuxedo is a 2002 American comedy -- action film directed by Kevin Donovan and starring Jackie Chan , Jennifer Love Hewitt and Jason Isaacs . It is a spy spoof that involves a special tuxedo that grants its wearer special abilities and a corporate terrorist threatening to poison the United States ' fresh water supply with bacteria that spills electrolytes into the blood and totally dehydrates the host .

neg: Manhattan Night Manhattan Night is a 2016 American crime film written and directed by Brian DeCubellis . It is based on the 1996 novel Manhattan Nocturne by Colin Harrison . The film stars Adrien Brody , Yvonne Strahovski , Jennifer Beals , Campbell Scott , Linda Lavin and Steven Berkoff . The film was released on May 20 , 2016 , by Lionsgate Premiere .

neg: Wakefield (film) Wakefield is a 2016 American drama film directed and written by Robin Swicord , based on the short story of same name by E. L. Doctorow . The film stars Bryan Cranston and Jennifer Garner . Principal photography began on November 30 , 2015 , in Pasadena , California .   The film had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 2 , 2016 . It was released in a limited release on May 19 , 2017 , before being released through video on demand on May 26 , 2017 , by IFC Films .

neg: Imagining Argentina (film) Imagining Argentina is a 2003 drama historical film written and directed by Christopher Hampton and starring Antonio Banderas , Emma Thompson , Leticia Dolera and Rubén Blades . It is based on the award-winning homonymous novel by Lawrence Thornton . It was nominated for the Golden Lion at the 2003 Venice Film Festival .   The film , centered on a couple living through the ominous last military dictatorship in Argentina ( 1976-1983 ) , depicts graphic images of suffering , such as rape and torture . The closing caption states that around 30,000 Argentines disappeared during the beginning and end of the regime .

neg: Mary (2005 film) Mary is a 2005 drama thriller film , written and directed by American director Abel Ferrara . The film stars Juliette Binoche , Forest Whitaker , Marion Cotillard , Matthew Modine and Heather Graham .   The film premiered at the 2005 Venice Film Festival where it won the Special Jury Prize as well as 3 smaller awards . The film also played at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival , Deauville Film Festival and San Sebastián International Film Festival .

neg: Bubbling Over (film) Bubbling Over is a 1934 American musical comedy short film directed by Leigh Jason .

neg: Freddy vs. Jason Freddy vs. Jason is a 2003 American slasher film directed by Ronny Yu and written by Damian Shannon and Mark Swift . The film is a crossover between the Friday the 13th and A Nightmare on Elm Street franchises and pits Jason Voorhees and Freddy Krueger against each other in the eleventh and eighth installments in their respective series . The film is also the last in both the Friday the 13th and Nightmare on Elm Street franchises before they were both rebooted .   In the film , Freddy ( Robert Englund ) has grown incapable of haunting people 's dreams as the citizens of Springwood , Ohio , have mostly forgotten about him . To regain his power , Freddy manipulates Jason ( Ken Kirzinger ) into resurrecting himself and traveling to Springwood to cause panic and fear , leading to rumors that Freddy has returned . However , while Jason succeeds in causing enough fear for Freddy to haunt the town again , Jason angers Freddy by depriving Krueger of his potential victims . This ultimately sends the two undying monsters into a violent conflict .   Freddy vs. Jason was released in the United States on August 15 , 2003 . It grossed $ 114 million , making it the highest-grossing film in the Friday the 13th series and the second-highest-grossing film in the Nightmare on Elm Street series . This film marked Englund 's final appearance to date as Freddy Krueger , and it was the first since Friday the 13th Part VI : Jason Lives not to feature Kane Hodder as Jason Voorhees .

neg: The Hours (film) The Hours is a 2002 British-American drama film directed by Stephen Daldry , and starring Meryl Streep , Julianne Moore and Nicole Kidman . Supporting roles are played by Ed Harris , John C. Reilly , Stephen Dillane , Jeff Daniels , Miranda Richardson , Allison Janney , Toni Collette and Claire Danes . The screenplay by David Hare is based on Michael Cunningham 's 1999 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same title .   The plot focuses on three women of different generations whose lives are interconnected by the novel Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf . These are Clarissa Vaughan ( Streep ) , a New Yorker preparing an award party for her AIDS-stricken long-time friend and poet , Richard ( Harris ) in 2001 ; Laura Brown ( Moore ) , a pregnant 1950s California housewife with a young boy and an unhappy marriage ; and Virginia Woolf ( Kidman ) herself in 1920s England , who is struggling with depression and mental illness while trying to write her novel .   The film was released in Los Angeles and New York City on Christmas Day 2002 , and was given a limited release in the United States and Canada two days later on December 27 , 2002 . It did not receive a wide release in North America until January 2003 , and was then released in British cinemas on Valentine 's Day that year . Critical reaction to the film was mostly positive , with nine Academy Award nominations for The Hours including Best Picture , and a win for Nicole Kidman as Best Actress .

