query: Noam Chomsky is credited in the creation of the universal grammar theory.

pos: Noam Chomsky Avram Noam Chomsky ( -LSB- æ ` vrɑːm _ ` noʊm_ˈtʃɒmski -RSB- ; born December 7 , 1928 ) is an American linguist , philosopher , cognitive scientist , historian , social critic , and political activist . Sometimes described as `` the father of modern linguistics '' , Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science . He is Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , where he has worked since 1955 , and is the author of over 100 books on topics such as linguistics , war , politics , and mass media . Ideologically , he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism .   Born to middle-class Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia , Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City . At the age of sixteen he began studies at the University of Pennsylvania , taking courses in linguistics , mathematics , and philosophy . From 1951 to 1955 he was appointed to Harvard University 's Society of Fellows , where he developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he was awarded his doctorate in 1955 . That year he began teaching at MIT , in 1957 emerging as a significant figure in the field of linguistics for his landmark work Syntactic Structures , which remodeled the scientific study of language , while from 1958 to 1959 he was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study . He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the universal grammar theory , the generative grammar theory , the Chomsky hierarchy , and the minimalist program . Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of behaviorism , being particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner .   An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , which he saw as an act of American imperialism , in 1967 Chomsky attracted widespread public attention for his anti-war essay `` The Responsibility of Intellectuals '' . Associated with the New Left , he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon 's Enemies List . While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades , he also became involved in the Linguistics Wars . In collaboration with Edward S. Herman , Chomsky later co-wrote an analysis articulating the propaganda model of media criticism , and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor . However , his defense of unconditional freedom of speech -- including for Holocaust deniers -- generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the early 1980s . Following his retirement from active teaching , he has continued his vocal political activism , including opposing the War on Terror and supporting the Occupy movement .   One of the most cited scholars in history , Chomsky has influenced a broad array of academic fields . He is widely recognized as a paradigm shifter who helped spark a major revolution in the human sciences , contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind . In addition to his continued scholarly research , he remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy , neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism , the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict , and mainstream news media . His ideas have proved highly significant within the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements , but have also drawn criticism , with some accusing Chomsky of anti-Americanism .

neg: Association for Computational Linguistics The Association for Computational Linguistics ( ACL ) is the international scientific and professional society for people working on problems involving natural language and computation . An annual meeting is held each summer in locations where significant computational linguistics research is carried out . It was founded in 1962 , originally named the Association for Machine Translation and Computational Linguistics ( AMTCL ) . It became the ACL in 1968 .   The ACL has a European ( EACL ) and a North American ( NAACL ) chapter .   The ACL journal , Computational Linguistics , is the primary forum for research on computational linguistics and natural language processing . Since 1988 , the journal has been published for the ACL by MIT Press .   The ACL book series , Studies in Natural Language Processing , is published by Cambridge University Press .   Each year ACL and its chapters organize international conferences in different countries .  ACL 2014 was held in Baltimore , USA .

neg: Language pedagogy Language pedagogy may take place as a general school subject , in a specialized language school , or out of school with a rich selection of proprietary methods online and in books , CDs and DVDs . There are many methods of teaching languages . Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used ; still others have a small following , but offer useful insights .   There are three principal views :  The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning ( e.g. grammar ) .  The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function , such as requesting something .  The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations , focusing on patterns of moves , acts , negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges . This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s .

neg: Turing Award __ NOTOC __   The ACM A.M. Turing Award is an annual prize given by the Association for Computing Machinery ( ACM ) to `` an individual selected for contributions of a technical nature made to the computing community '' . It is stipulated that the contributions `` should be of lasting and major technical importance to the computer field '' . The Turing Award is generally recognized as the highest distinction in computer science and the `` Nobel Prize of computing '' .   The award is named after Alan Turing , a British mathematician and reader in mathematics at the University of Manchester . Turing is often credited as being the key founder of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence . From 2007 to 2013 , the award was accompanied by a prize of US $ 250,000 , with financial support provided by Intel and Google . Since 2014 , the award has been accompanied by a prize of US $ 1 million , with financial support provided by Google .   The first recipient , in 1966 , was Alan Perlis , of Carnegie Mellon University . The first female recipient was Frances E. Allen of IBM in 2006 .

neg: Syntactic hierarchy Syntactics , or syntax , is concerned with the way sentences are constructed from smaller parts , such as words and phrases . Two steps can be distinguished in the study of syntactics . The first step is to identify different types of units in the stream of speech and writing . In natural languages , such units include sentences , phrases , and words . In artificial languages , lexemes , tokens , and formulas are usually found among the basic units . The second step is to analyse how these units build up larger patterns , and in particular to find general rules that govern the construction of sentences .   This can be broken down into constituents , which are a group of words that are organized as a unit , and the organization of those constituents . They are organized in a hierarchical structure , by embedding inside one another to form larger constituents .   The syntactic hierarchy ( from smaller to larger units ) is as follows :   Morpheme  Word  Phrase  Phase  Sentence ( clause )  Text   The domain of a phase is not universally recognized , and only appears in generative works from the ' 90 .   The term morpho-syntactic hierarchy is a synonym .

neg: Copenhagen School (linguistics) The Copenhagen School , officially the Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen ( French : Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague ) , is a group of scholars dedicated to the study of linguistics . It was founded by Louis Hjelmslev ( 1899 -- 1965 ) and Viggo Brøndal ( 1887 -- 1942 ) . In the mid twentieth century the Copenhagen school was one of the most important centres of linguistic structuralism together with the Geneva School and the Prague School . In the late 20th and early 21st century the Copenhagen school has turned from a purely structural approach to linguistics to a functionalist one , Danish functional grammar , which nonetheless incorporates many insights from the founders .

neg: Political positions of Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky is a widely known intellectual , political activist , and critic of the foreign policy of the United States and other governments . Noam Chomsky describes himself as a libertarian socialist , a sympathizer of anarcho-syndicalism , and is considered to be a key intellectual figure within the left-wing of US politics .

