query: Mother Teresa was given the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize.

pos: Mother Teresa Mother Teresa , known in the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta ( born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu ; -LSB- aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒiu -RSB- ; 26 August 1910 -- 5 September 1997 ) , was an Albanian-Indian Roman Catholic nun and missionary . She was born in Skopje ( now the capital of the Republic of Macedonia ) , then part of the Kosovo Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire . After living in Macedonia for eighteen years she moved to Ireland and then to India , where she lived for most of her life .   In 1950 Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity , a Roman Catholic religious congregation which had over 4,500 sisters and was active in 133 countries in 2012 . The congregation manages homes for people dying of HIV/AIDS , leprosy and tuberculosis ; soup kitchens ; dispensaries and mobile clinics ; children 's - and family-counselling programmes ; orphanages , and schools . Members , who take vows of chastity , poverty , and obedience , also profess a fourth vow : to give `` wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor '' .   Teresa received a number of honours , including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and 1979 Nobel Peace Prize . She was canonised ( recognised by the church as a saint ) on 4 September 2016 , and the anniversary of her death ( 5 September ) is her feast day .   A controversial figure during her life and after her death , Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work . She was praised and criticised for her opposition to abortion , and criticised for poor conditions in her houses for the dying . Her authorised biography was written by Navin Chawla and published in 1992 , and she has been the subject of films and other books .

neg: Teresa Janina Kierocińska Venerable Mother Teresa Kierocińska ( in religious , Janina ) was born on 14 June 1885 in Wieluń , in a large , patriotic family . She finished high school in Wieluń . Janina felt the need for total devotion to God on the day of her First Holy Communion but she could n't follow her call because of the refusal of the family , especially her father . At home she led a life of prayer , deep devotion , self-denial and love towards her neighbours . During her adolescence she came to know the works of Saint Teresa of Jesus which were a great influence in her spiritual life .   From 1909 , Anzelm Gądek , a Servant of God and a Discalced Carmelite , became her spiritual guide . It was he who founded the first active-contemplative Congregation of the Carmelite Sisters of the Child Jesus , on 31 December 1921 . Janina became the first mother superior and a co-founder of the Congregation . From that time on , as Mother Teresa of St. Joseph , she started her service to God and people , poorest both in moral and material sense , in the district of Sosnowiec .   She had been the superior of the congregation for 25 years , till the day of her death . She followed the constitution of the congregation forming the life of the sisters in the spirit of the Divine Childhood and apostolic and charitable work among the poor . She had a special veneration to the Infant Jesus , Holy Eucharist , the most Holy Face of Jesus , Our Lady of Mt Carmel , and St. Joseph .   During the Second World War , she showed heroic courage saving many young girls from deportation to Germany by hiding them in the cloister . She helped refugees , soldiers of the Home Army , organized an orphanage and a canteen for the poor , and taught them clandestinely . In 1992 , she was posthumously honored by Yad Vashem in Jerusalem as Righteous Among the Nations for saving Jewish refugees .   After the Second World War , she was actively involved in new tasks of the Catholic Church in Poland . The people of Zagłębie district considered her to be simply their Mother . The sisters of the congregation taught catechism in the schools , ran a kindergarten and performed works of charity .   Her deep union with God was shown by magnanimous and servantlike love of neighbour . Throughout her life she cultivated the spirit of prayer and Carmelite self-denial .   She died in the opinion of holiness on 12 July 1946 in Sosnowiec . The process of her cause towards sainthood in the Archdiocese of Częstochowa lasted from 1983-88 . In May 2013 , Pope Francis signed the decree of her heroic virtues . Her earthly remains are found in the church of her congregation in Sosnowiec ( ul . Matki Teresy Kierocińskiej 25 ) .

neg: United Mission to Nepal The United Mission to Nepal ( UNM ) was established in 1954 as a co-operative missionary endeavour between the people of Nepal and a number of Christian groups working along the border in India . The mission has grown to include a large group of Christian organisations from 18 countries in four different continents , who seek to `` serve the people of Nepal , particularly those who live in poverty . . inspired by the love and teachings of Jesus Christ . ''   Several remarkable coincidences led to the formation of the United Mission to Nepal . During the 1951 revolution fighting had taken place just over the border from Raxaul and wounded combatants from both sides were treated at Duncan Hospital . As a result of this service , Dr Trevor Strong and Ernest Oliver were invited to visit Kathmandu after the revolution . They walked for several days and whilst in Kathmandu had an interview with B.P. Koirala , the Home Minister in His Majesty 's Government of Nepal ( HMGN ) , to explore the possibility of mission work . They were told that medical and educational work would be welcome , but open preaching prohibited . ( Pritchard 1973:91 ) These discussions dovetailed with a separate approach by the authorities in Tansen , a large hill-town half way between Nautanwa and Pokhara , to American missionaries Bob and Bethel Fleming and Carl and Betty Friedericks ( representing Methodist and Presbyterian missions ) . Contact had been made as a result of ornithological trips into Nepal in October 1949 and the winter of 1951 -- 52 during which medical assistance had been given to the people of Tansen . Eventually a letter came from S.K. Dikshit in the Department of Foreign Affairs , permitting a hospital in Tansen and clinics in Kathmandu . ( Lindell 1979 : 140-142 )   Lindell rightly refers to the foundation of UMN as `` some of the finest missionary statesmanship that has been exercised in the modern missionary movement ... the mistakes seen in India and other countries resulting from competition and independent action by denominational and separate organisations should not be repeated in Nepal . '' ( 1979:143 ) Methodist Bishop J.W. Pickett circulated an invitation letter from HMGN to other missions associated with the NBF in conjunction with the National Christian Council ( NCC ) of India with a view to `` establishing a Christian mission in Nepal on the widest possible cooperative basis , a combined interdenominational and international approach . '' ( Lindell 1979:144 ) The NCC endorsed this and the United Christian Mission to Nepal was founded in Nagpur in March 1954 .   There were eight founding missions . Bishop Pickett was the founding President of the Board and Ernest Oliver the first Executive Secretary . The Flemings had already commenced medical work in Kathmandu in January 1954 , and the Friedericks began medical work in Tansen in June 1954 , but the work quickly expanded and diversified into other areas , such as education and development of hydropower . The activities of the UMN have been clearly defined in five-yearly agreements , in the past with HMGN , and now with the Government of Nepal . There have always been clear prohibitions on proselytising , but the Christian nature of UMN and the personal faith of its workers is known and accepted . `` The Mission takes the terms seriously ... and has learned that its stay in Nepal rests on a mixture of invitation , permission and mutual agreement ; that it is temporary ... that it is in partnership with Nepali society . '' ( Lindell 1979:200 )

neg: Indira Chakravarty Indira Chakravarty is an Indian public health specialist , scholar and environmentalist . The Government of India honoured her , in 2014 , by awarding her the Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian award , for her contributions to the fields of public health and environment .