neg: Another Day Another Life Another Day Another Life is a 2009 American suspense thriller film produced , edited , and directed by Rohit Gupta . It 's about a man , Jason , played by Benjamin Jacobs , who struggles to repress his killer instinct as he approaches the planned killing of his lover . The film was selected to showcase at the Short Film Corner - Cannes Film Festival 2009 .  It received critical acclaim at its festival run winning awards & nominations .

neg: The Cell The Cell is a 2000 American science fiction horror film directed by Tarsem Singh in his directorial debut , and starring Jennifer Lopez , Vince Vaughn and Vincent D'Onofrio . It received mixed reviews upon its release , with critics praising its visuals , direction , make-up , costumes and D'Onofrio 's performance , while criticizing its Silence of the Lambs-inspired plot , an emphasis on style rather than substance , and masochistic imagery .

neg: List of accolades received by Dallas Buyers Club Dallas Buyers Club is a 2013 American biographical drama film directed by Jean-Marc Vallée based on a screenplay written by Craig Borten and Melisa Wallack . Matthew McConaughey stars as Ron Woodroof , an AIDS patient who smuggles unapproved AIDS drug treatments into Texas and establishes the titular club where he distributes them amongst other AIDS sufferers whilst opposed by the Food and Drug Administration . Jared Leto and Jennifer Garner feature in supporting roles .   Dallas Buyers Club premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7 , 2013 . Focus Features initially gave the film a limited release at nine theaters on November 1 before expanding it on November 22 to over 600 theaters in the United States and Canada . The film grossed a worldwide total of over $ 55 million on a production budget of $ 5 million . Rotten Tomatoes , a review aggregator , surveyed 234 reviews and judged 94 % to be positive .   Dallas Buyers Club garnered awards and nominations in a variety of categories with particular praise for the performances of actors , McConaughey and Leto . At the 86th Academy Awards , the film received six nominations , including Best Picture , Best Original Screenplay , Best Actor for McConaughey , and Best Supporting Actor for Leto . McConaughey and Leto went on to win their respective categories -- only the fifth film in Oscars history to win both awards . Hairstylist Adruitha Lee , and makeup artist Robin Mathews won for Best Makeup and Hairstyling . Mathews ' makeup budget for the film was only $ 250 . At the 71st Golden Globe Awards , McConaughey won for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama , and Leto won for Best Supporting Actor -- Motion Picture .   At the Screen Actors Guild Awards the film had three nominations ; winning Best Actor for McConaughey and Best Supporting Actor for Leto . Borten and Wallack 's screenplay was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay at the Writers Guild of America Awards . The National Board of Review named Dallas Buyers Club one of the top ten independent films of 2013 .

neg: Lady Jennifer (film) Lady Jennifer is a 1915 British silent drama film directed by James Warry Vickers and starring Barbara Rutland and Harry Royston . The film was an adaptation of the novel of the same title by John Strange Winter .


query: Vitamin B12 is an organic compound and vital nutrient.

pos: Vitamin A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts . An organic chemical compound ( or related set of compounds ) is called a vitamin when the organism can not synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities , and it must be obtained through the diet ; thus , the term vitamin is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism . For example , ascorbic acid ( one form of vitamin C ) is a vitamin for humans , but not for most other animal organisms . Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems , but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people .   By convention the term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients , such as dietary minerals , essential fatty acids , essential amino acids ( which are needed in greater amounts than vitamins ) or the many other nutrients that promote health , and are required less often to maintain the health of the organism . Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present . Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity , not their structure . Thus , each vitamin refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin . Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin `` generic descriptor '' title , such as `` vitamin A '' , which includes the compounds retinal , retinol , and four known carotenoids . Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body , and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another , as well .   Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions . Some , such as vitamin D , have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism , or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation ( such as some forms of vitamin A ) . Others function as antioxidants ( e.g. , vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C ) . The largest number of vitamins , the B complex vitamins , function as enzyme cofactors ( coenzymes ) or the precursors for them ; coenzymes help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism . In this role , vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups : For example , biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids . They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes , detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules . For example , folic acid may carry methyl , formyl , and methylene groups in the cell . Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins ' best-known function , the other vitamin functions are equally important .   Until the mid-1930s , when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold , vitamins were obtained solely through food intake , and changes in diet ( which , for example , could occur during a particular growing season ) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested . However , vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives , since the middle of the 20th century . Study of structural activity , function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology .

pos: Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 , also called cobalamin , is a water-soluble vitamin that has a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system , and the formation of red blood cells . It is one of eight B vitamins . It is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body , especially affecting DNA synthesis , fatty acid and amino acid metabolism . No fungi , plants , or animals ( including humans ) are capable of producing vitamin B12 . Only bacteria and archaea have the enzymes needed for its synthesis . Some substantial sources of B12 include animal products ( shellfish , meat ) , fortified food products , and dietary supplements . B12 is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin and can be produced industrially only through bacterial fermentation synthesis , typically used to manufacture B12 for fortified foods and supplements .   Vitamin B12 consists of a class of chemically related compounds ( vitamers ) , all of which show pharmacological activity . It contains the biochemically rare element cobalt ( chemical symbol Co ) positioned in the center of a planar tetra-pyrrole ring called a corrin ring . The vitamer is produced by bacteria as hydroxocobalamin , but conversion between different forms of the vitamin occurs in the body after consumption .   Vitamin B12 was discovered as a result of its relationship to the disease pernicious anemia , an autoimmune disease in which parietal cells of the stomach responsible for secreting intrinsic factor are destroyed ; these cells are also responsible for secreting acid in the stomach . Because intrinsic factor is crucial for the normal absorption of B12 , its lack in the presence of pernicious anemia causes a vitamin B12 deficiency . Many other subtler kinds of vitamin B12 deficiency and their biochemical effects have since been elucidated . Due to impairment of vitamin B12 absorption during aging , people over age 60 are at risk of deficiency .

neg: Metal-organic framework Metal-organic frameworks ( MOFs ) are compounds consisting of metal ions or clusters coordinated to organic ligands to form one - , two - , or three-dimensional structures . They are a subclass of coordination polymers , with the special feature that they are often porous . The organic ligands included are sometimes referred to as `` struts '' , one example being 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid ( BDC ) .   More formally , a metal -- organic framework is a coordination network with organic ligands containing potential voids . A coordination network is a coordination compound extending , through repeating coordination entities , in one dimension , but with cross-links between two or more individual chains , loops , or spiro-links , or a coordination compound extending through repeating coordination entities in two or three dimensions ; and finally a coordination polymer is a coordination compound with repeating coordination entities extending in one , two , or three dimensions .   In some cases , the pores are stable during elimination of the guest molecules ( often solvents ) and could be refilled with other compounds . Because of this property , MOFs are of interest for the storage of gases such as hydrogen and carbon dioxide . Other possible applications of MOFs are in gas purification , in gas separation , in catalysis , as sensors and as supercapacitors .

neg: Fat Fat is one of the three main macronutrients , along with carbohydrate and protein . '' '' Fats , also known as triglycerides , are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol . The terms `` oil '' , `` fat '' , and `` lipid '' are often confused . `` Oil '' normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature , while `` fat '' may specifically refer to fats that are solids at room temperature . `` Lipid '' is the general term , though a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride . Fats , like other lipids , are generally hydrophobic , and are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water .   Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life , and fats serve both structural and metabolic functions . They are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs ( including humans ) . Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they can not be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents . There are two essential fatty acids ( EFAs ) in human nutrition : alpha-linolenic acid ( an omega-3 fatty acid ) and linoleic acid ( an omega-6 fatty acid ) . Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these and other fats . Fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas .   Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the carbon atoms in the aliphatic chain . Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain . Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain . The nomenclature is based on the non-acid ( non-carbonyl ) end of the chain . This end is called the omega end or the n-end . Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the chain counting from that end . Some oils and fats have multiple double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats . Unsaturated fats can be further divided into cis fats , which are the most common in nature , and trans fats , which are rare in nature . Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst . This action , called hydrogenation , tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat . To make vegetable shortening , then , liquid cis '' - unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are hydrogenated to produce saturated fats , which have more desirable physical properties e.g. , they melt at a desirable temperature ( 30 -- 40 ° C ) , and store well , whereas polyunsaturated oils go rancid when they react with oxygen in the air . However , trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by an unwanted side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation .   Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement , so they can solidify easily and are typically solid at room temperature . For example , animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids . Olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid . Fats serve both as energy sources for the body , and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately . Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about 9 food calories ( 37 kJ = 8.8 kcal ) . Fats are broken down in the healthy body to release their constituents , glycerol and fatty acids . Glycerol itself can be converted to glucose by the liver and so become a source of energy .

neg: Organic geochemistry Organic geochemistry is the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on the Earth . The study of organic geochemistry is usually traced to the work of Alfred E. Treibs , `` the father of organic geochemistry . '' Treibs first isolated metalloporphyrins from petroleum . This discovery established the biological origin of petroleum , which was previously poorly understood . Metalloporphyrins in general are highly stable organic compounds , and the detailed structures of the extracted derivatives made clear that they originated from chlorophyll .   The relationship between the occurrence of organic compounds in sedimentary deposits and petroleum deposits has long been of interest . Studies of ancient sediments and rock provide insights into the origins and sources of oil petroleum geochemistry and the biochemical antecedents of life .   Modern organic geochemistry includes studies of recent sediments to understand the carbon cycle , climate change , and ocean processes .

neg: Saprotrophic nutrition Saprotrophic nutrition -LSB- sæprəˈtrɒfɪk , _ - proʊ - -RSB- or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of dead or decayed organic matter . It occurs in saprotrophs or heterotrophs , and is most often associated with fungi ( for example Mucor ) and soil bacteria . Saprotrophic microscopic fungi are sometimes called saprobes ; saprotrophic plants or bacterial flora are called saprophytes ( sapro - + - phyte , `` rotten material '' + `` plant '' ) . The process is most often facilitated through the active transport of such materials through endocytosis within the internal mycelium and its constituent hyphae .   Various word roots relating to decayed matter ( detritus , sapro ) , eating and nutrition ( - vore , - phage ) , and plants or life forms ( - phyte , - obe ) produce various terms , such as detritivore , detritophage , saprotroph , saprophyte , saprophage , and saprobe ; their meanings overlap , although technical distinctions ( based on physiologic mechanisms ) narrow the senses . For example , usage distinctions can be made based on macroscopic swallowing of detritus ( as an earthworm does ) versus microscopic lysis of detritus ( as a mushroom does ) .   A facultative saprophyte appears on stressed or dying plants and may combine with the live pathogens .