neg: Lexical diffusion In historical linguistics , lexical diffusion is both a phenomenon and a theory . The phenomenon is that by which a phoneme is modified in a subset of the lexicon , and spreads gradually to other lexical items . For example , in English , -LSB- / uː / -RSB- has changed to -LSB- / ʊ / -RSB- in good and hood but not in food ; some dialects have it in hoof and/or roof but others do not ; in flood and blood it happened early enough that the words were affected by the change of -LSB- / ʊ / -RSB- to -LSB- / ʌ / -RSB- , which is now no longer productive .   The related theory , proposed by William Wang in 1969 , is that all sound changes originate in a single word or a small group of words and then spread to other words with a similar phonological make-up , but may not spread to all words in which they potentially could apply . The theory of lexical diffusion stands in contrast to the Neogrammarian hypothesis that a given sound change applies simultaneously to all words in which its context is found .   Mainstream historical linguists reject Wang 's hypothesis , continuing to adhere to Neogrammarian exceptionlessness . For example , Pulleyblank regards the theoretical formulation of lexical diffusion as presented by Hsieh in Wang 1977 as `` so manifestly at odds with any realistic picture of how dialects are inter-related and how innovations spread spatially through a language as to make them totally untenable '' ( 1982 : 408 ) .   Referring to one of Wang 's touchstones of lexical diffusion , Egerod dismisses his theory as a sleight of hand :   there is no `` massive split '' involved , but an error of methodology in accounting for tones . Cháozhōu like other languages in China or outside of China has a complicated history with migration waves , loans and analogical formation . The conscientious historical linguist has to account for these before he resorts to a deus ex machina '' ( 1981 : 173 ) .   Mazaudon & Lowe conclude a robust critique of lexical diffusion in a similar vein , remarking that `` a detailed study of the history of the language can disentangle the reflexes from different sources , and it is not necessary to renounce the principle of regular change for the sake of such cases '' ( 1994 : 11 ) .   William Labov , in Principles of Linguistic Change , takes the position that there are two types of sound changes : regular sound change ( respecting the Neogrammarian hypothesis ) and lexical diffusion . Labov lists a typology , according to which certain phenomena are typically or exclusively regular ( example , vowel quality changes ) , while others ( example , metathesis , or vowel shortening ) tend to follow a lexical diffusion pattern .   Paul Kiparsky , in the Handbook of Phonology ( Goldsmith editor ) , argues that under a proper definition of analogy as optimization , lexical diffusion is not a type of sound change . Instead , Kiparsky claims it is similar to leveling , in that it is a non-proportional type of analogy .

neg: Principles of Mathematical Logic Principles of Mathematical Logic is the 1950 American translation of the 1938 second edition of David Hilbert 's and Wilhelm Ackermann 's classic text Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik , on elementary mathematical logic . The 1928 first edition thereof is considered the first elementary text clearly grounded in the formalism now known as first-order logic ( FOL ) . Hilbert and Ackermann also formalized FOL in a way that subsequently achieved canonical status . FOL is now a core formalism of mathematical logic , and is presupposed by contemporary treatments of Peano arithmetic and nearly all treatments of axiomatic set theory .   The 1928 edition included a clear statement of the Entscheidungsproblem ( decision problem ) for FOL , and also asked whether that logic was complete ( i.e. , whether all semantic truths of FOL were theorems derivable from the FOL axioms and rules ) . The first problem was answered in the negative by Alonzo Church in 1936 . The second was answered affirmatively by Kurt Gödel in 1929 .   The text also touched on set theory and relational algebra as ways of going beyond FOL . Contemporary notation for logic owes more to this text than it does to the notation of Principia Mathematica , long popular in the English speaking world .

neg: Linguistic modality In linguistics , modality is a feature of language that allows for communicating things about , or based on , situations which need not be actual . More precisely , modality is signaled by grammatical expressions ( moods ) that express a speaker 's general intentions ( or illocutionary point ) as well as the speaker 's commitment to how believable , obligatory , desirable , or actual an expressed proposition is .   Sometimes , the term mood is used to refer to both mood and modality , however , the two can be distinguished according to whether they refer to the grammatical expressions of various modalities ( mood ) or the meanings so expressed ( modality ) . Modality can also be considered equivalent to the idea of illocutionary force if the kinds of expressions which can express modal meanings also include lexical items such as performative verbs .   Modality is closely intertwined with other linguistic phenomena such as tense and aspect , evidentiality , conditionals , and others . As with other areas of linguistics , modality has been studied extensively from typological as well as formal perspectives .   An important distinction within linguistic modality is the distinction between epistemic and deontic modality . Generally speaking , epistemic modality has to do with possibility and necessity with regard to knowledge , whereas deontic modality has to do with permission and obligation according to some system of rules . The difference between the two is illustrated in the English example below :  ( 1 ) Agatha must be the killer .  ( 2 ) Agatha must be killed .  The sentence in ( 1 ) might be spoken by someone who has decided that all of the relevant facts in a particular murder investigation point to the conclusion that Agatha is the killer , even though it may or may not actually be the case . In contrast , ( 2 ) might be spoken by someone who has decided that , according to some standard of conduct , Agatha has committed a vile crime , and therefore the correct course of action is to kill Agatha . Notice also that , although English must is ambiguous between these two interpretations , the form of the other elements in the sentences helps to disambiguate .   In standard formal approaches to linguistic modality , an utterance expressing modality is one that can always roughly be paraphrased to fit the following template :   ( 1 ) According to -LSB- a set of rules , wishes , beliefs , ... -RSB- it is -LSB- necessary , possible -RSB- that -LSB- the main proposition -RSB- is the case .   The set of propositions which forms the basis of evaluation is called the modal base . The result of the evaluation is called the modal force .  For example the utterance in ( 2 ) expresses that , according to what the speaker has observed , it is necessary to conclude that John has a rather high income :   ( 2 ) John must be earning a lot of money .   The modal base here is the knowledge of the speaker , the modal force is necessity . By contrast , ( 3 ) could be paraphrased as ` Given his abilities , the strength of his teeth , etc. , it is possible for John to open a beer bottle with his teeth ' . Here , the modal base is defined by a subset of John 's abilities , the modal force is possibility .   ( 3 ) John can open a beer bottle with his teeth .   A more elaborate account of formal semantic approaches to modality is given in section 1 .   Cross-linguistically , modality can be expressed by a variety of means , such as auxiliary verbs as in the examples ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) , verbal morphology ( mood ) or adverbs . An overview of the various modal expressions across languages is given below in section 2 .   Typological approaches to modality usually favour a slightly wider definition of modality and also include meanings which do not fit the template in ( 1 ) exactly . Section 3 provides an overview over the range of meanings commonly associated with modality .