neg: Simone de Beauvoir Prize The Simone de Beauvoir Prize ( Prix Simone de Beauvoir pour la liberté des femmes ) is an international human rights prize for women 's freedom , awarded since 2008 to individuals or groups fighting for gender equality and opposing breaches of human rights . It is named after the French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir , known for her 1949 women 's rights treatise The Second Sex .   The prize was founded by Julia Kristeva on January 9 , 2008 , the 100th anniversary of de Beauvoir 's birth . It amounts to $ 20,000 and is funded by Éditions Gallimard and Culturesfrance .  Julia Kristeva , philosopher , is the head of the Simone de Beauvoir prize committee .   According to the organizers :  The prize is awarded every year to a remarkable personality whose courage and thoughts are examples for everybody , in the spirit of Simone de Beauvoir who wrote : `` The ultimate end , for which human beings should aim , is liberty , the only capable -LSB- thing -RSB- , to establish every end on . ''

neg: Ciaran McKeown Ciaran McKeown ( born 1943 ) is a former peace activist in Northern Ireland .   Born in Derry to a Roman Catholic family , McKeown served as a Dominican novice for eight months in his youth . He then attended Queen 's University Belfast , where he studied philosophy , becoming the first Catholic to be elected president of the university 's student council . He was also elected chair of the National Democrats , a ginger group linked with the National Democratic Party . He became president of the Union of Students in Ireland in 1969 , based in Dublin , and stood in Dublin South-West at the 1969 Irish general election , taking last place , with only 154 votes .   In 1970 , McKeown became a reporter for The Irish Times , then later worked for The Irish Press , as their Belfast correspondent . Given his experience of reporting on the emergence of The Troubles , he supported the 1975 creation of `` Women for Peace '' , a Northern Ireland-based movement , by Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan . When his involvement became more widely known , the movement changed its name to `` Community of Peace People , '' or simply `` Peace People '' .   Although McKeown became known as a thoughtful and calm presence in the leadership of the organisation , his criticisms of the reluctance of church authorities to speak out on sectarian issues did cause tensions . Corrigan and Williams won the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize , but McKeown was not made a party to it . However , the Ford Foundation made a grant to the group , which included a salary for McKeown , enabling him to become full-time editor of Peace by Peace , the group 's newspaper , also completing a year as editor of Fortnight Magazine , in 1977 .   McKeown , Corrigan and Williams all stepped down from the leadership posts in 1978 , although McKeown continued to edit Peace by Peace . His articles brought him into conflict with the group 's new leadership , while financial disagreements massively reduced the group 's membership . Ultimately , his belief that the group should call for special status for paramilitary prisoners led to a split , with Williams and her leading supporter , Peter McLachlan , resigning in February 1980 . McKeown could no longer survive on the group 's salary , nor could he find work as a journalist , so he retrained as a typesetter . He published his autobiography , The Passion of Peace , in 1984 ; this was almost immediately withdrawn following a claim that it libelled a journalist , although it was later reissued with an additional note .

neg: Amrita Pritam Amrita Pritam ( 31 August 1919 -- 31 October 2005 ) was an Indian writer and poet , who wrote in Punjabi and Hindi . She is considered the first prominent woman Punjabi poet , novelist , and essayist , and the leading 20th-century poet of the Punjabi language , who is equally loved on both sides of the India-Pakistan border . With a career spanning over six decades , she produced over 100 books of poetry , fiction , biographies , essays , a collection of Punjabi folk songs and an autobiography that were translated into several Indian and foreign languages .   She is most remembered for her poignant poem , Ajj aakhaan Waris Shah nu ( Today I invoke Waris Shah -- `` Ode to Waris Shah '' ) , an elegy to the 18th-century Punjabi poet , an expression of her anguish over massacres during the partition of India . As a novelist , her most noted work was Pinjar ( The Cage ) ( 1950 ) , in which she created her memorable character , Puro , an epitome of violence against women , loss of humanity and ultimate surrender to existential fate ; the novel was made into an award-winning film , Pinjar in 2003 .   When the former British India was partitioned into the independent states of India and Pakistan in 1947 , she migrated from Lahore , to India , though she remained equally popular in Pakistan throughout her life , as compared to her contemporaries like Mohan Singh and Shiv Kumar Batalvi .   Known as the most important voice for the women in Punjabi literature , in 1956 , she became the first woman to win the Sahitya Akademi Award for her magnum opus , a long poem , Sunehade ( Messages ) , later she received the Bharatiya Jnanpith , one of India 's highest literary awards , in 1982 for Kagaz Te Canvas ( The Paper and the Canvas ) . The Padma Shri came her way in 1969 and finally , Padma Vibhushan , India 's second highest civilian award , in 2004 , and in the same year she was honoured with India 's highest literary award , given by the Sahitya Akademi ( India 's Academy of Letters ) , the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship given to the `` immortals of literature '' for lifetime achievement .

neg: Joydeep Sircar Joydeep Sircar ( born 1947 ) is a mountaineer and mountain historian . In 1979 , he published his Himalayan handbook , an index of all the-then named peaks of 6096 meters ( 20000 feet ) and above in Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent , giving chronological entries of expeditions up to 1975 to each peak with a brief summary of results and references to expedition reports , after a decade of solitary research . He was inspired in this formidable undertaking by the pronouncement of the late Soli S. Mehta , Hony . Local Secretary of The Himalayan Club , that the task had never been attempted before and was well-nigh impossible . This book , introduced by the famous British mountaineer-explorer J. O. M. Roberts , one of Sircar 's idols , was the first one of its kind . Printed in 500 copies only , it received excellent international notices and became a basic reference resource .   In 1982 , Sircar was the first to suspect and draw public attention to the covert competition between India and Pakistan over the Siachen Glacier and coined the term Oropolitics to describe the use of mountaineering expeditions as a cloak for establishing territorial claims . His essay on this topic was published in abbreviated form in an article in The Telegraph newspaper of Calcutta . The full essay titled `` Oropolitics '' came out in Himalaya Sameeksha , a limited circulation magazine published by Kamala Mukherjee in Calcutta , and was subsequently reprinted in the prestigious Alpine Journal of London in 1984 . . India sent troops into the Siachen Glacier the same year .   Sircar surmised the existence of a feasible pass in Himachal Pradesh , India on the Himalayan divide between Kullu and Spiti Districts . He led three expeditions to the high range separating the Upper Parvati valley from the unexplored Debsa Glacier in 1992 , 1993 and 1995 . The Debsa Pass ( 5340 metres ) , named by him , was reached in 1993 and crossed on 21 September 1995 , and the team descended the unexplored West Debsa Glacier and followed the Debsa stream to the Parahio Valley and from there to the Spiti Valley . The pass has become a regular route as it saves 2 -- 3 days over the traditional Kullu-Spiti route by the Pin Parvati Pass ( 5319 metres ) .   Sircar has taken part in a number of other mountaineering expeditions , likes travelling to remote places , and is a poet , essayist , and wildlifer . He drew the attention of the Bombay Natural History Society in 2001 to the presence of large numbers of the endangered Bar-Headed Goose at Gharana Wetland Reserve , Jammu , which eventually led to this neglected sanctuary on the Indo-Pak border being classified as an Important Bird Area   He is also avidly interested in history and military matters , particularly aviation , and was the first to compose a brief biography of the World War II Beaufighter ace Flying Officer A.M.O. Pring , DFM , a childhood hero who flew and died in combat defending Calcutta from Japanese air attack and is buried at Calcutta . He followed this up with an expanded essay called Sergeant Pring and the Calcutta Hurricane in which an outline biography of Maurice Pring is combined with the pioneering study of a rare and little-known night-fighter , the Hawker Hurricane II C ( NF ) equipped with the pilot-operated AI Mark VI radar . Both essays have won praise from aviation cognoscenti.He has followed these pieces up with an article conclusively demonstrating that the Hurricane II C ( NF ) was , in fact , the first radar-equipped single-seater night-fighter . A selection of his English poetry is available in Poemhunter   In a recent article , Sircar has claimed to have solved the mystery of the Lake of No Return , Myanmar , which he visited in 2002 .

neg: Poona Pact The Poona Pact refers to an agreement between Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi signed on 24 September 1932 at Yerwada Central Jail in Pune , India . It was signed by Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and some other leaders to break the fast unto death undertaken by Gandhi in Yerwada prison to annul the Macdonald Award giving separate electorates to Dalits for electing members of state legislative assemblies in British India .   History of the Poona Pact  The British invited leaders of different parties in the Round Table Conferences in 1930-32 to draft a new law involving self-rule for the Indians . Mahatma Gandhi did not attend the first and the last but attended the second of the Conferences . The concept of separate electorates for the untouch was raised by Ambedkar . Similar provisions were already available for other minorities , including Muslims , Christians , Anglo-Indians and Sikhs . The British government agreed with Ambedkar 's contention and British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald 's Communal Award to the depressed classes was to be incorporated into the constitution in the governance of British India . Gandhi strongly opposed the Communal Award on the grounds that it would disintegrate Hindu society . Ambedkar vehemently criticised the way of handling the problems of the Harijans by Gandhiji . Gandhi took up a fast unto death in his prison cell in Poona , protesting that separate electorates were a device which would separate the untouchables from the Hindu society forever . He began an indefinite hunger strike at Yerwada Central Jail from 20 September 1932 to protest against this Award . A compromise was reached on 24 September 1932 .   The text uses the term `` Depressed Classes '' to denote Untouchables who were later called Scheduled Castes under India Act 1935 , and the later Indian Constitution of 1950 .