neg: Cellulosome Cellulosomes are multi-enzyme complexes . The cellulosomes are associated with the cell surface and mediate cell attachment to the insoluble substrate and degrade it to soluble products which are then absorbed . Cellulosome complexes are intricate multi-enzyme machines produced by many cellulolytic microorganisms ( cellulosome producing bacteria are listed below ) . They are designed by the microorganisms for efficient degradation of plant cell wall polysaccharides , notably cellulose -- the most abundant organic polymer on Earth . The multiple subunits of cellulosomes are composed of numerous functional domains which interact with each other and with the cellulosic substrate . One of these subunits , a large glycoprotein , which we called `` scaffoldin '' , comprises a distinctive new class of non-catalytic scaffolding polypeptide . The scaffoldin subunit selectively integrates the various cellulases and xylanase subunits into the cohesive complex , by combining its `` cohesin '' domains with a typical `` dockerin '' domain present on each of the subunit enzymes . The scaffoldin of some cellulosomes , an example being that of Clostridium thermocellum , contains a carbohydrate-binding module that adheres cellulose to the cellulosomal complex .   Cellulosomes exist as extracellular complexes that are either attached to the cell wall of bacteria or free in solution , where the insoluble substrate can be broken down into soluble products and taken up by the cell . The large size and heterogeneity of cellulosomes from the best-characterized organisms ( i.e. , C. thermocellum , C. cellulolyticum , and C. cellulovorans ) have greatly complicated efforts to probe cellulosome structure and function . Other cellulosome systems ( such as those from Acetivibrio cellulolyticus and Ruminococcus flavefaciens ) appear to be even more intricate .   The cellulosome consists of a multi-functional integrating subunit ( called scaffoldin ) , responsible for organizing the various cellulolytic subunits ( e.g. , the enzymes ) into the complex . Within a cellulosome , multiple endoglucanases , cellobiohydrolases , xylanases and other degradative enzymes work synergistically to attack heterogeneous , insoluble cellulose substrates . This is accomplished by the interaction of two complementary classes of module , located on the two separate types of interacting subunits , i.e. , a cohesin module on the scaffoldin and a dockerin module on each enzymatic subunit . The high-affinity cohesin-dockerin interaction defines the cellulosome structure . Attachment of the cellulosome to its substrate is mediated by a scaffoldin-borne cellulose-binding module ( CBM ) that comprises part of the scaffoldin subunit . Much of our understanding of its catalytic components , architecture , and mechanisms of attachment to the bacterial cell and to cellulose , has been derived from the study of Clostridium thermocellum .   Applications : Intelligent application of cellulosome hybrids and chimeric constructs ( `` nanosomes '' ) of cellulosomal domains should enable better use of cellulosic biomass and may offer a wide range of novel applications .