neg: Timeline of information theory A timeline of events related to information theory , quantum information theory and statistical physics , data compression , error correcting codes and related subjects .   1872 -- Ludwig Boltzmann presents his H-theorem , and with it the formula Σpi log pi for the entropy of a single gas particle .  1878 -- J. Willard Gibbs defines the Gibbs entropy : the probabilities in the entropy formula are now taken as probabilities of the state of the whole system .  1924 -- Harry Nyquist discusses quantifying `` intelligence '' and the speed at which it can be transmitted by a communication system .  1927 -- John von Neumann defines the von Neumann entropy , extending the Gibbs entropy to quantum mechanics .  1928 -- Ralph Hartley introduces Hartley information as the logarithm of the number of possible messages , with information being communicated when the receiver can distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other ( regardless of any associated meaning ) .  1929 -- Leó Szilárd analyses Maxwell 's Demon , showing how a Szilard engine can sometimes transform information into the extraction of useful work .  1940 -- Alan Turing introduces the deciban as a measure of information inferred about the German Enigma machine cypher settings by the Banburismus process .  1944 -- Claude Shannon 's theory of information is substantially complete .  1947 -- Richard W. Hamming invents Hamming codes for error detection and correction . For patent reasons , the result is not published until 1950 .  1948 -- Claude E. Shannon publishes A Mathematical Theory of Communication  1949 -- Claude E. Shannon publishes Communication in the Presence of Noise -- Nyquist -- Shannon sampling theorem and Shannon -- Hartley law  1949 -- Claude E. Shannon 's Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is declassified  1949 -- Robert M. Fano publishes Transmission of Information . M.I.T. Press , Cambridge , Mass. -- Shannon -- Fano coding  1949 -- Leon G. Kraft discovers Kraft 's inequality , which shows the limits of prefix codes  1949 -- Marcel J. E. Golay introduces Golay codes for forward error correction  1951 -- Solomon Kullback and Richard Leibler introduce the Kullback -- Leibler divergence  1951 -- David A. Huffman invents Huffman encoding , a method of finding optimal prefix codes for lossless data compression  1953 -- August Albert Sardinas and George W. Patterson devise the Sardinas -- Patterson algorithm , a procedure to decide whether a given variable-length code is uniquely decodable  1954 -- Irving S. Reed and David E. Muller propose Reed -- Muller codes  1955 -- Peter Elias introduces convolutional codes  1957 -- Eugene Prange first discusses cyclic codes  1959 -- Alexis Hocquenghem , and independently the next year Raj Chandra Bose and Dwijendra Kumar Ray-Chaudhuri , discover BCH codes  1960 -- Irving S. Reed and Gustave Solomon propose Reed -- Solomon codes  1962 -- Robert G. Gallager proposes low-density parity-check codes ; they are unused for 30 years due to technical limitations .  1965 -- Dave Forney discusses concatenated codes .  1967 -- Andrew Viterbi reveals the Viterbi algorithm , making decoding of convolutional codes practicable .  1968 -- Elwyn Berlekamp invents the Berlekamp -- Massey algorithm ; its application to decoding BCH and Reed -- Solomon codes is pointed out by James L. Massey the following year .  1968 -- Chris Wallace and David M. Boulton publish the first of many papers on Minimum Message Length ( MML ) statistical and inductive inference  1970 -- Valerii Denisovich Goppa introduces Goppa codes  1972 -- J. Justesen proposes Justesen codes , an improvement of Reed -- Solomon codes  1973 -- David Slepian and Jack Wolf discover and prove the Slepian -- Wolf coding limits for distributed source coding .  1976 -- Gottfried Ungerboeck gives the first paper on trellis modulation ; a more detailed exposition in 1982 leads to a raising of analogue modem POTS speeds from 9.6 kbit/s to 33.6 kbit/s .  1976 -- R. Pasco and Jorma J. Rissanen develop effective arithmetic coding techniques ,  1977 -- Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv develop Lempel -- Ziv compression ( LZ77 )  1989 -- Phil Katz publishes the . zip format including DEFLATE ( LZ77 + Huffman coding ) ; later to become the most widely used archive container and most widely used lossless compression algorithm  1993 -- Claude Berrou , Alain Glavieux and Punya Thitimajshima introduce Turbo codes  1994 -- Michael Burrows and David Wheeler publish the Burrows -- Wheeler transform , later to find use in bzip2  1995 -- Benjamin Schumacher coins the term qubit and proves the quantum noiseless coding theorem  2001 -- Sam Kwong and Yu Fan Ho proposed Statistical Lempel Ziv  2006 -- Jarek Duda introduced first entropy coder from Asymmetric Numeral Systems family , which later variants are replacing Huffman and arithmetic coding since 2014  2008 -- Erdal Arıkan introduced polar codes , the first practical construction of codes that achieves capacity for a wide array of channels .

neg: Language of thought hypothesis The language of thought hypothesis ( LOTH ) , sometimes known as Thought Ordered Mental Expression ( TOME ) , is a view in linguistics , philosophy of mind and cognitive science , forwarded by American philosopher Jerry Fodor . It describes the nature of thought as possessing `` language-like '' or compositional structure ( sometimes known as mentalese ) . On this view , simple concepts combine in systematic ways ( akin to the rules of grammar in language ) to build thoughts . In its most basic form , the theory states that thought , like language , has syntax .   Using empirical data drawn from linguistics and cognitive science to describe mental representation from a philosophical vantage-point , the hypothesis states that thinking takes place in a language of thought ( LOT ) : cognition and cognitive processes are only ` remotely plausible ' when expressed as a system of representations that is `` tokened '' by a linguistic or semantic structure and operated upon by means of a combinatorial syntax . Linguistic tokens used in mental language describe elementary concepts which are operated upon by logical rules establishing causal connections to allow for complex thought . Syntax as well as semantics have a causal effect on the properties of this system of mental representations .   These mental representations are not present in the brain in the same way as symbols are present on paper ; rather , the LOT is supposed to exist at the cognitive level , the level of thoughts and concepts . The LOTH has wide-ranging significance for a number of domains in cognitive science . It relies on a version of functionalist materialism , which holds that mental representations are actualized and modified by the individual holding the propositional attitude , and it challenges eliminative materialism and connectionism . It implies a strongly rationalist model of cognition in which many of the fundamentals of cognition are innate .

