query: In America, the Jim Crow laws were in effect.

pos: Jim Crow laws Jim Crow laws were state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States . Enacted by white Democratic-dominated state legislatures in the late nineteenth century after the Reconstruction period , these laws continued to be enforced until 1965 . They mandated de jure racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America , starting in 1890 with a `` separate but equal '' status for African Americans in railroad cars . Public education had essentially been segregated since its establishment in most of the South after the Civil War . This principle was extended to public facilities and transportation , including segregated cars on interstate trains and , later , buses . Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to those which were then available to European Americans ; sometimes they did not exist at all . This body of law institutionalized a number of economic , educational , and social disadvantages . De jure segregation existed mainly in the Southern states , while Northern segregation was generally de facto -- patterns of housing segregation enforced by private covenants , bank lending practices , and job discrimination , including discriminatory labor union practices . `` Jim Crow '' was a pejorative expression meaning `` Negro '' .   Jim Crow laws -- sometimes , as in Florida , part of state constitutions -- mandated the segregation of public schools , public places , and public transportation , and the segregation of restrooms , restaurants , and drinking fountains for whites and blacks . The U.S. military was already segregated . President Woodrow Wilson initiated segregation of federal workplaces at the request of southern Cabinet members in 1913 .   These Jim Crow laws revived principles of the 1800 -- 1866 Black Codes , which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans . Segregation of public ( state-sponsored ) schools was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education . In some states it took years to implement this decision . Generally , the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , but years of action and court challenges have been needed to unravel the many means of institutional discrimination .

neg: Slave Power The Slave Power or Slaveocracy was the perceived political power in the U.S. federal government held by slave owners during the 1840s and 1850s , prior to the Civil War . Antislavery campaigners during this period bitterly complained about what they saw as disproportionate and corrupt influence wielded by wealthy Southerners . The argument was that this small group of rich slave owners had seized political control of their own states and were trying to take over the federal government in an illegitimate fashion in order to expand and protect slavery . The argument was widely used by the Republican Party that formed in 1854 -- 55 to oppose the expansion of slavery .   The main issue expressed by the term slave power was distrust of the political power of the slave-owning class . Such distrust was shared by many who were not abolitionists ; those who were motivated more by a possible threat to the political balance or the impossibility of competing with unwaged slave labor , than by concern over the treatment of slaves . Those who differed on many other issues ( such as hating blacks or liking them , denouncing slavery as a sin or promising to guarantee its protection in the Deep South ) could unite to attack the slaveocracy . The `` Free Soil '' element emphasized that rich slave owners would move into new territory , use their cash to buy up all the good lands , then use their slaves to work the lands , leaving little opportunity room for free farmers . By 1854 the Free Soil Party had largely merged into the new Republican party .   The term was popularized by antislavery writers such as John Gorham Palfrey , Josiah Quincy III , Horace Bushnell , James Shepherd Pike , and Horace Greeley . Politicians who emphasized the theme included John Quincy Adams , Henry Wilson and William Pitt Fessenden . Abraham Lincoln used the concept after 1854 but not the term . They showed through a combination of emotive argument and hard statistical data that the South had long held a disproportionate level of power in the United States . Historian Allan Nevins contends that `` nearly all groups ... steadily substituted emotion for reason . ... Fear fed hatred , and hatred fed fear . ''   The existence of a Slave Power was dismissed by Southerners at the time , and rejected as false by many historians of the 1920s and 1930s , who stressed the internal divisions in the South before 1850 . The idea that the Slave Power existed has partly come back at the hands of neoabolitionist historians since 1970 , and there is no doubt that it was a powerful factor in the Northern anti-slavery belief system . It was standard rhetoric for all factions of the Republican party .