neg: 2011 Nobel Peace Prize The 2011 Nobel Peace Prize was jointly awarded to three female political activists . Two African and one Asian female were awarded for their persistence in obtaining equal rights for women .

neg: Muhammad Yunus Muhammad Yunus ( মুহাম্মদ ইউনূস born 28 June 1940 ) is a Bangladeshi social entrepreneur , banker , economist , and civil society leader who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for founding the Grameen Bank and pioneering the concepts of microcredit and microfinance . These loans are given to entrepreneurs too poor to qualify for traditional bank loans . In 2006 , Yunus and the Grameen Bank were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts through microcredit to create economic and social development from below '' . The Norwegian Nobel Committee said that `` lasting peace can not be achieved unless large population groups find ways in which to break out of poverty '' and that `` across cultures and civilizations , Yunus and Grameen Bank have shown that even the poorest of the poor can work to bring about their own development '' . Yunus has received several other national and international honours . He received the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2010 .   In 2008 , he was rated number 2 in Foreign Policy magazine 's list of the ` Top 100 Global Thinkers ' .   In February 2011 , Yunus together with Saskia Bruysten , Sophie Eisenmann and Hans Reitz co-founded Yunus Social Business -- Global Initiatives ( YSB ) . YSB creates and empowers social businesses to address and solve social problems around the world . As the international implementation arm for Yunus ' vision of a new , humane capitalism , YSB manages incubator funds for social businesses in developing countries and provides advisory services to companies , governments , foundations and NGOs .   In 2012 , he became Chancellor of Glasgow Caledonian University in Scotland . He is a member of the advisory board at Shahjalal University of Science and Technology . Previously , he was a professor of economics at Chittagong University in Bangladesh . He published several books related to his finance work . He is a founding board member of Grameen America and Grameen Foundation , which support microcredit .   Yunus also serves on the board of directors of the United Nations Foundation , a public charity created in 1998 by American philanthropist Ted Turner 's $ 1 billion gift to support UN causes .   In March 2011 , the Bangladesh government fired Yunus from his position at Grameen Bank , citing legal violations and an age limit on his position . Bangladesh 's High Court affirmed the removal on 8 March . Yunus and Grameen Bank are appealing the decision , claiming Yunus ' removal was politically motivated .   In March 2017 , the employees of Bangladesh 's Grameen Telecom ( GTC ) , established by Muhammad Yunus , sued him over alleged unpaid dues .

neg: United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights The United Nations Prizes in the Field of Human Rights were instituted by United Nations General Assembly resolution 2217 in 1966 .  They are intended to `` honour and commend people and organizations which have made an outstanding contribution to the promotion and protection of the human rights embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in other United Nations human rights instruments '' .   They were first awarded in 1968 , and they have been given out at five-year intervals since then .  The award ceremony traditionally takes place on 10 December , which the UN has designated Human Rights Day .  The recipients are selected by a special committee comprising the presidents of the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council and the chairs of the Commission on Human Rights , the Commission on the Status of Women , and the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights .   The physical token of the award is a metal plaque bearing the UN seal and an artistic design , and engraved with an appropriate citation .  In contrast to the Nobel prizes -- and the list of prizewinners shares much common ground with the Nobel Peace Prize in particular -- the UN 's awards are non-monetary in nature .

neg: United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 The United Kingdom held a national preselection to choose the song that would go to the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 . A Song for Europe 1979 was planned to take place at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 8 March .   After a day 's rehearsals at the Royal Albert Hall a strike by BBC technicians stopped the show . Audio recordings of the songs were voted on by 14 regional juries : Bristol , Bangor , Leeds , Norwich , Newcastle , Aberdeen , Birmingham , Belfast , Cardiff , Plymouth , Glasgow , Southampton and London . The jury in Manchester could not be contacted and since the winner had a more than 12 point winning margin , their scores were not included . This led to an immaterial tie for second place . The following day , the 12 songs were broadcast on Terry Wogan 's Radio 2 show and a recap of the top places , plus an interview with the winners took place on the BBC TV Show Nationwide the same evening . The Manchester scores were eventually verified , with song 12 ` Fantasy ' being awarded 2nd place ahead of song 6 ` Call My Name ' .   Black Lace were the winners of A Song for Europe with `` Mary Ann '' and went on to place 7th at the 1979 Eurovision Song Contest in Jerusalem , Israel .   This was also the first Eurovision since 1972 in which Terry Wogan did not provide either the television or radio commentary . Wogan had originally been scheduled to provide the television commentary but opted out of going to Israel following comments he made of the 1978 winner `` A-Ba-Ni-Bi '' sounding like `` I Wan na Be a Polar Bear '' . Instead his Radio 2 colleague John Dunn provided the television commentary . Ray Moore provided the radio commentary on both BBC Radio 1 and Radio 2 .

neg: Banker to the Poor Banker to the Poor : Micro-Lending and the Battle Against World Poverty is an autobiography of 2006 Nobel Peace Prize Winner and Grameen Bank founder Muhammad Yunus . This book shares the details of Yunus ' early life , moving into his college years , and into his years as a professor at Chittagong University . While a professor at Chittagong University , Yunus began to take notice of the extreme poverty of the villagers around him . In 1976 , Yunus incorporated the help of Maimuna Begum to collect data of people in Jobra who were living in poverty . Most of these impoverished people would take a loan from moneylenders to buy some raw material , using that raw material to create some product , and then selling back the good to the moneylender to repay the loan , earning a very meager profit . One woman interviewed made no more than two cents per day creating bamboo stools using this system . The list Begum brought back to Yunus named 42 women who were living on credit of 856 taka ( which is equivalent to 27 U.S. dollars ) .   Upon seeing this data , Yunus found it regrettable that all it took was 856 taka to bring these women to self-sustainability . He decided to loan them his personal money with no collateral attached and no interest on the loan . After this money was all repaid , he continued to survey the community to see if this was a rare occurrence . He found that the cycle of essential enslavement to moneylenders was far too common throughout the country of Bangladesh . Yunus decided that something must be done . He went to his local bank and asked them to loan money to these poor and destitute borrowers . His local bank refused . He took the case clear up to the top bank in Dhaka , finally securing credit to loan to local borrowers . Thus , in January 1977 , the Grameen Bank was born .   This bank started under completely new principles , different than any other bank in Bangladesh at the time . Its premise was that each borrower had a human right to credit . The borrowers had to form groups of five people in order to provide some type of security on the loan . A loan was then given to two members of the group . After payments were successfully made for six straight weeks , the next two members could take out a loan from Grameen . The chairperson is usually the last person to obtain ability to borrow . The repayment terms for the loans follows five basic guidelines : ( 1 ) loans last one year , ( 2 ) installments on the loan are to be paid weekly , ( 3 ) repayment on the loan begins one week after the loan is extended , ( 4 ) the interest rate is 20 % on the loan , and ( 5 ) repayment every week is 2 % of the total loan for fifty weeks straight . This micro-credit program , started by Grameen , has been tested throughout Bangladesh and has even been expanded into much of the world today through similar programs of different names . This micro-credit system has been proven to work over and over again with minor variances on the major principles .   In 1987 a Grameen program opened up in a country other than Bangladesh -- Malaysia -- and soon micro-credit banks based off the Grameen bank appeared in countries such as the Philippines , India , Nepal , Vietnam , China , Latin America , Africa , the United States , and Europe . The micro-finance model of Grameen has proved versatile and has adapted well to the customs of many countries .   As Grameen continued to grow , it branched out into new projects to aid the poor . In 1986 Grameen acquired 783 ponds to eventually start a Fisheries Foundation , utilizing previously unused resources while providing jobs for the local poor . Grameen Uddog ( which means Grameen Initiatives ) began in 1993 , created an avenue for poor textile weavers in Bangladesh to sell their quality cloth to the garment industry . A cell phone business was the next to open up , in 1997 . One Grameen borrower in each rural Bangladesh village was entrusted with a cell phone and the job of selling telephone service to her neighbors . GrameenPhone is the name of the nonprofit company that deals directly with the villagers . This company , in turn , buys airtime from a for profit company called Grameen Telecom . Grameen also formed a nonprofit company called Grameen Shakti ( meaning energy ) in 1996 to provide renewable energy sources . Also in 1996 , an Internet provider called Grameen Cybernet was introduced . To further education and research purposes in Bangladesh , a second internet provider called Grameen Communications was started as well .   Banker to the Poor concludes with a description of Yunus ' dream -- a poverty-free world . Yunus believes that charity is not the way to become a poverty-free world . Instead , he states , `` the real issue is creating a level playing field for everybody , giving every human being a fair chance . ''   The Italian film company Eurofilm s.r.l. owns the worldwide and exclusive film and television rights of the book .  Film director Marco Amenta is currently working on making the film Banker to the Poor for the big screen , based on the international bestseller .   The movie tells the story of Muhammad Yunus , a Bengali economist and banker , inventor of microcredit and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 along with his Grameen Bank . For the script of his Banker to the Poor , written together with the famous Sergio Donati , Amenta was awarded and praised by Robert De Niro at the Tribeca Film Festival . Italian producer Simonetta Amenta purchased the film rights to the story through her company Eurofilm - before Professor Yunus won the Nobel Prize .