neg: Abiogenesis Abiogenesis ( British English : -LSB- ˌeɪˌbaɪoʊˈdʒɛnᵻsᵻs , _ - ˌbaɪə - -RSB- , -LSB- - en - ˌbiːoʊ - , _ - ˌbiːə - -RSB- ) , biopoiesis , \ \ or informally , the origin of life , is the natural process by which life arises from non-living matter , such as simple organic compounds . Abiogenesis is studied through a combination of paleontology , laboratory experiments and extrapolation from the characteristics of modern organisms , and aims to determine how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life on Earth .   The study of abiogenesis can be geophysical , chemical , or biological , with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three . Life itself is dependent upon the specialized chemistry of carbon and water and is largely based upon five different families of chemicals . Lipids are fatty molecules comprising large chemical chains of hydrocarbons and play an important role in the structure of living cell membranes , actively and passively determining the transport of other molecules into and out of cells . Carbohydrates are sugars , and as monomer units can be assembled into polymers called polysaccharides , such as cellulose , the rigid chemical of most plant cell walls . Nitrogenous bases are organic molecules in which the amine group of nitrogen , combined with two hydrogen atoms , plays an important part . Chlorophyll is based upon a porphyrin ring derived from amine monomer units , and is important in the capture of the energy needed for life . Nucleic acid monomers are made from a carbohydrate monosaccharide a nitrogenous base and one or more high energy phosphate groups . When joined together they form either the unit of inheritance , the gene , made from DNA or RNA , which translates the genetic information into protein structures . The monomer unit of a protein is usually one of 20 amino acids , comprising an amine group , a hydrocarbon , and a carboxylic acid . Through a condensation reaction , in which the carboxylic acid of one amino acid is linked to the amine of another with removal of a water molecule , a peptide bond is formed . Polymers of amino acids are termed proteins and these molecules provide many catalytic metabolic functions for living processes . Any successful theory of abiogenesis must explain the origins and interactions of these five classes of molecules .   Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how self-replicating molecules , or their components , came into existence . It is generally thought that current life on Earth is descended from an RNA world , although RNA-based life may not have been the first life to have existed . The classic Miller -- Urey experiment and similar research demonstrated that most amino acids , the basic chemical constituents of the proteins used in all living organisms , can be synthesized from inorganic compounds under conditions intended to replicate those of the early Earth . Various external sources of energy that may have triggered these reactions have been proposed , including lightning and radiation . Other approaches ( `` metabolism-first '' hypotheses ) focus on understanding how catalysis in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the precursor molecules necessary for self-replication . Complex organic molecules have been found in the Solar System and in interstellar space , and these molecules may have provided starting material for the development of life on Earth .   The panspermia hypothesis alternatively suggests that microscopic life was distributed to the early Earth by meteoroids , asteroids and other small Solar System bodies and that life may exist throughout the Universe . It is speculated that the biochemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13.8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the age of the universe was only 10 to 17 million years . The panspermia hypothesis proposes that life originated outside the Earth , not how life came to be .   Nonetheless , Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life , and fossil evidence from the Earth informs most studies of abiogenesis . More than 99 % of all species of life forms , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years ; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago , and possibly as early as the Eoarchean Era , after geological crust started to solidify following the molten Hadean Eon . In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits ( often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . However , there have been a number of discoveries that suggested the earliest appearance of life on Earth was even earlier in time . Currently , microfossils within hydrothermal vent precipitates dated from 3.77 to 4.28 billion years old found in Quebec , Canada may be the oldest record of life on Earth , suggesting `` an almost instantaneous emergence of life '' after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago . According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . ''

neg: Food Balance Sheet Food balance sheet shows the a brief picture of the pattern of the food supply of a country . For each food item , it sketches the primary commodity availability for human consumption i.e. the sources of supply and its utilization in terms of nutrient value .   A food balance sheet is a comprehensive compilation of a selected country 's food supply during a specific time period . The food balance sheet shows the food items for human consumption , along with how it is produced , used , imported/exported , and how it benefits the society ( per capita supply ) . The total quantity produced in a country added to the total quantity imported and adjusted to any change in stocks that may have occurred since the beginning of the reference period gives the supply available during that period . On the utilization side a distinction is made between the quantities exported , fed to livestock + used for seed , losses during storage and transportation , and food supplies available for human consumption . The per capita supply of each such food item available for human consumption is then obtained by dividing the respective quantity by the related data on the population actually partaking in it . Data on per capita food supplies are expressed in terms of quantity and by applying appropriate food composition factors for all primary and processed products also in terms of dietary energy value , protein and fat content .   The food balance sheet covers production , trade , feed and seed , waste , other utilization , availability , quantities , calories , proteins , and fats . By combining these elements , one is able to detect the food security of a country , how reliant it is on imported crops/foodstuffs , and how it attributes to world exports .   According to Margaret Buchanan-Smith of the tatti Overseas Development Institute , London , the food balance sheet is the most traditional and widely used method of translating `` early warning data into food aid requirements . ''

neg: Castle factors Castle ( gastric ) factors , named after the American physician and physiologist W. B. Castle , are biologically active chemical compounds which stimulate haematopoiesis ( formation of blood cellular components ) . There are two distinct factors :  Extrinsic factor , much more commonly known as vitamin B12  Intrinsic factor , a glycoprotein produced by the parietal cells of the stomach , which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12

neg: Phytobiome A phytobiome is a plant ( phyto ) in a specific geophysical site ( biome ) that consists of its associated micro - and macro-organisms , other plants and animals , as well as the environment . The associated organisms , which may be inside , on the surface , adjacent to or influencing a plant , include a wide diversity of microbes ( viruses , bacteria , fungi , oomycetes , and algae ) , animals ( arthropods , worms , nematodes , and rodents , for example ) , and other plants . The environment includes the physical and chemical environment influencing plants and their associated organisms , and therefore , the soil , air , water , and climate .   Interactions within phytobiomes are dynamic and profoundly affect plant and agroecosystem health , which in turn impacts soil fertility , crop yields , and food quality and safety .   Enhanced knowledge of the networks within a phytobiome can be translated into new tools for agriculture and natural resource preservation .   The sphere of relevance of phytobiomes is broad , spanning from crops ( commodity crops , fruits , vegetables , forest , and specialty and bioenergy crops ) , rangelands , grasslands , and natural ecosystems to consumer products , including the quality , nutritional value , and safety of our foods .