neg: Segregation in Seattle While Seattle is probably the furthest place in the continental United States from where the Civil Rights movement is typically associated , typically the Deep South , segregation and racial prejudices effected the northwest just as much as it did other regions in the United States .   Before World War II Seattle 's population was predominantly Caucasian . After the war Seattle 's population increased by about 100,000 people , from all over the country , causing many neighborhoods and schools to go up in numbers and diversity ) . As the number of people increased so did the need of new school buildings . While Seattle , in the later years -- the 1960s through 1980s -- made strides to accommodate decisions like the Brown vs. Board of Education things like White flight made it difficult to fully integrate schools because of the de facto segregation happening in the communities .   As a result , African-Americans in Seattle were concentrated into one area which was labeled The Central District . It was here that a majority of the black population lived and went to school . In the 1960s , Seattle was home to only nine black schools in The Central District , and almost 100 white schools on outside parts of town . On March 31 and April 1 , 1966 thousands of Seattle Public School students boycotted the Central District in search for equality in the school systems . Many believed that the problems in the schools stemmed from almost 10,000 students being pushed into a limited amount of space . These locations were often underfunded and understaffed which resulted in poor test schools and low graduation rates . The number of protesters soon grew , including thousands of white students , and three public school teachers . The outpouring support for the issue forced the Seattle School Board to grant the public with a real solution to the problem . Today , Seattle recognizes this protest as the Seattle Public Schools Boycott of 1966   Segregation was also found in the Seattle neighborhood hospitals that refused treatment to African Americans . For example , if a black patient wanted treatment at Providence Hospital they would need to pay for a private room . Swedish Medical Center used the statement : `` will not receive Negroes at this time . '' While Virginia Mason Nursing school wrote : `` In regards to our policy , we do not accept Negroes , Japanese , etc. . ''   While de jure segregation enforced by law is no longer practiced , Seattle remains a highly racially segregated city . This is both from the aftermath of legalized segregation and the result of a continued practice of de facto segregation .

neg: Hollywood blacklist The Hollywood blacklist -- as the broader entertainment industry blacklist is generally known -- was the practice of denying employment to screenwriters , actors , directors , musicians , and other American entertainment professionals during the mid-20th century because they were accused of having Communist ties or sympathies . Artists were barred from work on the basis of their alleged membership in or sympathy with the Communist Party USA or refusal to assist investigations into the party 's activities . Even during the period of its strictest enforcement , the late 1940s through the late 1950s , the blacklist was rarely made explicit or verifiable , but it directly damaged the careers of scores of individuals working in the film industry .   The first systematic Hollywood blacklist was instituted on November 25 , 1947 , the day after ten writers and directors were cited for contempt of Congress for refusing to testify to the House Un-American Activities Committee . A group of studio executives , acting under the aegis of the Association of Motion Picture Producers , fired the artists -- the so-called Hollywood Ten -- and made what has become known as the Waldorf Statement .   On June 22 , 1950 , a pamphlet entitled Red Channels was published . Focused on the field of broadcasting , it identified 151 entertainment industry professionals in the context of `` Red Fascists and their sympathizers . '' Soon , most of those named , along with a host of other artists , were barred from employment in most of the entertainment field .   The blacklist lasted until 1960 , when Dalton Trumbo , a Communist Party member from 1943 to 1948  and member of the Hollywood Ten , was credited as the screenwriter of the highly successful film Exodus , and later publicly acknowledged by actor Kirk Douglas for writing the screenplay for the movie Spartacus . A number of those blacklisted , however , were still barred from work in their professions for years afterward .