neg: Gitanjali Literary Prize The Gitanjali Literary Prize is a Franco-Indian literary award established in 2012 . It was founded by the Mohsen Hachtroudi Foundation and CHG Earth Group ( a hotel company in India ) . A Francophone author and an Indian author each receive a prize which includes a Gitanjali Medal , a literary sojourn of 15 days , and a translation of the work . The French book will be edited in India by an Indian editor and the book in any of the Indian languages will be published by a French editor . Any Francophone country is eligible as are many of the major Indian regional languages . The prize is open to all works and genres that correspond to the theme of the year . The prize is named for the collection of poems Gitanjali ( 1910 ) by Nobel-laureate Rabindranath Tagore .   Fariba Hachtroudi is a Francophone writer of Iranian origin , President of the MoHa Foundation and co-founder of the prize , she said : `` The prize has two aims : to contribute to the promotion of the French language in India and also to the promotion of Indian works in France . Works by noted Indian writers not only in English , but in other regional languages like Hindi , Tamil , Kannada , Malayalam and Bengali will also be eligible . ''

neg: 2010 Nobel Peace Prize The 2010 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to imprisoned Chinese human rights activist `` for his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China '' . The laureate , once an eminent scholar , was reportedly little-known inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) at the time of the award due to official censorship ; he is a veteran of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , and a co-author of the Charter 08 manifesto for which he was sentenced to 11 years in prison on 25 December 2009 . Liu , who was backed by Václav Havel and Desmond Tutu , received the award among a record field of more than 200 nominees .   The decision , while widely praised by foreign intellectuals and politicians , was attacked by the Chinese government and the state media . A number of countries , including Saudi Arabia and Russia , also denounced the award and what they regarded as interference in China 's domestic affairs . Following the announcement , official censorship was applied within China -- on the Internet , television , and in print media . The government strongly denounced the award , and summoned the Norwegian ambassador in Beijing to make a formal protest . The Chinese authorities arrested citizens who attempted to celebrate . Liu 's wife was put under house-arrest before the decision of the Nobel Committee was announced .   Chinese diplomats moved to pressure other countries not to attend the award ceremony , which was scheduled for 10 December . Western missions in Oslo received warning letters from their Chinese counterparts ; the deputy foreign minister also warned countries of `` the consequences '' . In December , the Chinese foreign ministry continued the rhetorical assault , claiming `` more than 100 countries and international organisations -LSB- had -RSB- expressed explicit support of China 's position '' . In the end , 46 countries attended of the 65 invited ( People 's Republic of China and 19 other nations declined invitations ) . China 's official news agency , Xinhua , attacked the West for its `` Cold-War or even colonial mentality '' , and for daring to `` regard themselves as the judge , the teacher -LSB- who -RSB- assume that they can forever distort the fact and block the truth by using political maneuvers . '' Strong rhetoric and denunciations of the West continued from official sources until after the ceremony .   Liu is the first person of Chinese nationality to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , and the first to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China . Liu is the third person to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize while in prison or detention after Germany 's Carl von Ossietzky ( 1935 ) and Burma 's Aung San Suu Kyi ( 1991 ) . As the laureate was absent , Liu 's place on the podium was unoccupied ; Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann read I Have No Enemies , an essay that Liu had written for his trial in December 2009 , in place of the acceptance speech .

neg: Four Noble Truths The Four Noble Truths refer to and express the basic orientation of Buddhism in a short expression : we crave and cling to impermanent states and things , which are dukkha , `` incapable of satisfying '' and painful . This craving keeps us caught in samsara , the endless cycle of repeated rebirth and dying again , and the dukkha that comes with it . There is , however , a way to end this cycle , namely by attaining nirvana , cessation of craving , whereafter rebirth and associated dukkha will no longer arise again . This can be accomplished by following the eightfold path , restraining oneself , cultivating discipline , and practicing mindfulness and meditation .   In short form , the four truths are dukkha , samudaya ( `` arising , '' `` coming together '' ) , nirodha ( `` cessation , '' `` confinement '' ) , and magga , the path leading to cessation . As the `` Four Noble Truths '' ( Sanskrit : catvāri āryasatyāni ; Pali : cattāri ariyasaccāni ) , they are `` the truths of the Noble Ones , '' the truths or realities which are understood by the `` worthy ones `` Encyclopædia Britannica , Arhat ( Buddhism ) who have attained nirvana .   In the sutras , Buddhist religious texts , the four truths have both a symbolic and a propositional function . They represent the awakening and liberation of the Buddha , but also the possibility of liberation for all sentient beings , describing how release from craving is to be reached . In the Pali canon scriptures , the four truths appear in a `` network of teachings , '' as part of `` the entire dhamma matrix , '' which have to be taken together . They provide a conceptual framework for introducing and explaining Buddhist thought , which has to be personally understood or `` experienced '' .   The function of the four truths , and their importance , developed over time , when prajna , or `` liberating insight , '' came to be regarded as liberating in itself , instead of or in addition to the practice of dhyana , meditation . This `` liberating insight '' gained a prominent place in the sutras , and the four truths came to represent this liberating insight , as part of the enlightenment story of the Buddha .   The four truths became of central importance in the Theravada tradition of Buddhism , which holds to the idea that insight into the four truths is liberating in itself . They are less prominent in the Mahayana tradition , which sees the higher aims of insight into sunyata , emptiness , and following the Bodhisattva path as central elements in their teachings and practice . The Mahayana tradition reinterpreted the four truths to explain how a liberated being can still be `` pervasively operative in this world . '' Beginning with the exploration of Buddhism by western colonialists in the 19th century and the development of Buddhist modernism , they came to be often presented in the west as the central teaching of Buddhism .

neg: Centre for Women's Development Studies The Centre for Women 's Development Studies ( CWDS ) was founded in 1980 by a group of scholars and activists committed to expanding and transforming accepted notions of gender-related research and action across the social sciences . The establishment of the Centre was a direct outcome of the experiences of its founders -- some of them had been an integral part of the path-breaking Towards Equality ( Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India , 1974 ) while others had participated in the Indian Council of Social Science Research 's introduction of women 's studies ( 1976 -- 80 ) .   Through its research , action , documentation , training and networking in the intervening years , the Centre has been steadily deepening its critical analyses of trends and issues related to women and gender . Seeking new directions in feminist scholarship , its faculty have initiated and facilitated multi-disciplinary explorations , found new institutional partners as well as shared its research findings with a growing network of scholars and activists . In response to the major economic , political and cultural shifts and unanticipated challenges that have brought us into the twenty-first century , CWDS is effecting a synergy between existing concerns and new compulsions .   The CWDS is among the most well-known institutions committed to the theory and practice of women 's studies and gender justice in the region . It consists of a faculty with diverse research interests , actively promotes advocacy and policy interventions , and houses an impressive library and documentation centre . Located in the heart of New Delhi , the Centre attracts scholars , students , activists , and many others from India and abroad who draw on its resources and varied expertise .