neg: Stochastic grammar A stochastic grammar ( statistical grammar ) is a grammar framework with a probabilistic notion of grammaticality :  Stochastic context-free grammar  Statistical parsing  Data-oriented parsing  Hidden Markov model  Estimation theory   Statistical natural language processing uses stochastic , probabilistic and statistical methods , especially to resolve difficulties that arise because longer sentences are highly ambiguous when processed with realistic grammars , yielding thousands or millions of possible analyses . Methods for disambiguation often involve the use of corpora and Markov models . `` A probabilistic model consists of a non-probabilistic model plus some numerical quantities ; it is not true that probabilistic models are inherently simpler or less structural than non-probabilistic models . ''   The technology for statistical NLP comes mainly from machine learning and data mining , both of which are fields of artificial intelligence that involve learning from data .

neg: Classical logic Classical logic ( or standard logic ) is an intensively studied and widely used class of formal logics . Each logical system in this class shares characteristic properties :   Law of excluded middle and double negative elimination  Law of noncontradiction , and the principle of explosion  Monotonicity of entailment and idempotency of entailment  Commutativity of conjunction  De Morgan duality : every logical operator is dual to another   Classical logic was originally devised as a two-level ( bivalent ) logical system , with simple semantics for the levels representing `` true '' and `` false '' .

neg: Darwin machine A Darwin machine ( a 1987 coinage by William H. Calvin , by analogy to a Turing machine ) is a machine that , like a Turing machine , involves an iteration process that yields a high-quality result , but , whereas a Turing machine uses logic , the Darwin machine uses rounds of variation , selection , and inheritance .   In its original connotation , a Darwin machine is any process that bootstraps quality by utilizing all of the six essential features of a Darwinian process : A pattern is copied with variations , where populations of one variant pattern compete with another population , their relative success biased by a multifaceted environment ( natural selection ) so that winners predominate in producing the further variants of the next generation ( Darwin 's inheritance principle ) .   More loosely , a Darwin machine is a process that utilizes some subset of the Darwinian essentials , typically natural selection to create a non-reproducing pattern , as in neural Darwinism . Many aspects of neural development utilize overgrowth followed by pruning to a pattern , but the resulting pattern does not itself create further copies .   Darwin machine has been used multiple times to name computer programs after Charles Darwin .

neg: Language Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication , particularly the human ability to do so , and a language is any specific example of such a system . The scientific study of language is called linguistics . Questions concerning the philosophy of language , such as whether words can represent experience , have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece . Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought . 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language . Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky .   Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000 . However , any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects . Natural languages are spoken or signed , but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory , visual , or tactile stimuli -- for example , in whistling , signed , or braille . This is because human language is modality-independent . Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning , when used as a general concept , `` language '' may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication , or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems , or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules . All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings . Oral , manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes , and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances .   Human language has the properties of productivity and displacement , and relies entirely on social convention and learning . Its complex structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication . Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems , acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality . This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume , and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions . Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain , but especially in Broca 's and Wernicke 's areas . Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood , and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old . The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture . Therefore , in addition to its strictly communicative uses , language also has many social and cultural uses , such as signifying group identity , social stratification , as well as social grooming and entertainment .   Languages evolve and diversify over time , and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur . A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family . The Indo-European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages as diverse as English , Russian and Hindi ; the Sino-Tibetan family , which includes Mandarin , Bodo and the other Chinese languages , and Tibetan ; the Afro-Asiatic family , which includes Arabic , Somali , and Hebrew ; the Bantu languages , which include Swahili , and Zulu , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa ; and the Malayo-Polynesian languages , which include Indonesian , Malay , Tagalog , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific . The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu . Academic consensus holds that between 50 % and 90 % of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100 .

neg: Scientific theory A scientific theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can , in accordance with the scientific method , be repeatedly tested , using a predefined protocol of observations and experiments . Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and are a comprehensive form of scientific knowledge .   It is important to note that the definition of a `` scientific theory '' ( often ambiguously contracted to `` theory '' for the sake of brevity , including in this page ) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word `` theory '' . Per NAS 2008 : `` The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word . It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence . '' In everyday non-scientific speech , `` theory '' can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess , conjecture , idea , or , hypothesis ; such a usage is the opposite of the word `` theory '' in science . These different usages are comparable to the differing , and often opposing , usages of the term `` prediction '' in science versus `` prediction '' in vernacular speech , denoting a mere hope .   The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain . As additional scientific evidence is gathered , a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new empirical findings ; in such circumstances , a more accurate theory is then desired . In certain cases , the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful ( due to its sheer simplicity ) as an approximation under specific conditions ( e.g. , Newton 's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light ) .   Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions . They describe the causal elements responsible for a particular natural phenomenon , and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry ( e.g. , electricity , chemistry , astronomy ) . Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge , as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease .   As with other forms of scientific knowledge , scientific theories are both deductive and inductive in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability .   Paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and science historian Stephen Jay Gould said , `` ... facts and theories are different things , not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty . Facts are the world ′ s data . Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts . ''

neg: Infinite monkey theorem The infinite monkey theorem states that a monkey hitting keys at random on a typewriter keyboard for an infinite amount of time will almost surely type a given text , such as the complete works of William Shakespeare . In fact the monkey would almost surely type every possible finite text an infinite number of times . However , the probability that monkeys filling the observable universe would type a complete work such as Shakespeare 's Hamlet is so tiny that the chance of it occurring during a period of time hundreds of thousands of orders of magnitude longer than the age of the universe is extremely low ( but technically not zero ) .   In this context , `` almost surely '' is a mathematical term with a precise meaning , and the `` monkey '' is not an actual monkey , but a metaphor for an abstract device that produces an endless random sequence of letters and symbols . One of the earliest instances of the use of the `` monkey metaphor '' is that of French mathematician Émile Borel in 1913 , but the first instance may be even earlier .   Variants of the theorem include multiple and even infinitely many typists , and the target text varies between an entire library and a single sentence . Jorge Luis Borges traced the history of this idea from Aristotle 's On Generation and Corruption and Cicero 's De natura deorum ( On the Nature of the Gods ) , through Blaise Pascal and Jonathan Swift , up to modern statements with their iconic simians and typewriters . In the early 20th century , Borel and Arthur Eddington used the theorem to illustrate the timescales implicit in the foundations of statistical mechanics .