neg: South Carolina's 6th congressional district The 6th Congressional District of South Carolina is a congressional district in central and eastern South Carolina . It includes all of Allendale , Bamberg , Barnwell , Clarendon , Colleton , Hampton and Williamsburg counties and parts of Beaufort , Berkeley , Calhoun , Charleston , Dorchester , Georgetown , Orangeburg and Richland counties . The district borders were shifted south in the 2012 redistricting . It lost its share of the North Carolina border , and now takes in part of the area near the South Carolina-Georgia border .   The district was defined in the early 1990s in a deal between state Republicans ( mostly white ) and Democrats ( mostly black ) in the South Carolina General Assembly to ensure a majority-black population , known as a majority-minority district . The rural counties of the historical black belt in South Carolina make up much of the district , but it sweeps south to include most of the majority-black precincts in and around Charleston , and sweeps west to include most of the majority-black precincts in and around Columbia . In all of its configurations , its politics have been dominated by black voters in the Columbia and Charleston areas .   Following the Reconstruction era , the white Democratic-dominated legislature passed Jim Crow laws , as well as a new constitution in 1895 that effectively disfranchised blacks , crippling the Republican Party in the state . For most of the next 60 years , South Carolina was essentially a one-party state dominated by the Democrats , and blacks were nearly excluded from the political system .   Demographic and political changes have included the Great Migration ( African American ) of blacks out of the state during the Jim Crow era in the first half of the 20th century . At the same time , many white Democrats felt chagrin at the national party 's greater support of civil rights for blacks from the 1940s onward , and began splitting their tickets in federal elections . After successes of the Civil Rights Movement in gaining passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s to enforce their constitutional rights and ability to vote , blacks in South Carolina supported national Democratic candidates . This prompted a massive wave of party-switching in which white conservatives began moving into the Republican Party .   Since the late 20th century , South Carolina politics have been very racially polarized . Republicans in South Carolina have been mostly white , and most African Americans in the state continue to support the Democrats . In the 21st century , the 6th is considered the only `` safe '' Democratic district in the state .   Before 1993 , this district included the northeastern part of the state , from Darlington to Myrtle Beach . It was a classic `` Yellow Dog '' Democratic district ; in this configuration it only elected two Republicans , both for a single term . In 2012 , the new 7th congressional district was created ; it includes much of the territory that was in the 6th for most of the 20th century .   Jim Clyburn , a Democrat and the current Assistant House Minority Leader , has represented this district since first being elected in 1992 .

neg: Racial Integrity Act of 1924 On March 20 , 1924 , the Virginia General Assembly passed two laws that had arisen out of contemporary concerns about eugenics and race : SB 219 , titled `` The Racial Integrity Act '' and SB 281 , `` An ACT to provide for the sexual sterilization of inmates of State institutions in certain cases '' , henceforth referred to as `` The Sterilization Act ' '' . The Racial Integrity Act of 1924 was one of a series of laws designed to prevent interracial relationships .   The Racial Integrity Act required that a racial description of every person be recorded at birth and divided society into only two classifications : white and colored ( essentially all other , which included numerous American Indians ) . It defined race by the `` one-drop rule '' , defining as `` colored '' persons with any African or Native American ancestry . It also expanded the scope of Virginia 's ban on interracial marriage ( anti-miscegenation law ) by criminalizing all marriages between white persons and non-white persons . In 1967 the law was overturned by the United States Supreme Court in its ruling on Loving v. Virginia .   The Sterilization Act provided for compulsory sterilization of persons deemed to be `` feebleminded , '' including the `` insane , idiotic , imbecile , or epileptic . ''   These two laws were Virginia 's implementation of Harry Laughlin 's `` Model Eugenical Sterilization Law '' , published two years earlier in 1922 . The Sterilization Act was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the case Buck v. Bell '' 274 U.S. 200 ( 1927 ) . This had appealed the order for compulsory sterilization of Carrie Buck , who was an inmate in the Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded , and her daughter and mother .   Together these laws implemented the practice of `` scientific eugenics '' in Virginia .

neg: Black people Black people is a term used in certain countries , often in socially based systems of racial classification or of ethnicity , to describe persons who are perceived to be dark-skinned compared to other given populations . As such , the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies , and depends significantly on context . For many other individuals , communities and countries , `` black '' is also perceived as a derogatory , outdated , reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label , and as a result is neither used nor defined .   Different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as `` black '' , and these social constructs have also changed over time . In a number of countries , societal variables affect classification as much as skin color , and the social criteria for `` blackness '' vary . For example , in North America the term black people is not necessarily an indicator of skin color or ethnic origin , but is instead a socially based racial classification related to being African American , with a family history typically associated with institutionalized slavery . In the United Kingdom , `` black '' was historically equivalent with `` person of color '' , a general term for non-European peoples . In South Africa and Latin America , mixed-race people are generally not classified as `` black '' . In other regions such as Australasia , settlers applied the term `` black '' or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds .

neg: Constitutional carry In the United States , the term constitutional carry , also called permitless carry , is a neologism for the legal carrying of a handgun , both openly and concealed , without the requirement of a government permit . The phrase does not typically refer to the unrestricted carrying of a long gun , a knife , or other weapons . The scope and applicability of such laws or proposed legislation can vary from state to state .   The phrase `` constitutional carry '' reflects the view that the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution permits no restrictions or other regulations on gun ownership .   This ideal also stems from Supremacy Clause of The United States Constitution , found in Article V , Section 2 , wherein the Supremacy Clause declares the Constitution as the `` Supreme Law of the Land . '' , thus the term `` constitutional carry '' . Supporters of constitutional carry relate that the Second Amendment is decreed by the United States Constitution , aforementioned the `` The Supreme Law of the Land '' , and therefore takes precedence over any other gun law that would restrict or violate the right to keep or bear arms in any way . Many arguments against constitutional carry concern the connotation of the wording in the Second Amendment .   Although District of Columbia v. Heller , decided by the Supreme Court of the United States ( SCOTUS ) in 2008 , suggests that some state or local controls may be allowed , at least as to certain types of weapons . Prior to Heller there have been many other cases that have upheld both state and federal gun control laws under the Second Amendment . The Heller case was extended by the Court in McDonald v. Chicago , decided in 2010 , holding the 2nd and 14th Amendments to the Constitution were `` fully incorporated '' and thus the right to '' ... keep and bear arms applies to the States and not ` in a watered-down version ' but ` fully applicable ' ... , '' and does limit State and local governments in passing laws that restrict this `` individual '' and `` fundamental '' right to '' ... keep and bear arms , '' for self-defense . Self-defense was considered by the SCOTUS a '' ... central component of the 2nd Amendment . '' All of the state laws described below operate in the context of federal regulation regarding the transfer and sale of firearms . Firearms and ammunition are subject to taxation as well .   `` Constitutional carry '' is also sometimes known as `` Vermont carry '' , `` permitless carry '' , or `` unrestricted carry '' .

neg: Black Skin, White Masks Black Skin , White Masks ( Peau noire , masques blancs ) is a 1952 book by Frantz Fanon , in which Fanon studies the psychology of the racism and dehumanization inherent in situations of colonial domination .   With the application of historical interpretation , and the concomitant underlying social indictment , the psychiatrist Frantz Fanon formulated Black Skin , White Masks to combat the oppression of black people . He applied psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic theory to explain the feelings of dependency and inadequacy that Black people experience in a White world . That the divided self-perception of the Black Subject who has lost his native cultural origin , and embraced the culture of the Mother Country , produces an inferiority complex in the mind of the Black Subject , who then will try to appropriate and imitate the culture of the colonizer . Such behavior is more readily evident in upwardly mobile and educated black people who can afford to acquire status symbols within the world of the colonial ecumene , such as an education abroad and mastery of the language of the colonizer , the white masks .   Based upon , and derived from , the concepts of the collective unconscious and collective catharsis , the sixth chapter , `` The Negro and Psychopathology '' , presents brief , deep psychoanalyses of colonized black people , and thus proposes the inability of black people to fit into the norms ( social , cultural , racial ) established by white society . That `` a normal Negro child , having grown up in a normal Negro family , will become abnormal on the slightest contact of the white world . '' That , in a white society , such an extreme psychological response originates from the unconscious and unnatural training of black people , from early childhood , to associate `` blackness '' with `` wrongness '' . That such unconscious mental training of black children is effected with comic books and cartoons , which are cultural media that instil and affix , in the mind of the white child , the society 's cultural representations of black people as villains . Moreover , when black children are exposed to such images of villainous black people , the children will experience a psychopathology ( psychological trauma ) , which mental wound becomes inherent to their individual , behavioral make-up ; a part of his and her personality . That the early-life suffering of said psychopathology -- black skin associated with villainy -- creates a collective nature among the men and women who were reduced to colonized populations .