neg: Triveni Acharya Triveni Acharya is an Indian journalist and activist living in Mumbai , best known for her work with the anti-sex-trafficking group the Rescue Foundation .   The group was founded by her husband , Balkrishna Acharya , but Triveni Acharya assumed its presidency following his death in a car accident in 2005 . The organization is devoted to the `` rescue , rehabilitation and repatriation of victims for human trafficking from different parts of India , Nepal & Bangladesh and sold for forced prostitution '' , and has been conducting `` brothel raids '' since 1993 . The organization frees roughly 300 girls a year , and also provides counseling , job training , and HIV testing . Because these raids often result in serious financial loss or imprisonment for sex traffickers , Acharya has received several death threats as the result of her work .   The Rescue Foundation has received several national and international awards for its work under Acharya 's presidency . In 2008 , the group received a Stree Shakti Award for Women Entrepreneurs . Taiwanese president Ma Ying-Jeou presented the Acharya the Asia Democracy and Human Rights Award of the Taiwan Foundation for Democracy , along with a cash grant of US$ 100,000 ; the organization had been nominated for the award by a former trafficking victim saved by the Foundation . In 2011 , Acharya herself won the Civil Courage Prize of The Train Foundation , awarded annually to those `` who resolutely combat evil '' . She shared the prize with Lydia Cacho Ribeiro , a Mexican journalist also awarded for her efforts against `` sex trafficking , domestic violence and child pornography '' . In 2013 , Triveni became the 2013 Humanitarian Honoree of World of Children Award in conjunction with her work with The Rescue Foundation . Along with the recognition the award came with a $ 75,000 cash grant .

neg: Burger's Daughter Burger 's Daughter is a political and historical novel by the South African Nobel Prize in Literature-winner Nadine Gordimer , first published in the United Kingdom in June 1979 by Jonathan Cape . The book was expected to be banned in South Africa , and a month after publication in London the import and sale of the book in South Africa was prohibited by the Publications Control Board . Three months later , the Publications Appeal Board overturned the banning and the restrictions were lifted .   Burger 's Daughter details a group of white anti-apartheid activists in South Africa seeking to overthrow the South African government . It is set in the mid-1970s , and follows the life of Rosa , the title character , as she comes to terms with her father Lionel Burger 's legacy as an activist in the South African Communist Party ( SACP ) . The perspective shifts between Rosa 's internal monologue ( often directed towards her father or her lover Conrad ) , and the omniscient narrator . The novel is rooted in the history of the anti-apartheid struggle and references to actual events and people from that period , including Nelson Mandela and the 1976 Soweto uprising .   Gordimer herself was involved in South African struggle politics , and she knew many of the activists , including Bram Fischer , Mandela 's treason trial defence lawyer . She modelled the Burger family in the novel loosely on Fischer 's family , and described Burger 's Daughter as `` a coded homage '' to Fischer . While banned in South Africa , a copy of the book was smuggled into Mandela 's prison cell on Robben Island , and he reported that he `` thought well of it '' .   The novel was generally well-received by critics . A reviewer for The New York Times said that Burger 's Daughter is Gordimer 's `` most political and most moving novel '' , and a review in The New York Review of Books described the style of writing as `` elegant '' , `` fastidious '' and belonging to a `` cultivated upper class '' . A critic in The Hudson Review had mixed feelings about the book , saying that it `` gives scarcely any pleasure in the reading but which one is pleased to have read nonetheless '' . Burger 's Daughter won the Central News Agency Literary Award in 1980 .

neg: Herta Müller Herta Müller ( born 17 August 1953 ) is a Romanian-born German novelist , poet , essayist and recipient of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Literature . Born in Nițchidorf , Timiș County in Romania , her native language is German . Since the early 1990s she has been internationally established , and her works have been translated into more than twenty languages .   Müller is noted for her works depicting the effects of violence , cruelty and terror , usually in the setting of Communist Romania under the repressive Nicolae Ceaușescu regime which she has experienced herself . Many of her works are told from the viewpoint of the German minority in Romania and are also a depiction of the modern history of the Germans in the Banat and Transylvania . Her much acclaimed 2009 novel The Hunger Angel ( Atemschaukel ) portrays the deportation of Romania 's German minority to Stalinist Soviet Gulags during the Soviet occupation of Romania for use as German forced labor .   Müller has received more than twenty awards to date , including the Kleist Prize ( 1994 ) , the Aristeion Prize ( 1995 ) , the International Dublin Literary Award ( 1998 ) and the Franz Werfel Human Rights Award ( 2009 ) . On 8 October 2009 , the Swedish Academy announced that she had been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature , describing her as a woman `` who , with the concentration of poetry and the frankness of prose , depicts the landscape of the dispossessed '' .


query: Mexico was a Spanish colony.

pos: Mexico Mexico ( México , -LSB- ˈme.xi.ko -RSB- , modern Nahuatl ) , officially the United Mexican States ( -LSB- Estados Unidos Mexicanos , links = no -RSB- , ) , is a federal republic in the southern portion of North America . It is bordered to the north by the United States ; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean ; to the southeast by Guatemala , Belize , and the Caribbean Sea ; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico . Covering almost two million square kilometers ( over 760,000 sq mi ) , Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area and the 13th largest independent nation in the world . With an estimated population of over 120 million , it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world while being the second most populous country in Latin America . Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city . Other metropolises include Guadalajara , Monterrey , Puebla , Toluca , Tijuana and León .   Pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations , such as the Olmec , Toltec , Teotihuacan , Zapotec , Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans . In 1521 , the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan , which was administered as the viceroyalty of New Spain . Three centuries later , this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colony 's Mexican War of Independence . The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by economic instability and many political changes . The Mexican -- American War ( 1846 -- 48 ) led to the territorial cession of the extensive northern territories to the United States . The Pastry War , the Franco-Mexican War , a civil war , two empires and a domestic dictatorship occurred through the 19th century . The dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 , which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country 's current political system .   Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity . The Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) partners , especially the United States . Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , joining in 1994 . It is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts . By 2050 , Mexico could become the world 's fifth or seventh largest economy . The country is considered both a regional power and middle power , and is often identified as an emerging global power . Due to its rich culture and history , Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Mexico is a megadiverse country , ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity . In 2016 it was the eighth most visited country in the world , with 35 million international arrivals . Mexico is a member of the United Nations , the World Trade Organization , the G8 +5 , the G20 , the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance .

pos: Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence ( -LSB- Guerra de Independencia de México , links = no -RSB- ) was an armed conflict , and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain . The war had its antecedent in Napoleon 's French invasion of Spain in 1808 ; it extended from the Grito de Dolores by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16 , 1810 , to the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees led by Agustín de Iturbide to Mexico City on September 27 , 1821 . September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day .   The movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions . By that time the educated elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms . Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms and a deep economic crisis in New Spain caused discomfort among the Creole ( native-born ) elite .   The dramatic political events in Europe , the French Revolutionary Wars and the conquests of Napoleon deeply influenced events in New Spain . In 1808 , Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were forced to abdicate in favor of the French Emperor , who then made his elder brother Joseph king . The same year , the ayuntamiento ( city council ) of Mexico City , supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray , claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king . That led to a coup against the viceroy ; when it was suppressed , the leaders of the movement were jailed .   Despite the defeat in Mexico City , small groups of rebels met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule . In 1810 , after being discovered , Querétaro conspirators chose to take up arms on September 16 in the company of peasants and indigenous inhabitants of Dolores ( Guanajuato ) , who were called to action by the secular Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo , former rector of the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo .   After 1810 the independence movement went through several stages , as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain . At first they recognized the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII over Spain and its colonies , but later the leaders took more radical positions , including such issues of social order as the abolition of slavery . Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo , which gave the insurgency its own legal framework . After the defeat of Morelos , the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero . By 1820 , the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur and Veracruz .   The reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule . Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain ; they sought an alliance with the former insurgent resistance . Agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero . Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala , which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain . It called for monarchy in an independent Mexico . Finally , the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27 , 1821 .   After that , the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire . This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a federal republic in 1823 , due to internal conflicts and the separation of Central America from Mexico .   After some Spanish reconquest attempts , including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829 , Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836 .