neg: Phememe A phememe ( from Ancient Greek φημί -RSB- -RSB- ` I speak , say ' ) is a hypothesized speech sound with an abstract -LSB- -LSB- gesture meaning , proposed by the linguist Mary LeCron Foster . ( The term phememe appeared earlier in the works of Leonard Bloomfield , who defined it as a `` smallest and meaningless unit of linguistic signaling '' -- either a phoneme or a taxeme . )   According to Foster , phememes were the fundamental building block of the earliest human spoken language ( Primordial Language ) , as opposed to the phonemes of attested languages , contemporary or historical . The phememe concept is thus important in the debate regarding the gestural origin of speech . By way of an example , the sound -LSB- m -RSB- , as a meaningful oral gesture , is understood as pointing to `` two opposed surfaces in tapering , pressing together , holding together , crushing , or resting against '' . Reflexes of this primordial -LSB- m -RSB- , and its original meaning , are found in ostensibly unrelated present-day languages in words referring to the mouth , the female genitals , and semantic extensions of these , e.g. Latin mugio ` to moo , bugle ' , mutus ` mute ' , mucus ` mucous ' , Japanese mugon ` silence , muteness ' , Dravidian muka - ` face , mouth ' , Piro ( Arawak ) musi - ` to be pregnant , impregnate ' . According to her most recent published work , Foster proposes that the phememic system of primordial spoken language consisted of the following phememes .   The philosopher Maxine Sheets-Johnstone makes extensive use of Foster 's concept of the phememe in arguing iconicity to be the foundation of the symbolic process . Earl R. Anderson points put that the phememe is thus an elaboration of earlier theories postulating a role for oral gesture in the origin of spoken language , such as those of the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and the anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor , who called his method generative philology . An implication of the phememe hypothesis is that Primordial Language lacked double articulation , which the American linguist Charles F. Hockett proposed as a central design feature of human language . According to this principle , linguistic signs are made up of building blocks , such as phonemes , which are themselves meaningless , e.g. cat is composed of the phonemes / k / , / æ / and / t / . Phememes came to be desemanticized and replaced by meaningless phonemes in later evolution . The anthropologist Gordon Hewes proposes that this shift was motivated by the advantages phonemes entail in rapid word retrieval .

neg: Universal probability bound A universal probability bound is a probabilistic threshold whose existence is asserted by William A. Dembski and is used by him in his works promoting intelligent design . It is defined as   Dembski asserts that one can effectively estimate a positive value which is a universal probability bound . The existence of such a bound would imply that certain kinds of random events whose probability lies below this value can be assumed not to have occurred in the observable universe , given the resources available in the entire history of the observable universe . Contrapositively , Dembski uses the threshold to argue that the occurrence of certain events can not be attributed to chance alone . Universal probability bound is then used to argue against random evolution . However evolution is not based on random events only ( genetic drift ) , but also on natural selection .   The idea that events with fantastically small , but positive probabilities , are effectively negligible was discussed by the French mathematician Émile Borel primarily in the context of cosmology and statistical mechanics . However , there is no widely accepted scientific basis for claiming that certain positive values are universal cutoff points for effective negligibility of events . Borel , in particular , was careful to point out that negligibility was relative to a model of probability for a specific physical system .   Dembski appeals to cryptographic practice in support of the concept of the universal probability bound , noting that cryptographers have sometimes compared the security of encryption algorithms against brute force attacks by the likelihood of success of an adversary utilizing computational resources bounded by very large physical constraints . An example of such a constraint might be obtained for example , by assuming that every atom in the observable universe is a computer of a certain type and these computers are running through and testing every possible key . However , universal measures of security are used much less frequently than asymptotic ones . The fact that a keyspace is very large is useless if the cryptographic algorithm used has vulnerabilities which make it susceptible to other kinds of attacks .

neg: Marxist philosophy Marxist philosophy or Marxist theory are works in philosophy that are strongly influenced by Karl Marx 's materialist approach to theory , or works written by Marxists . Marxist philosophy may be broadly divided into Western Marxism , which drew out of various sources , and the official philosophy in the Soviet Union , which enforced a rigid reading of Marx called dialectical materialism , in particular during the 1930s .  Marxist philosophy is not a strictly defined sub-field of philosophy , because the diverse influence of Marxist theory has extended into fields as varied as aesthetics , ethics , ontology , epistemology , theoretical psychology and philosophy of science , as well as its obvious influence on political philosophy and the philosophy of history . The key characteristics of Marxism in philosophy are its materialism and its commitment to political practice as the end goal of all thought .   Marxist theorist Louis Althusser , for example , defined philosophy as `` class struggle in theory '' , thus radically separating himself from those who claimed philosophers could adopt a `` God 's eye view '' as a purely neutral judge .


query: Prison Break was created by Paul Scheuring.

pos: Prison Break Prison Break is an American television serial drama created by Paul Scheuring , that was broadcast on Fox for four seasons from August 29 , 2005 to May 15 , 2009 , and a fifth season which premiered on April 4 , 2017 . The series revolves around two brothers , one of whom has been sentenced to death for a crime he did not commit , and the other who devises an elaborate plan to help his brother escape prison and clear his name . The series was produced by Adelstein-Parouse Productions , in association with Original Television and 20th Century Fox Television . Along with creator Paul Scheuring , the series is executive produced by Matt Olmstead , Kevin Hooks , Marty Adelstein , Dawn Parouse , Neal H. Moritz , and Brett Ratner who directed the pilot episode . The series ' theme music , composed by Ramin Djawadi , was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2006 .   The series was originally turned down by Fox in 2003 , which was concerned about the long-term prospects of such a series . Following the popularity of serialized prime time television series Lost and 24 , Fox decided to back production in 2004 . The first season received generally positive reviews , and performed well in the ratings . The first season was originally planned for a 13-episode run , but was extended to include an extra nine episodes due to its popularity . Prison Break was nominated for several industry awards , including the 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series Drama and the 2006 People 's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Drama , which it won . In the United States , all four seasons have been released on DVD and released on Blu-ray internationally .   The success of the series has inspired short videos for mobile phones , several official tie-ins in print and on the Internet , as well as a video game . A spin-off series , Prison Break : Proof of Innocence , was produced exclusively for mobile phones . The series has spawned an official magazine and a tie-in novel . The fourth season of Prison Break returned from its mid-season break in a new timeslot on April 17 , 2009 , for the series ' last six episodes . Two additional episodes , titled `` The Old Ball and Chain '' and `` Free '' were produced , and were later transformed into a standalone feature , titled The Final Break . The events of this feature take place before the last scene of the series finale , and are intended to conclude unfinished plotlines . The feature was released on DVD and Blu-ray July 21 , 2009 . A nine-episode fifth season was announced by Fox in January 2016 and premiered on April 4 , 2017 , and aired on Tuesdays at 9:00 pm . The season concluded on May 30 , 2017 .