neg: Judiciary Act of 1802 The United States Judiciary Act of 1802 ( 2 Stat . 156 ) was a Federal statute , enacted on April 29 , 1802 , to reorganize the federal court system . It restored some elements of the Judiciary Act of 1801 , which had been adopted by the Federalist majority in the previous Congress , but was repealed by the Democratic-Republican majority earlier in 1802 .   The Act restructured the circuit courts into six circuits , and assigned one Supreme Court justice to each circuit . Unlike the 1801 Act , no new circuit judgeships were created , so the justices were faced with having to return to the practice of `` riding circuit '' to hold court in each district within their circuit , along with the local district judge , during the majority of the year . No circuit courts were created for the judicial districts of Kentucky , Tennessee , Maine , or the territories , although the 1801 Act would have done so .   Since the circuit courts were now to consist of only two judges , the Act permitted them to certify to the Supreme Court any question of law on which the two could not agree . Also , the district judge was not permitted to hear appeals of his own decisions , so appeals from the district courts were decided by the circuit justice alone . But the most important part of the Act was the provision that a quorum of only one judge was needed to convene a circuit court . As a result , Supreme Court justices could often rely on district court judges to convene circuit courts . With circuit riding largely optional , Supreme Court justices were no longer saddled with what they had previously felt was a tremendous burden . The Act 's flexibility proved crucial to the demise of circuit riding , which essentially disappeared by 1840 .   The Act also created additional district courts by dividing the District of North Carolina into the districts of Albemarle , Cape Fear , and Pamptico , and by dividing the District of Tennessee into the Eastern and Western Districts of Tennessee . No new judgeships were created for these courts ; however , the district judges in North Carolina and Tennessee had to hold court in each district within their state , and the North Carolina judge also had to sit on the circuit court ( which , however , continued to sit for the state as a whole , not in the separate district court districts ) .   The Act established a United States District Court for the District of Columbia , although this court is not the direct predecessor of today 's court bearing the same name .

neg: We Charge Genocide We Charge Genocide : The Crime of Government Against the Negro People is a paper accusing the United States government of genocide based on the UN Genocide Convention . This paper was written by the Civil Rights Congress ( CRC ) and presented to the United Nations at meetings in Paris in December 1951 .   The document pointed out that the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide defined genocide as any acts committed with `` intent to destroy '' a group , `` in whole or in part . '' To build its case for black genocide , the document cited many instances of lynching in the United States , as well as legal discrimination , disenfranchisement of blacks in the South , a series of incidents of police brutality dating to the present , and systematic inequalities in health and quality of life . The central argument : the US government is both complicit with and responsible for a genocidal situation based on the UN 's own definition of genocide .   The document received international media attention and became caught up in Cold War politics , as the CRC was supported by the American Communist Party . Its many examples of shocking conditions for African Americans shaped beliefs about the United States in countries across the world . The American government and white press accused the CRC of exaggerating racial inequality in order to advance the cause of Communism . The US State Department forced CRC secretary William L. Patterson to surrender his passport after he presented the petition to a UN meeting in Paris .

neg: Twenty Negro Law The `` Twenty Negro Law '' , also known as the `` Twenty Slave Law '' and the `` Twenty Nigger Law '' , was a piece of legislation enacted by the Confederate Congress during the American Civil War . The law specifically exempted from Confederate military service one white man for every twenty slaves owned on a Confederate plantation , or for two or more plantations within five miles of each other that collectively had twenty or more slaves . Passed as part of the Second Conscription Act in 1862 , the law was a reaction to United States President Abraham Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation , which was issued barely three weeks earlier . The law addressed Confederate fears of a slave rebellion due to so many white men being absent from home , as they were fighting in the Confederate army . The Confederacy enacted the first conscription laws in United States history , and the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were conscripts was nearly double that of United States soldiers .   The law would prove extremely unpopular with poorer white Confederate men , many of whom did not own any slaves at all , and would contribute to the often-repeated adage of the Confederate war effort being `` a rich man 's war , but a poor man 's fight . ''