neg: List of Mexican saints This is a list of Mexican saints , blesseds , venerables , and Servants of God , as recognized by the Roman Catholic Church . These people were born , died , or lived their religious life in the present territory of Mexico . Because of missionaries who spent greater or lesser amounts of time in Mexico en route to other mission lands , exact numbers of Mexican saints vary .   The Catholic Church has been present in what is now Mexico since the earliest years of the sixteenth century . As early as 1517 , the expedition of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba brought Catholicism to the Yucatan , where the first diocese in continental North America would be erected in 1518 . Mexico 's first saint was canonized in 1862 . Today , Mexico accounts for more saints and Blesseds than any other country in the Western Hemisphere .

neg: Colonization Colonization ( or colonisation ) is a process by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components .   The term is derived from the Latin word colere , which means `` to inhabit '' . Also , colonization refers strictly to migration , for example , to settler colonies in America or Australia , trading posts , and plantations , while colonialism deals with this , along with ruling the existing indigenous peoples of styled `` new territories '' .   Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world . In many settled colonies , Western European settlers formed a large majority of the population . Examples include the Americas , Australia and New Zealand . These colonies were occasionally called ` neo-Europes ' . In other places , Western European settlers formed minority groups , who were often dominant in their places of settlement .   When Britain started to settle Australia , New Zealand and various other smaller islands , they often regarded the landmasses as terra nullius . Terra nullius meaning 'em pty land ' in Latin . Due to the absence of European farming techniques , the land was deemed unaltered by man and therefore treated as uninhabited , despite the presence of indigenous populations .  In the 19th century , laws and ideas such as Mexico 's General Colonization Law and the United States ' Manifest destiny encouraged further colonization of the Americas .

neg: Nuño de Guzmán Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán ( ca. 14901558 ) was a Spanish conquistador and colonial administrator in New Spain . He was the governor of the province of Pánuco from 1525 to 1533 and of Nueva Galicia from 1529 to 1534 , President of the first Royal Audiencia of Mexico ( High Court ) from 1528 to 1530 . He founded several cities in Northwestern Mexico , including Guadalajara .   Originally a bodyguard of Charles V of Spain , he was sent to Mexico to counterbalance the influence of the leader of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés , since the King worried he was becoming too powerful . As Governor of Pánuco , Guzmán cracked down hard on the supporters of Cortés , stripping him and his supporters of property and rights . He conducted numerous expeditions of conquest into the northwestern areas of Mexico , enslaving thousands of Indians and shipping them to the Caribbean colonies . In the resulting power struggles where he also made himself an enemy of important churchmen , Guzmán came out the loser .   In 1537 , he was arrested for treason , abuse of power and mistreatment of the indigenous inhabitants of his territories , and he was sent to Spain in shackles . His subsequent reputation , in scholarship and popular discourse , has been that of a cruel , violent and irrational tyrant , but recent scholarship has suggested that while he was certainly no benevolent ruler or a friend of the Indians , his policies and actions were initially supported by the Spanish Crown and in line with contemporary heavyhanded colonial practices . His legacy has partly been colored by the fact that history was written largely by his political opponents such as Hernán Cortés , Juan de Zumárraga and Vasco de Quiroga .

neg: Bermeja Bermeja is an islet lying off the north coast of the Yucatán peninsula according to several maps of the Gulf of Mexico from the 16th to the 20th centuries . Despite being located somewhat precisely in relation to neighboring islands by notable Spanish cartographers of the 16th century , the island was not found in a 1997 survey , nor in an extensive 2009 study conducted by the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) on behalf of the Mexican Chamber of Deputies . Interest in the island arose in late 2008 , fueled by the fact that if such an island existed , it would be important for determining the boundaries for exploitation rights of oil in Hoyos de Dona ( Doughnut Holes ) in the Gulf of Mexico .   The island was first mentioned by Alonso de Santa Cruz in El Yucatán e Islas Adyacentes , a list of islands of the region published in Madrid in 1539 . Its precise location is given in Espejo de navegantes ( Seville , ca. 1540 ) by Alonso de Chaves , who wrote that from a distance , the small island looks `` blondish or reddish '' ( in Spanish : bermeja ) . According to Michel Antochiw Kolpa , a French-Mexican cartographer , since 1844 British maps have reported the sinking of the island some sixty fathoms below .   Explanations for its apparent disappearance include an erroneous observation by the early cartographers , shifts in the geography of the ocean floor , rising sea levels and conspiracy theories claiming that the CIA destroyed the island to expand the economic zone allotted to the United States .

neg: Haciendas de Jalisco y Aledaños (1506–1821) Haciendas de Jalisco y Aledaños ( 1506 -- 1821 ) is a book written in Spanish by Ricardo Lancaster-Jones y Verea ( 1905 -- 83 ) , it 's about the rural history of haciendas ( rural estates ) in the State of Jalisco ( Mexico ) , since the origins of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia ( New Galicia ) in the earliest 16th Century , to the earliest days of the Independence of Mexico in 1821 . It 's the first publication in its kind in Western Mexico and the most complete book about rural properties of the State of Jalisco and their development through time .   A summary of this book is mentioned in the `` Boletín '' of the Real Academia Española ( 1975 ) ; it also appears in the bibliography of many contemporary authors like Rodolfo Fernández ( 2003 ) , Jean Meyer ( 1990 ) , Ramón María Serrera ( 1977 ) , Eric Van Young ( 1983 ) , etc. .

neg: Pablo Tac Pablo Tac ( 1822 -- 1841 ) was a Luiseño ( Quechnajuichom also spelt `` Qéchngawichum '' ) Indian and indigenous scholar who provided a rare contemporary Native American perspective on the institutions and early history of Alta California . He created the first writing system for Luiseño , and his work is the `` only primary source of Luiseño language written by a Luiseño until the twentieth century . ''   Tac was born of Luiseño parents at Mission San Luis Rey de Francia and attended the Mission school . A promising student , he ( along with another boy ) was singled out by the Franciscan missionary , Father Antonio Peyrí , to accompany Peyrí when he left California in 1832 . `` On January 15 , 1834 , Father Peyrí , Pablo , and Agapito left San Fernando College -LSB- Mexico City -RSB- and in February boarded a ship for Europe . They travelled via New York and France , arriving in Barcelona , Spain , on June 21 . The ` New ' World was coming to meet the ` Old ' World . '' Tac arrived in Rome in September 1834 and was enrolled in the College of the Propaganda , studying Latin grammar . He went on to study rhetoric , humanities , and philosophy in preparation for missionary work , but he died in 1841 .   As a student , Tac wrote a Luiseño grammar and dictionary for the linguist Giuseppi Mezzofanti , and notably included a history as part of his manuscript . He created a way of writing Luiseño that drew on Latin and Spanish , which is different from the modern , decolonized way of writing Luiseño .   Tac also wrote an essay on the `` Conversion of the San Luiseños of Alta California . '' The latter includes information on aboriginal lifeways ( including dances and games ) and the history and organization of the Mission , along with two drawings by Tac . Tac authored an early account of life at Mission San Luis Rey entitled Indian Life and Customs at Mission San Luis Rey : A Record of California Mission Life by Pablo Tac , An Indian Neophyte ( written circa 1835 , edited and translated by Minna Hewes and Gordon Hewes in 1958 ) . In the book , Tac lamented the rapid decline of his people :   In Quechla not long ago there were 5,000 souls , with all their neighboring lands . Through a sickness that came to California 2,000 souls died , and 3,000 were left . ''   Tac went on to describe the preferential treatment the padres received :   In the mission of San Luis Rey de Francia the Fernandino -LSB- sic -RSB- father is like a king . He has his pages , alcaldes , majordomos , musicians , soldiers , gardens , ranchos , livestock ... ''   Tac also noted that his people initially attempted to bar the Spaniards from their southern California homelands . When the foreigners invaders approached ,  '' ... the chief stood up ... and met them , '' demanding , '' ... what are you looking for ? Leave our country ! ''   For the 2005 Venice Biennale , Luiseño artist James Luna created an artwork dedicated to the memory of Pablo Tac . The piece , titled Emendatio , included three installations , Spinning Woman , Apparitions : Past and Present , and The Chapel for Pablo Tac , as well a personal performance in Venice , Renewal . It was sponsored by the National Museum of the American Indian .