neg: Paul Chantler Paul Chantler ( born 12 October 1959 ) is a radio programming consultant based in the United Kingdom . He has been involved in the radio industry for more than 30 years as a journalist , presenter , producer and programmer .   He is currently runs his own successful radio programming and consultancy company and works with clients in the UK , Ireland , Europe and India . While senior partner at United Radio in London , he worked with companies including GMG Radio , Absolute Radio , Emap Radio , UTV Radio , Premier Christian Radio and the RadioCentre in the UK , Communicorp in Ireland and Europe , and Radio City in India . He has also worked for Macquarie in Australia and Emmis in the United States . Major assignments have included working for GMG Radio on their Smooth Radio brand as well as work on projects with radio groups in India .   He founded a startup company in 2011 called Radio Ideas Bank which helps radio sales people find contest and promotional ideas to sell to their clients . It has registered users and subscribers in more than 30 countries .   Chantler is co-author with Peter Stewart of the textbook Essential Radio Journalism published in June 2009 by A&C Black . The Foreword is written by Jon Snow of Channel 4 News who started his career in radio . The book started life in 1992 as Local Radio Journalism , co-authored by Sim Harris . Its successor Basic Radio Journalism , was published by Focal Press ( a division of Elsevier ) in 2002 . It became a best-seller and was translated into Spanish , Italian , Portuguese and Russian .   Chantler is an acknowledged expert in media law and compliance and has co-written two books about media law with Paul Hollins . The first , Hang The DJ ? ( A radio presenter 's guide to the law ) was published in 2011 . The second called Twibel ( A guide to libel and contempt for Tweeters , Facebookers and Bloggers ) was published in 2012 .   He is co-founder and a shareholder in Fix Radio , a London DAB radio station aimed at tradespeople and builders , due to go on air in April 2017 .

neg: Broken World (Millennium) '' ` Broken World '' is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 2 , 1997 . The episode was written by Robert Moresco and Patrick Harbinson , and directed by Winrich Kolbe . `` Broken World '' featured guest appearances by Ingrid Kavelaars , Donnelly Rhodes and Jo Anderson .   Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to North Dakota to track down a burgeoning serial killer who has progressed from mauling horses to attacking and killing people .   `` Broken World '' featured the last directorial effort for the series by Kolbe , and the last script written by Moresco ; however , Harbinson would return to write further episodes in later seasons . The episode has been compared to Peter Shaffer 's 1973 play Equus , and received a Genesis Award from the Humane Society of the United States in 1998 .

neg: Michael Schur Michael Herbert `` Mike '' Schur ( born October 29 , 1975 ) is an American television producer and writer , best known for his work on the NBC comedy series The Office and Parks and Recreation , the latter of which he co-created along with Greg Daniels . He also co-created the FOX comedy series Brooklyn Nine-Nine , and created the NBC comedy series The Good Place . Schur is also known for his small role on The Office as Mose Schrute , the cousin of Dwight Schrute .

neg: Cornealious Michael Anderson III Cornealious Michael `` Mike '' Anderson III ( born c. 1977 ) was convicted of armed robbery in 2000 and sentenced to 13 years in the Missouri state prison system . Shortly after his conviction he was released on bail pending the outcome of an appeal of his conviction . In May 2002 , his appeal was rejected but , due to a clerical error , his bond was not revoked when a warrant was issued for his arrest . It was unclear why he was not arrested and imprisoned to serve his 13-year sentence , but , apparently due to clerical errors and miscommunication , the Missouri Department of Corrections thought he was already in prison . The error was only discovered when he was scheduled to be released from prison in 2013 . On July 25 , 2013 he was arrested and required to serve his 13-year sentence . The case stirred controversy when investigative articles were written by Jessica Lussenhop in the Riverfront Times newspaper and when his case was covered nationally in the United States in an episode of This American Life . By April 2014 , his case began receiving extensive national and international attention . These articles and episode raised the question of whether he should be returned to prison 13 years after his conviction especially since the victim of his crime did not believe he should be in prison . Anderson 's attorney filed several appeals and petitions for his release from prison , and on May 5 , 2014 Anderson was released from prison . In 2014 , he was arrested for another crime , but subsequent videotape evidence showed that he could not have committed the crime and charges were dropped with an apology by Circuit Attorney Jennifer M. Joyce .

neg: Prison Break Anthem (Ich glaub' an dich) `` Prison Break Anthem ( Ich glaub ' an dich ) '' is a hit song by German hip-hop artist Azad and Adel Tawil , singer of Ich + Ich . It was released as the first single of Azad 's album Blockschrift . It is the German title song of the American television series Prison Break .

neg: The Break (TV series) For the 2016 UK series , see The Break ( UK TV series ) .   The Break ( La Trêve , `` The Truce '' ) is a French-language Belgian crime drama television series , produced by Anthony Rey and directed by Matthieu Donck . It debuted on RTBF 's La Une on 21 February 2016 , on France 2 on 29 August 2016 , and on Netflix in the United States , United Kingdom and Canada on 21 December 2016 .

neg: The Break (novel) The Break is a 1957 novel by the French writer José Giovanni . It is based on a real escape attempt from the La Santé Prison in 1947 . It was Giovanni 's debut novel . An English translation by Robin Campbell was published in 1960 .