neg: 1950s American automobile culture 1950s American automobile culture has had an enduring influence on the culture of the United States , as reflected in popular music , major trends from the 1950s and mainstream acceptance of the `` hot rod '' culture . The American manufacturing economy switched from producing war-related items to consumer goods at the end of World War II , and by the end of the 1950s , one in six working Americans were employed either directly or indirectly in the automotive industry . The United States became the world 's largest manufacturer of automobiles , and Henry Ford 's goal of 30 years earlier -- that any man with a good job should be able to afford an automobile -- was achieved . A new generation of service businesses focusing on customers with their automobiles sprang up during the decade , including drive-through or drive-in restaurants and more drive-in theaters ( cinemas ) .   The decade began with 25 million registered automobiles on the road , most of which predated World War II and were in poor condition ; no automobiles or parts were produced during the war owing to rationing and restrictions . By 1950 , most factories had made the transition to a consumer-based economy , and more than 8 million cars were produced that year alone . By 1958 , there were more than 67 million cars registered in the United States , more than twice the number at the start of the decade .   As part of the U.S. national defenses , to support military transport , the National Highway System was expanded with Interstate highways , beginning in 1955 , across many parts of the United States . The wider , multi-lane highways allowed traffic to move at faster speeds , with few or no stoplights on the way . The wide-open spaces along the highways became a basis for numerous billboards showing advertisements .   The dawning of the Space Age and Space Race were reflected in contemporary American automotive styling . Large tailfins , flowing designs reminiscent of rockets , and radio antennas that imitated Sputnik 1 were common , owing to the efforts of design pioneers such as Harley Earl .

neg: Multiracial Americans Multiracial Americans are Americans who have mixed ancestry of `` two or more races '' . The term may also include Americans of mixed-race ancestry who self-identify with just one group culturally and socially ( cf. the one-drop rule ) . In the 2010 US census , approximately 9 million individuals , or 2.9 % of the population , self-identified as multiracial . There is evidence that an accounting by genetic ancestry would produce a higher number , but people live according to social and cultural identities , not DNA . Historical reasons , including slavery creating a racial caste and the European-American suppression of Native Americans , often led people to identify or be classified by only one ethnicity , generally that of the culture in which they were raised . Prior to the mid-20th century , many people hid their multiracial heritage because of racial discrimination against minorities . While many Americans may be biologically multiracial , they often do not know it or do not identify so culturally , any more than they maintain all the differing traditions of a variety of national ancestries .   After a lengthy period of formal racial segregation in the former Confederacy following the Reconstruction Era , and bans on interracial marriage in various parts of the country , more people are openly forming interracial unions . In addition , social conditions have changed and many multiracial people do not believe it is socially advantageous to try to `` pass '' as white . Diverse immigration has brought more mixed-race people into the United States , such as the large population of Hispanics identifying as mestizos . Since the 1980s , the United States has had a growing multiracial identity movement ( cf. Loving Day ) . Because more Americans have insisted on being allowed to acknowledge their mixed racial origins , the 2000 census for the first time allowed residents to check more than one ethno-racial identity and thereby identify as multiracial . In 2008 Barack Obama was elected as the first multiracial President of the United States ; he acknowledges both sides of his family and identifies as African American .   Today , multiracial individuals are found in every corner of the country . Multiracial groups in the United States include many African Americans , Louisiana Creoles , Métis Americans , Mestizo Americans , Hapas , Melungeons , Lumbees , Houmas , and several other communities found primarily in the Eastern US . Many Native Americans are multiracial in ancestry while identifying fully as members of federally recognized tribes .

neg: Civil Rights Cases The Civil Rights Cases , 109 US 3 ( 1883 ) were a group of five US Supreme Court constitutional law cases . Against the famous dissent of Justice Harlan , a majority held the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was unconstitutional , because Congress lacked authority to regulate private affairs under the Fourteenth Amendment , and that the Thirteenth Amendment `` merely abolishes slavery '' . The Civil Rights Act of 1875 had banned race discrimination in access to services offered to the public . The decision was effectively reversed in the jurisprudence of the Supreme Court from 1937 , and finally by legislation under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 .

neg: Amnesty Act The Amnesty Act of May 22 , 1872 was a United States federal law which reversed most of the penalties imposed on former Confederates by the Fourteenth Amendment . Specifically , the Act removed voting restrictions and office-holding disqualification against most of the secessionists who rebelled in the American Civil War , except for `` senators and Representatives of the Thirty-sixth and Thirty-seventh Congresses and officers in the judicial , military , and naval service of the United States , heads of Departments , and foreign ministers of the United States . '' The act was passed by the 42nd United States Congress and the original restrictive Act was passed by the United States Congress in May 1866 .   The 1872 Act affected over 150,000 former slaves Confederate troops who had taken part in the American Civil War .