neg: Tenochtitlan Mexico-Tenochtitlan ( México-Tenochtitlan , -LSB- ˈmexiko tenotʃˈtitlan -RSB- ) , commonly known as Tenochtitlan ( -LSB- Mēxihco-Tenōchtitlan , meːˈʃíʔ.ko te.noːt͡ʃ.ˈtí.t͡ɬan -RSB- ) was a Mexica ( city-state ) located on an island in Lake Texcoco , in the Valley of Mexico . Founded on June 20 , 1325 , it became the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century , until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521 .   At its peak it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas . It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain . Today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in Mexico City 's downtown .   Tenochtitlan was one of two Nahua āltēpetl ( city-states ) on the island , the other being Tlatelolco .

neg: Antonio López de Santa Anna Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( -LSB- anˈtonjo ˈlopes ðe sant ( a ) ˈana -RSB- ; 21 February 1794 -- 21 June 1876 ) , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna and sometimes called `` the Napoleon of the West '' , was a Mexican criollo who fought to defend royalist New Spain and then for Mexican independence . He served as a Mexican politician and general . He greatly influenced early Mexican politics and government , and was a skilled soldier and cunning politician , who dominated Mexican history in the first half of the nineteenth century to such an extent that historians often refer to it as the `` Age of Santa Anna '' . He was called `` the Man of Destiny '' , who `` loomed over his time like a melodramatic colossus , the uncrowned monarch . '' Santa Anna first opposed the movement for Mexican independence from Spain , but then fought in support of it . Though not the first caudillo ( military leader ) of modern Mexico , he `` represents the stereotypical caudillo in Mexican history , '' and among the earliest . Conservative historian , intellectual , and politician Lucas Alamán wrote that `` The history of Mexico since 1822 might accurately be called the history of Santa Anna 's revolutions ... . His name plays the major role in all the political events of the country and its destiny has become intertwined with his . ''   He was a valiant defender of Mexico against foreign invaders , becoming a hero of the nation . Santa Anna had great power in the independent country ; during a turbulent 40-year career , he served as general at crucial points and served eleven non-consecutive presidential terms over a period of 22 years . A wealthy landowner , he built a firm political base in the major port city of Veracruz . He was perceived as a hero by his troops ; he sought glory for himself and his army , and independent Mexico . He repeatedly rebuilt his reputation after major losses . Historians and many Mexicans also rank him as perhaps the principal inhabitant even today of Mexico 's pantheon of `` those who failed the nation . '' His centralist rhetoric and military failures resulted in Mexico losing just over half its territory , beginning with the Texas Revolution of 1836 , and culminating with the Mexican Cession of 1848 following its defeat by the United States in the Mexican -- American War .   His political positions changed frequently in his lifetime ; `` his opportunistic politics made him a Liberal , Conservative , and uncrowned king . '' He was overthrown for the final time by the liberal Revolution of Ayutla in 1854 and lived most of his later years in exile .

neg: Hispanic (disambiguation) Hispanic means `` of or from Spain '' . The term is commonly used to refer to the people and languages of what is now Spain from the historic period during the Roman Empire .   It may especially refer to :   Derived from the name of the Roman province of Hispania ( Modern day Spain , Portugal , Andorra and Gibraltar in the Iberian Peninsula ) .  Related to , or derived from , the Spanish people or the culture of Spain , Hispanidad or other Hispanophone countries .  Related to , or derived from , the countries and culture of the people of Hispanic America .  Related to , or derived from , Hispanic Americans living in the United States and their culture .  Relating to the Spanish and Mexican period of colonial rule in the Philippines .  Relating to the Spanish and Mexican derived influences on the Culture of the Philippines , but not in relation to said Filipino culture or the Filipino people , nor to that which derives from these .

neg: List of constitutions of Mexico Since declaring independence in 1821 , Mexico has adopted a number of constitutions or other documents of basic law with constitutional effects . Not all these can be considered constitutions , and not all of them enjoyed universal application . Those enacted in 1824 , 1857 , and 1917 are generally considered full-fledged , operational constitutions . The Constitution of 1824 established the framework of a federated republic , following the short-lived monarchy of Agustín de Iturbide ( in 1821 -- 22 ) . The Constitution of 1857 was the framework set by Mexican liberals that incorporated particular laws into the constitution . The Constitution of 1917 was drafted by the faction that won the Mexican Revolution , known as the Constitutionalists for their adherence to the Constitution of 1857 . It strengthened the anticlerical framework of the 1857 constitution , empowered the state to expropriate private property , and set protections for organized labor . The 1917 Constitution was significantly revised in 1992 under Carlos Salinas de Gortari , eliminating anticlerical restrictions and strengthening private property rights against the State .

neg: Conscription in Mexico Military Service in Mexico ( in Spanish , Servicio Militar Nacional , or SMN ) currently involves all males reaching the age of eighteen years . Selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme : those who draw a black ball must serve as `` availability reservists '' , that is , they are not required to perform any activities whatsoever and will receive their discharge card at the end of the year .   The ones who get a white ball serve in a Batallón del Servicio Militar Nacional ( National Military Service Battalion ) composed entirely of one-year SMN conscripts . In certain cities , such as Veracruz and Ciudad Madero , the lottery system also includes a blue ball ; whoever draws it must serve in the navy .   In 2003 , President Vicente Fox Quesada reformed the law to allow for voluntary Military Service to be performed by females of military age .   Conscripts are trained in basic combat with fire weapons , in one Infantry Battalion .   Their formation was brought about after German submarine attacks against Mexican oil tankers that were providing fuel and material to the Allies during World War II . These attacks eventually caused the Mexican government to declare war on Nazi Germany and the other Axis powers . Mexico sent an expeditionary force , the Escuadrón 201 , to fight in the Pacific War .

neg: Anti-Mexican sentiment Anti-Mexican sentiment is a negative attitude to people of Mexican descent , Mexican culture and/or accents of Mexican Spanish most commonly found in the United States .   In general it is closely associated with Mexican and United States Independence wars , and the struggle over Southwestern territories that once belonged to Spain through the establishment of building Catholic Missions . This eventually would lead to war between the two nations and the defeat of Mexico which came with a great loss of territory . In the 20th century , anti-Mexican sentiment continued to grow after the Zimmermann Telegram incident between the Mexican government during the Mexican Revolution and the German Empire during World War I , . Most of all , anti-Mexican sentiment in the USA stemmed from perception that blame Mexicans for illegal immigration .