neg: Mark Morettini Mark Morettini ( born October 24 , 1962 ) is an American actor . He is most known for the role of Correctional Officer Rizzo Green on the TV series Prison Break .   Morettini was born and raised in East Providence , Rhode Island . He started theater in college and moved to Chicago to continue his career , starring in various productions , as well as roles in movies .   At one point he resided in Lake Bluff , Illinois . He is the father of three children .   He toured with George Wendt and Richard Thomas in 12 Angry Men as Juror # 7 , for 2 `` seasons '' . On Broadway he appeared in `` Pal Joey '' and `` A View From The Bridge '' .   He resides in NYC with his wife , Megan Schneid Morettini .

neg: Paul Verhoeven Paul Verhoeven ( -LSB- ˈpʌu̯l vərˈɦuvə ( n ) -RSB- ; born 18 July 1938 ) is a Dutch film director , film producer , television director , television producer , and screenwriter . Verhoeven is active in both the Netherlands and Hollywood . Explicit violent and/or sexual content and social satire are trademarks of both his drama and science fiction films . He is best known for directing the films RoboCop ( 1987 ) , Total Recall ( 1990 ) , Basic Instinct ( 1992 ) , Showgirls ( 1995 ) , Starship Troopers ( 1997 ) , and Elle ( 2016 ) .   Verhoeven 's film Turkish Delight ( 1973 ) received the award for Best Dutch Film of the Century at the Netherlands Film Festival . His films altogether received a total of nine Academy Award nominations , mainly for editing and effects . Verhoeven won the Saturn Award for Best Director for Robocop . His Dutch war film Black Book ( 2006 ) was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language , and was voted the best Dutch film ever by the Dutch public in 2008 .   In contrast , he won the Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Picture and Worst Director for Showgirls ( 1995 ) ; he is one of the few people to have accepted their award ( s ) in person .   The Seattle Times praised Verhoeven by saying , `` Director Paul Verhoeven often appears to be a one-man Dutch movie industry , '' while The San Diego Union called Verhoeven `` a busy bee whose movies pollinate the festival circuit . ''

neg: National Prison Radio National Prison Radio ( NPR ) is the world 's first national radio station for prisoners. ; It is run by the Prison Radio Association ( PRA ) , a charity , in partnership with Her Majesty 's Prison Service and the National Offender Management Service ( NOMS ) . It broadcasts 24 hours a day , seven days a week to prisoners in over 100 establishments across England and Wales . Prisoners receive the service as an audio channel via in-cell TV systems . It is available to over 80,000 prisoners .   It aims to reduce re-offending by engaging prisoners in education and discussion , helping people in custody to develop strategies for dealing with the issues led them to prison . The station 's programmes are presented and produced by serving prisoners working alongside the PRA 's staff of professional radio producers . Content supports NOMS ' objective to reduce re-offending by providing information vital for progressing successfully through a prison sentence . It promotes educational opportunities , discussion of issues related to crime and justice , as well as messages and requests from prisoners ' families and friends .   National Prison Radio aims to help prisoners face up to the effects their actions have had on themselves , their families , victims and society as a whole , encouraging them to see prison as a place of positive change . It offers positive peer influence directly to prisoners in their cells , in a way that no other intervention can .

neg: Prison gang A prison gang is an inmate organization that operates within a prison system . It has a corporate entity and exists into perpetuity . Its membership is restrictive , mutually exclusive , and often requires a lifetime commitment . Prison officials and others in law enforcement use the euphemism `` security threat group '' ( or `` STG '' ) . The purpose of this name is to remove any recognition or publicity that the term `` gang '' would connote when referring to people who have an interest in undermining the system .

neg: Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell Theodore `` T-Bag '' Bagwell , played by Robert Knepper , is a fictional character from the American television series Prison Break . He is part of the main group of characters in the series and is part of the Fox River Eight . After guest-starring in the series ' second episode , `` Allen '' , the actor became one of the regular cast members .   The character was introduced into the series as a fellow prisoner of the protagonist , Michael Scofield ( played by Wentworth Miller ) , at Fox River State Penitentiary . As the leader of a white supremacist group , T-Bag is one of the most villainous members of the Fox River Eight . In the second season , the character 's storyline veers from the main plot as a separate subplot . As the series progresses , more of the background story of the character is revealed .   The character has appeared in A&E 's Breakout Kings , portrayed by Knepper .

neg: DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act of 2000 The DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act of 2000 ( H.R. 4640 , 42 U.S.C. 14135 et seq. ) is a United States Act of Congress that primarily allows US states to carry out DNA analyses for use in the FBI 's Combined DNA Index System and to collect and analyse DNA samples .   Under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 , 42 U.S.C. § 14132 , `` Congress authorized the FBI to create a national index of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) samples taken from convicted offenders , crime scenes and victims of crime , and unidentified human remains . '' In response to this congressional mandate , the FBI established the Combined DNA Index System ( `` CODIS '' ) . The CODIS database provides a means for state and local forensic laboratories to share DNA profiles in an attempt to `` link evidence from crime scenes for which there are no suspects to DNA samples of convicted offenders on file in the system . ''   However , the 1994 Act was interpreted by the FBI to permit only the creation of the CODIS , not the taking of DNA samples of persons convicted of federal offenses for input into the system . Thus , `` the FBI requested that Congress enact statutory authority to allow the taking of DNA samples from persons committing Federal crimes of violence , robbery , and burglary , or similar crimes in the District of Columbia or while in the military , and authorizing them to be included in CODIS . ''   Accordingly , Congress passed the DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act of 2000 ( `` DNA Act '' ) , 42 U.S.C. § 14135 et seq. , which authorizes the `` Attorney General to make grants to eligible States ... to carry out , for the inclusion in the Combined DNA Index System of the Federal Bureau of Investigation , DNA analyses of samples taken from individuals convicted of a qualifying State offenses . '' 42 U.S.C. § 14135 ( a ) ( 1 ) . Moreover , the DNA Act provides that `` the Director of the Bureau of Prisons shall collect a DNA sample from each individual in the custody of the Bureau of Prisons who is , or has been , convicted of a qualifying Federal offense '' and that `` the probation office responsible for the supervision under Federal law of an individual on probation , parole , or supervised release shall collect a DNA sample from each such individual who is or has been , convicted of a qualifying Federal offense . '' 42 U.S.C. § 15135a ( a ) ( 1 ) - ( 2 ) .   In addition , Congress has mandated the collection of DNA samples from `` each individual in the custody of the Bureau of Prisons who is , or has been convicted of a qualifying District of Columbia offense '' or any `` individual under the supervision of the Agency who is on supervised release , parole , or probation who is , or has been convicted of a qualifying District of Columbia offense . '' 42 U.S.C. § 14135b ( a ) ( 1 ) - ( 2 ) . Congress left to the District of Columbia the responsibility of determining which offenses under the District of Columbia Code should be deemed qualifying offenses . 42 U.S.C. § 14135b ( d ) . The District of Columbia has determined that forty-nine separate offense qualify for collection under the DNA Act . See , D.C. Code § 22-4151 ( 1 ) - ( 46 ) . These qualifying offense include , for example , arson , aggravated assault , burglary , kidnaping , robbery , attempted robbery , and carjacking . Id .   Once a DNA sample is entered into the CODIS database , the information can be released only  ( 1 ) `` to criminal justice agencies for law enforcement identification purposes ; ''  ( 2 ) `` in judicial proceedings ; ''  ( 3 ) `` for criminal defense purposes , to a defendant , who shall have access to samples and analyses performed in connection with the case in which such defendant is charged ; '' or  ( 4 ) `` if personally identifiable information is removed , for a population statistics database , for identification research and protocol development purposes , or for quality control purposes . '' 42 U.S.C. § 14132 ( b ) ( 3 ) . In addition , the DNA Act imposes criminal penalties for individuals who improperly disclose sample results or improperly obtains or uses DNA samples . 42 U.S.C. § 14135e ( c ) .   Category :2000 in law  Category :106 th United States Congress  Category : United States federal criminal legislation  Category : Law articles needing an infobox