neg: Vitamin C (disambiguation) Vitamin C is an essential nutrient , usually ingested as ascorbic acid . The oxidized form , dehydroascorbic acid , can also be absorbed from the diet , and has similar antiscorbutic effects .   Vitamin C may also refer to :   Vitamin C megadosage , high doses used in an attempt to obtain specific therapeutic effects  Vitamin C deficiency or scurvy  Vitamin C and the common cold  Vitamin C and the Common Cold ( book ) by Linus Pauling  Caffeine , as a slang term  Vitamin C ( singer ) , Colleen Ann Fitzpatrick , an American pop music singer , dancer and actress  Vitamin C ( album ) , her self-titled debut album  `` Vitamin C '' ( song ) , a song by the band Can   sv : Vitamin C

neg: Lead compound A lead compound ( i.e. a `` leading '' compound , not lead metal ) in drug discovery is a chemical compound that has pharmacological or biological activity likely to be therapeutically useful , but may still have suboptimal structure that requires modification to fit better to the target . Lead drugs are followed by back-up compounds . Its chemical structure is used as a starting point for chemical modifications in order to improve potency , selectivity , or pharmacokinetic parameters . Furthermore , newly invented pharmacologically active moieties may have poor druglikeness and may require chemical modification to become drug-like enough to be tested biologically or clinically .

neg: Divinylether fatty acids Divinylether fatty acids contain a fatty acid chemically combined with a doubly unsaturated carbon chain linked by an oxygen atom ( ether ) .  Fatty acid hydroperoxides generated by plant lipoxygenases from linoleic and linolenic acids are known to serve as substrates for a divinyl ether synthase which produces divinyl ether fatty acids . Up to date divinyl ethers were detected only within the plant kingdom .   The discovery of that class of compounds dates back to 1972 , when the structures of two ether C18 fatty acids generated by homogenates of the potato tuber were described . These compounds , named colneleic acid ( from linoleic acid ) and colnelenicacid ( from linolenic acid ) , could be also produced in potato leaves and tomato roots by rearrangement of 9-hydroperoxides .   Isomers of colneleic and colnelenic acids were isolated from homogenates of leaves of Clematis vitalba ( Ranunculaceae ) .   Similarly , 13-lipoxygenase-generated hydroperoxides serve as precursor of other divinyl ether fatty acids which are produced in bulbs of garlic or Ranunculus leaves . These compounds were named etheroleic and etherolenic acids . Etheroleic acid has systematic name 12 - -LSB- 1 ′ E-hexenyloxy -RSB- -9 Z,11Z-dodecadienoic acid . Etherolenic acid has systematic name ( 9Z ,11 E ,1 ` E ,3 ` Z ) -12 - ( 1 ' ,3 ' - Hexadienyloxy ) -9,11 - dodecadienoic acid .   The physiological significance of divinyl ethers is still not fully studied . As infection of potato leaves leads to increased levels of divinyl ether synthase , it was suggested that this pathway could be of importance in the defense of plants against attacking pathogens .  Similar structures have been discovered in the brown alga Laminaria sinclairii , with 18 or 20 carbons and 4 , 5 or 6 double bonds , and in the red alga Polyneura latissima , with 20 carbons and 5 double bonds .