neg: Plan of Casa Mata The Plan of Casa Mata ( Spanish : Plan de Casa Mata ) was formulated to elect a new constituent congress , which the monarchy of Agustín de Iturbide , had dissolved in 1822 . The Plan of Casa Mata sought to establish a republic .   In December 1822 , Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria signed the Plan de Casa Mata on February 1 , 1823 , as a start of their efforts to overthrow Emperor Agustín de Iturbide . Iturbide had formulated the Plan of Iguala in 1821 , which united insurgents and royalist forces and Mexico 's independence in September 1821 . The plan called for a constitutional monarchy , and when no European monarch presented himself as a candidate , the Mexican Congress proclaimed Iturbide as Emperor of Mexico in May 1822 . Commanding the country like he had commanded the army , he dissolved the Congress and ordered dissidents to be imprisoned .   Several insurrections arose in the provinces , which were choked by the army , except for the one headed by Santa Anna in Veracruz , because this military man had an agreement with General Echávarri , who commanded the imperial forces that fought Santa Anna . By agreement of both , the Plan de Casa Mata was proclaimed on February 1 , 1823 . This plan did not recognize the First Mexican Empire and requested the meeting of a new Constituent Congress . The insurrectionists sent their proposal to the provincial delegations and requested their adhesion to the plan . In the course of only six weeks , the Plan de Casa Mata had arrived at remote places , like Texas , and almost all the provinces had been united to the plan .   When a provincial delegation accepted the Plan de Casa Mata , it withdrew its obedience toward the imperial government and assumed a sovereign attitude within its province . Agustín de Iturbide was isolated without more support than Mexico City and some fractions of the army , he installed the dissolved constituent Congress again , abdicated the crown . He left the country in March 1823 , for Italian exile with the promise of a 25,000 peso annual payment if he remained there . The 1824 Constitution was adopted the following year .

neg: Champ d'Asile Champ d'Asile ( `` Field of Asylum '' ) was a short-lived settlement founded in Texas in January 1818 by 20 French Bonapartist veterans of the Napoleonic Wars from the Vine and Olive Colony . The party was led by General Charles Lallemand . Land was offered to French settlers on March 3 , 1817 , after a vote by the United States Congress . Champ d'Asile was situated along the Trinity River and was abandoned in July of the same year .   Lallemand , a Bonapartist General , was accompanied by his brother , Baron Charles François Antoine Lallemand . The colony was to bring some military men for protection , and concentrate on agricultural work , cultivating grapes and olives . 100 officers joined Lallemand , and around a quarter to a third of these were foreigners of the Grande Armée ; the rest were French . Lallemand financed the project through land speculation . On December 17 , 1817 150 of the would-be-settlers sailed from Philadelphia for Galveston , Texas , where they arrived on January 14 . Lallemand and the other colonists convened in New Orleans , and on March 10 left for Galveston with 120 volunteers . They sailed up the Trinity River to Atascosito where they built two small forts . Mexican governor Antonio María Martínez , having heard about this expedition , sent his own troops to San Marcos , wary of an attack . The colony was abandoned shortly afterwards .   Some of the colonists , including pirate Jean Laffite and other mercenaries , had caused concern to settlers of New Spain . The Champ d'Asile was founded at a time when disputes over territory were increasing , and the Adams -- Onís Treaty , which settled a border dispute between the United States and Spain , was signed in 1819 . Furthermore , the Bourbon Restoration in France made the existence of a Bonapartist colony doubtful , as the Spanish Bourbons held the Spanish crown . Despite Lallemand 's assurances , rumours had circulated about his motives , and there was little evidence of agricultural work on the site , while construction of a fortress and manufacturing munitions had begun .

neg: Spanish Price Revolution The Spanish Price Revolution is a period , beginning as early as 1470 and lasting until as late as 1650 , when gold and silver poured into Spain from the New World ; Mexico , Peru and the rest of the Spanish Empire.The specie flow through Spain increased Spanish prices and consequentially spread inflation through Western Europe . This enlarged the money supply and price levels of many European countries . The Spanish Price Revolution is overwhelmingly the most prolonged and influential occurrence of rampant inflation in modern history . In addition to leaving negative effects on the Spanish society and market , the price revolution spurred numerous economic , historical and political theories that continue to fascinate scholars today .

neg: Council of the Indies The Council of the Indies ; officially , the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies '' ' ( Real y Supremo Consejo de Indias , -LSB- reˈal i suˈpɾemo konˈsexo ðe ˈindjas -RSB- ) , was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Americas and the Philippines . The crown held absolute power over the Indies and the Council of the Indies was the administrative and advisory body for those overseas realms . It was established in 1524 by Charles V of Spain to administer `` the Indies , '' Spain 's name for its territories . Such an administrative entity , on the conciliar model of the Council of Castile , was created following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521 , which demonstrated the importance of the Americas . It start as a section under the jurisdiction of the Council of Castile , but was then established as an autonomous body with legislative , executive and judicial functions . The Council of the Indies was abolished in 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes , briefly restored in 1814 by Ferdinand VII of Spain , and definitively abolished in 1834 by the regency , acting on behalf of the four-year-old Isabella II of Spain .

neg: Puebla Puebla ( -LSB- ˈpweβla -RSB- ) , officially the Free and Sovereign State of Puebla ( Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla ) is one of the 31 states which , with the Federal District , comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico . It is divided in 217 municipalities and its capital city is Puebla .   It is located in East-Central Mexico . It is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the north and east , Hidalgo , México , Tlaxcala and Morelos to the west , and Guerrero and Oaxaca to the south .   The origins of the state lie in the city of Puebla , which was founded by the Spanish in this valley in 1531 to secure the trade route between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz .   By the end of the 18th century , the area had become a colonial province with its own governor , which would become the State of Puebla , after the Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century . Since that time the area , especially around the capital city , has continued to grow economically , mostly through industry , despite being the scene of a number of battles , the most notable of which being the Battle of Puebla . Today , the state is one of the most industrialized in the country , but since most of its development is concentrated in Puebla and other cities , many of its rural areas are very poor , forcing many to migrate away to places such as Mexico City and the United States .   Culturally , the state is home to the China Poblana , mole poblano , active literary and arts scenes and festivals such as Cinco de Mayo , Ritual of Quetzalcoatl , Day of the Dead celebrations ( especially in Huaquechula ) and Carnival ( especially in Huejotzingo ) . It is home to five major indigenous groups : Nahuas , the Totonacs , the Mixtecs , the Popolocas and the Otomi , which can mostly be found in the far north and the far south of the state .

neg: Mexican nobility The Mexican nobility includes elite indigenous families from the pre-columbian era ; indigenous elites recognized as nobles in the colonial era ( 1521 -- 1821 ) ; and hereditary nobles and economic elites who acquired noble titles in the colonial era ; and the First Mexican Empire ( 1821 -- 23 ) , immediately after independence from Spain , and the Second Mexican Empire 1862 -- 67 . While some titles were granted in Mexico itself , other families brought with them their old titles from Europe .   The Political Constitution of Mexico has prohibited the state from granting any titles of nobility since 1917 . The United Mexican States do not issue or recognize titles of nobility or hereditary prerogatives and honors .

neg: New Spain New Spain ( Nueva España ) was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire , in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama . It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 , and following additional conquests , it was made a viceroyalty ( Spanish : virreinato ) in 1535 . The first of four viceroyalties Spain created in the Americas , it comprised Mexico , Central America , much of the Southwestern and Central United States , and Spanish Florida as well as the Philippines , Guam , Mariana and Caroline Islands .   After 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain , an appointed minister of the King of Spain , who ruled as monarch over the colony . The capital of New Spain was Mexico City .   New Spain lost parts of its territory to other European powers and independence , but the core area remained under Spanish control until 1821 , when it achieved independence as the Mexican Empire -- when the latter dissolved , it became modern Mexico and Central America . It developed highly regional divisions , which reflect the impact of climate , topography , the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations , and the presence or absence of mineral resources . The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social , political , and economic organization . The northern area of Mexico , a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations , was not generally conducive to dense settlements , but the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the 1540s drew settlement there to exploit the mines . Silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain , but vastly enriched Spain , and transformed the global economy . New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade , making the viceroyalty a vital link between Spain 's New World empire and its Asian empire .

neg: Mexican honours system The Mexican honours system consists of civil orders , decorations and medals that are conferred on citizens and foreigners in recognition of their services and achievements . Although the indigenous empires that made up modern Mexico had their own way of recognizing individuals , the current system traces its roots from colonial New Spain , and has evolved because of events since the country 's independence .   The following is a partial list of the orders , awards and prizes that have been or are currently issued as state decorations by the Government of Mexico .