neg: John Langley John Langley ( born June 1 , 1943 ) is an American television and film director , writer , and producer who is best known as the creator and executive producer of the long-running television show COPS , which premiered on FOX in March 1989 .   Prior to that , he was among the reality television pioneers as a producer of various two-hour event specials in syndicated television markets during the 1980s . In fact , Langley is often credited as being the `` Godfather of Reality Television '' with the appearance of COPS in 1989 .

neg: Kenneth E. Hartman Kenneth E. Hartman ( born December 28 , 1960 ) is an American writer and prison activist . A convicted murderer , he is serving life in prison in California .   When he was 19 years old , he murdered a homeless man after an alcohol and drug binge . He was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole . While in prison , he has married and has fathered a daughter .   He was one of the proponents of the `` Honor Yard '' in California State Prison in Lancaster ; the program involves `` 600 inmates who have promised to avoid drugs , gang activity and violence against each other or prison staff and who live in a section of the prison separated from the general inmates '' where they may take training and classes . Hartman wrote about his experiences in prison and this program in his essay `` A Prisoners ' Purpose '' , which won one of the John Templeton Foundation 's 2004 Power of Purpose awards . In a 2009 New York Times editorial , he described the effects of the recession on the prison system . He has also written against the penalty of life imprisonment without parole , calling it `` the other death penalty '' . In a December 2014 feature for Harper 's magazine , he described three decades of prison Christmases to illustrate the progressive attempts to dehumanize prisoners in the United States .   His 2009 memoir Mother California : A Story of Redemption Behind Bars ( ISBN 0692358331 ) won the 2010 Eric Hoffer Award for memoir .

neg: Prison Break (film) Prison Break is a 1938 American crime-drama film directed by Arthur Lubin and starring Barton MacLane , Glenda Farrell and Paul Hurst . The film was based on the story `` Walls of San Quentin '' by Norton S. Parker . It was released by Universal Pictures on July 12 , 1938 . A fisherman confesses to a murder he did n't commit to protect a friend . Determined to keep out of trouble in prison , but another convict makes things difficult for him .

neg: Saul Goodman James Morgan `` Jimmy '' McGill , also known as Saul Goodman , is a fictional attorney who appears in the television series Breaking Bad and serves as the title character of its spin-off prequel series Better Call Saul . He is portrayed by Bob Odenkirk , and was created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould .

neg: Maya Schenwar Maya Schenwar ( born November 10 , 1982 ) is the editor-in-chief of Truthout , and a writer focused on prison-related topics . She is the author of Locked Down , Locked Out : Why Prison Does n't Work and How We Can Do Better and a co-editor of the anthology Who Do You Serve , Who Do You Protect ? Police Violence and Resistance in the United States . She has written about prison issues for Truthout , The New York Times , The Guardian , The Nation , Ms. Magazine , and other publications . She serves as chair of The Media Consortium 's coordinating committee . Schenwar is also a board member of Love & Protect , an organization that supports those who identify as women and gender non-conforming persons of color who are criminalized or harmed by state and interpersonal violence , and of the Chicago Community Bond Fund , a revolving fund that pays bond for people of color charged with crimes in Cook County , Illinois . Previous to her work at Truthout , Schenwar was a contributing editor at Punk Planet magazine and served as media coordinator for Voices for Creative Nonviolence .

neg: Paul Soter Paul Soter ( born August 16 , 1969 ) is an American actor , writer , and director , and one of the members of the Broken Lizard comedy group . As a child , he lived in Sacramento , Anchorage , Phoenix , and Denver . He graduated from Colgate University and was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity . During his time there , he was a member of the Charred Goosebeak troupe along with the members of Broken Lizard .

neg: Human Writes Human Writes is a long established , non-profit organization founded for the purpose of befriending prisoners on Death Row in the USA . Whilst they are against the death penalty , the organisation does not campaign as such , its main remit being the befriending , and in many ways ` humanising ' of inmates through letter writing :   `` Receiving letters can make a huge difference to -LSB- prisoners ' -RSB- quality of life ; prisoners speak of us as their sunshine or their window on the world . Above all , they value being able to have a normal conversation with someone and the feeling that someone cares . '' ( * Human Writes website   ` Human Writes ' is not linked to any particular political or religious groups . The organisation has become well known internationally though and many prominent public figures actively encourage and support the work that they do , among them the former Archbishop of Canterbury , Dr. Rowan Williams , who describes the organisation 's aims as :   `` A small but hugely significant witness , telling someone that they are not facing death alone . ''   ` Human Writes ' has become generally known and accepted by the US prison authorities as a reputable organisation , working within the parameters of their systems .