neg: Synactive Theory of Newborn Behavioral Organization and Development The Synactive Theory of Newborn Behavioral Organization and Development ( Synaction n. , or Synactive adj. -LSB- from the Greek syn `` together '' and the Latin actio `` action , '' resulting in : `` together in action '' -RSB- ) suggests that development of the human fetus , and later newborn , proceeds through the constant balancing of approach and avoidance behaviors , leading to : 1 ) a continuous interaction of the subsystems ( i.e. , Autonomic , Motor , State and Attention/Interaction , and Regulatory ) and their increasingly defined delineations within the organism , that is the infant , and 2 ) the organism 's interaction with the environment at large . This process is aimed at bringing about the increasingly well-defined species-unique developmental agenda .   Figure 1 ( below ) , provides a graphic representation of the Synactive Theory of development , as applied to both fetal and newborn stages . It focuses upon the infant 's within-organism , four subsystems of functioning , and their continuous interaction with each other and with the environment across time ( i.e. , `` together in action , '' or synaction ) . The four subsystems include the :   Autonomic Subsystem : Expressed in the pattern of respiration ( e.g. , fast , slow , pauses ) color changes ( e.g. , pink , pale , red ) , neurological indicators ( e.g. , seizures , tremulousness ) , and visceral or gut signals such as bowel movements , gagging , and hiccoughing ;   Motor Subsystem : Observable through the tone , posture and movement patterns of the infant ;   State and Attention/Interaction Subsystem : Expressed via : 1 ) the range of states available to the infant ( i.e. , deep sleep , light sleep , drowsy , alert , hyperalert , and cry ) , 2 ) how clearly it is to observably differentiate one state from the other , and 3 ) the patterns of transitions from one state to another ( e.g. , smooth well-differentiated state transitions versus abrupt unorganized state transitions ) .   The attention/interaction system is set within this state continuum ( i.e. , from deep sleep to cry ) and represented by the infant 's ability to adjust the robustness and increasing refinement of an alert , attentive state . The infant uses this state to take in cognitive and social information from the environment as well as to bring forth and modify inputs from the surrounding world ; and   Regulatory Subsystem : Behaviorally represented via the observable strategies the infant uses ( Self-Regulation ) in maintaining a balanced , relatively stable and relaxed state of subsystem of functioning or in returning to this a state of subsystem functioning if imbalance , or stress has occurred within the subsystems .   An additional component of the regulatory subsystem is observable in the kind and amount of support offered by the caregiver ( e.g. , supporting a soft , tucked , flexed position of the infant 's arms and legs ) or by the environment ( e.g. , dimming the lights in the nursery ) . This Co-Regulation may be necessary to help the infant 's return to balance in situations when his/her own self-regulatory capacities are exceeded .   Reproduced with permission from Als , H. Toward a synactive theory of development : Promise for the assessment of infant individuality . Infant Mental Health Journal . 1982 : ( 3 ) : 229-243 ; p. 234 .   The graphic representation of the Synactive Theory above depicts the developing organism , that is , the infant , in constant interaction with the environment from within the womb to the newborn intensive care unit ( NICU ) , and the caregiving family 's support in the NICU , to the family in their home . Newborn infants are actively striving for their next steps in development , while depending upon `` good enough '' environments and care to assure progress along their developmental agenda .   The Synactive Theory of Development continues to be instrumental in guiding clinicians ( e.g. , neonatologist , nurses , psychologists , developmental specialists , physical/occupational therapists , etc. ) and researchers in their understanding of the often very small steps in development that prematurely born and other high risk newborns attempt to accomplish ( which are major steps for their immature or injured brain ) . This theory gives professionals the framework and tools with which to identify the infant 's strengths , challenges and accomplishments . Such accomplishments may include breathing , sucking and swallowing in a coordinated sequence ; moving food down into and through the stomach and intestinal track instead of upwards , leading to reflux and vomiting ; looking at the caregiver and breathing at the same time , as well as many others .   The Synactive Theory is the foundation of both : 1 ) the Assessment of Preterm Infants ' Behavior ( APIB ) , a standardized comprehensive newborn test , and 2 ) the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program ( NIDCAP ) , which is the care and intervention approach , that focuses on each infant 's behavioral cues ( e.g. , hand ( s ) to mouth , bracing with feet against a supporting surface ) in order to support the infant 's strengths and reduce the infant 's vulnerabilities . The infant 's family is viewed as the infant 's most important nurturer and is integrated in all care from the infant 's birth on throughout the infant 's hospitalization .

neg: Backbone chain In polymer science , the backbone chain of a polymer is the longest series of covalently bonded atoms that together create the continuous chain of the molecule . This science is subdivided into the study of organic polymers , which consist of a carbon backbone , and inorganic polymers which have backbones containing only main group elements .   In biochemistry , organic backbone chains make up the primary structure of macromolecules . The backbones of these biological macromolecules consist of central chains of covalently bonded atoms . The characteristics and order of the monomer residues in the backbone make a map for the complex structure biological polymers . The backbone is , therefore , directly related to biological molecules ' function . The macromolecules within the body can be divided into four main subcategories , each of which are involved in very different and important biological processes : Proteins , Carbohydrates , Lipids , and Nucleic acids . Each of these molecules has a different backbone and consists of different monomers each with distinctive residues and functionalities . This is the driving factor of their different structures and functions in the body . Although lipids have a `` backbone , '' they are not true biological polymers as their backbone is a three carbon molecule , glycerol , with longer substituent `` side chains . '' For this reason , only proteins , carbohydrates , and nucleic acids should be considered as biological macromolecules with polymeric backbones .

neg: Selenium Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34 . It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table , sulfur and tellurium . It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the Earth 's crust . Selenium ( Greek σελήνη selene meaning `` Moon '' ) was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius , who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously discovered tellurium ( named for the Earth ) .   Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores , where it partially replaces the sulfur . Commercially , selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores , most often during production . Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known but rare . The chief commercial uses for selenium today are glassmaking and pigments . Selenium is a semiconductor and is used in photocells . Applications in electronics , once important , have been mostly supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices . Selenium is still used in a few types of DC power surge protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot .   Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts , but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms , including all animals . Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other dietary supplements , including infant formula . It is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase ( which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants ) . It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes , which convert one thyroid hormone to another . Selenium requirements in plants differ by species , with some plants requiring relatively large amounts and others apparently requiring none .

neg: Taurine Taurine ( -LSB- ˈtɔːriːn -RSB- ) , or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid , is an organic compound that is widely distributed in animal tissues . It is a major constituent of bile and can be found in the large intestine , and accounts for up to 0.1 % of total human body weight . Taurine has many fundamental biological roles , such as conjugation of bile acids , antioxidation , osmoregulation , membrane stabilization , and modulation of calcium signaling . It is essential for cardiovascular function , and development and function of skeletal muscle , the retina , and the central nervous system . Taurine is unusual among biological molecules in being a sulfonic acid , while the vast majority of biologically occurring acids contain the more weakly acidic carboxyl group . While taurine is sometimes called an amino acid , and indeed is an acid containing an amino group , it is not an amino acid in the usual biochemical meaning of the term , which refers to compounds containing both an amino and a carboxyl group .   Taurine is named after the Latin taurus ( a cognate of the Greek ταῦρος ) which means bull or ox , as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin .

neg: Biologist A biologist , is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology , the scientific study of life . Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter . Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding , in fields such as medicine , industry and agriculture .   While `` biologist '' can apply to any scientist studying biology , most biologists research and specialise in specific fields . In this way , biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions ( ecology ) , whole multicellular organisms , organs , tissues , cells , and small-scale cellular and molecular processes . Other biologists study less direct aspects of life , such as phylogeny and evolution .   Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method , to test the validity of a theory , with hypothesis formation , experimentation and documentation of methods and data .   There are many types of biologists . Some work on microorganisms , while others study multicellular organisms . There is much overlap between different fields of biology such as botany , zoology , microbiology , genetics and evolutionary biology , and it is often difficult to classify a biologist as only one of them . Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree . A doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research , and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology . Many biological scientists work in research and development . Some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms , including bacteria and other pathogens . This research enhances understanding and adds to the scientific database of literature . Furthermore , it often aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health and the natural environment . These biological scientists mostly work in government , university , and private industry laboratories . Many expand on specialized research that they started in post-graduate qualifications , such as a doctorate .

neg: The central science Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences , which include chemistry , with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering . The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics . The phrase was popularized by its use in a textbook by Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay , titled Chemistry : The Central Science , which was first published in 1977 , with a thirteenth edition published in 2014 .   The central role of chemistry can be seen in the systematic and hierarchical classification of the sciences by Auguste Comte in which each discipline provides a more general framework for the area it precedes ( mathematics → astronomy → physics → chemistry → physiology and medicine → social sciences ) . Balaban and Klein have more recently proposed a diagram showing partial ordering of sciences in which chemistry may be argued is `` the central science '' since it provides a significant degree of branching . In forming these connections the lower field can not be fully reduced to the higher ones . It is recognized that the lower fields possess emergent ideas and concepts that do not exist in the higher fields of science .   Thus chemistry is built on an understanding of laws of physics that govern particles such as atoms , protons , electrons , thermodynamics , etc. although it has been shown that it has not been `` fully ` reduced ' to quantum mechanics '' . Concepts such as the periodicity of the elements and chemical bonds in chemistry are emergent in that they are more than the underlying forces that are defined by physics .   In the same way , biology can not be fully reduced to chemistry despite the fact that the machinery that is responsible for life is composed of molecules . For instance , the machinery of evolution may be described in terms of chemistry by the understanding that it is a mutation in the order of genetic base pairs in the DNA of an organism . However , chemistry can not fully describe the process since it does not contain concepts such as natural selection that are responsible for driving evolution . Chemistry is fundamental to biology since it provides a methodology for studying and understanding the molecules that compose cells .   Connections made by chemistry are formed through various sub-disciplines that utilize concepts from multiple scientific disciplines . Chemistry and physics are both needed in the areas of physical chemistry , nuclear chemistry , and theoretical chemistry . Chemistry and biology intersect in the areas of biochemistry , medicinal chemistry , molecular biology , chemical biology , molecular genetics , and immunochemistry . Chemistry and the earth sciences intersect in areas like geochemistry and hydrology .

neg: Folate Folate , forms of which are known as folic acid and vitamin B9 , is one of the B vitamins . The recommended daily intake level of folate is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements . Folic acid is used to treat anemia caused by folic acid deficiency . It is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects ( NTDs ) in the baby . Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with neural tube defects . More than 50 countries use fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs in the population . Long term supplementation is also associated with small reductions in the risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease . It may be taken by mouth or by injection .   There are no common side effects . It is not known whether high doses over a long period of time are of concern . There are concerns that large amounts of folic acid might hide vitamin B12 deficiency . Folic acid is essential for the body to make DNA , RNA , and metabolise amino acids which are required for cell division . As humans can not make folic acid , it is required from the diet , making it an essential vitamin .   Not consuming enough folate can lead to folate deficiency . This may result in a type of anemia in which low numbers of large red blood cells occur . Symptoms may include feeling tired , heart palpitations , shortness of breath , open sores on the tongue , and changes in the color of the skin or hair . Deficiency in children may develop within a month of poor dietary intake . In adults normal total body folate is between 10,000 -- 30,000 micrograms ( µg ) with blood levels of greater than 7 nmol/L ( 3 ng/mL ) .   Folic acid was discovered between 1931 and 1943 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost of supplements in the developing world is between 0.001 and 0.005 USD per dose as of 2014 . The term `` folic '' is from the Latin word folium , which means leaf . Folates occur naturally in many foods especially dark green leafy vegetables and liver .

neg: Health food Health food is food considered normally beneficial to human health a normal healthy diet required for human nutrition . No human being is the same as any other , different dietary practices can be considered healthy by different people .   Foods marketed as `` healthy '' may be natural foods , organic foods , whole foods , and sometimes vegetarian or dietary supplements . Such products are sold in health food stores or in the health/organic sections of supermarkets .