neg: Freedom suit Freedom suits were lawsuits in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States filed by enslaved people against slaveholders to assert claims to freedom , often based on descent from a free maternal ancestor , or time held as a resident in a free state or territory .   The right to petition for freedom descended from English common law and allowed people to challenge their enslavement or indenture . Petitioners challenged slavery both directly and indirectly , even if slaveholders generally viewed such petitions as a means to uphold rather than undermine slavery . Beginning with the colonies in North America , legislatures enacted slave laws that created a legal basis for `` just subjection ; '' these were adopted or updated by the state and territorial legislatures that superseded them after the United States gained independence . These codes also enabled enslaved persons to sue for freedom based on wrongful enslavement .   While some cases were tried during the colonial period , the majority of petitions for freedom were heard during the antebellum period in the border or the Southern United States . After the American Revolution , most northern states abolished slavery and were considered `` free . '' The United States Congress prohibited slavery in some newly established territories , and some new states were admitted to the union as free states . The rise in travel and migration of masters with slaves between free and slave states resulted in conditions that gave rise to slaves suing for freedom . Many free states had residency limits for masters who brought slaves into their territory ; after that time , the slave would be considered free . Some slaves sued for wrongful enslavement after being held in a free state .   Other grounds for suit were that the person was freeborn and illegally held in slavery , or that the person was illegally held because of being descended from a freeborn woman in the maternal line . The principle of partus sequitur ventrem , first incorporated into English colonial slavery law by a 1662 statute in Virginia , established that children 's status was that of the mother . It was adopted into law by other English colonies , and the states of the United States .   In Saint Louis , Missouri records of nearly 300 petition cases have been found that were filed between 1807 and 1860 , and in Washington , D.C. nearly 500 petition cases were filed in the same period . A large portion of cases , as much as one-third , either never went to trial or were settled out of court . In the early nineteenth century in St. Louis and in Washington , D.C. , nearly half of the attorneys at the bar may have acted as counsel for slave petitions . In Missouri , the courts assigned an attorney to the petitioner if it accepted a freedom suit for hearing ; some of the top attorneys in St. Louis defended slaves . After the 1830s , the number of petition cases gradually declined . But from 1800 to 1830 , most of the bar in these cities tried a petition case .   Before the end of the eighteenth century , some southern states began to make petitioning for freedom more difficult . Maryland , for example , in 1796 required that county courts serve as the court of original jurisdiction , rather than the General Court of the Western Shore , an appellate court . The county courts clearly would be more favorable to the interests and views of the local planters against whom these suits were often filed . The legislature also banned those with antislavery sympathies from serving on juries in freedom suits . Virginia passed a similar law on jury composition in 1798 .   But , for a few decades , courts in slave states such as Louisiana , Mississippi , and Missouri often respected the precedent of `` once free , always free '' established by free states . Until the late 1850s , they ruled that slaves who had been held in free states maintained their freedom even if brought back into slave states . Until the Civil War brought an end to slavery , thousands of freedom suits were tried in state courts across the country , with some slaves petitioning as high as the Supreme Court .

neg: Desegregation busing Desegregation busing in the United States ( also known as forced busing or simply busing ) is the practice of assigning and transporting students to schools in such a manner as to redress prior racial segregation of schools , or to overcome the effects of residential segregation on local school demographics .   In 1954 , the U.S. Supreme Court landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional . The process of integrating public schools met fierce resistance in the South where segregation laws took hold after the American Civil War and the Reconstruction Era of the United States . In Northern and Western states , de facto segregation was the customary practice . Due to patterns of residential segregation , a principal tool for racial integration was the use of busing . In the 1971 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education ruling , the Supreme Court ruled that the federal courts had the discretion to include busing as a desegregation tool to achieve racial balance . While the Swann decision addressed de jure segregation in the South , it failed to address de facto segregation which persisted elsewhere in the country . In Georgia , Governor Jimmy Carter saw that Swann was `` clearly a one-sided decision ; the Court is still talking about the South , the North is still going free '' . In the 1974 Milliken v. Bradley decision , the U.S. Supreme Court placed an important limitation on Swann when they ruled that students could be bused across district lines only when evidence of de jure segregation across multiple school districts existed .   In the 1970s and 1980s , under federal court supervision , many school districts implemented mandatory busing plans within their district . A few of these plans are still in use today . An example of stiff resistance to desegregation busing was the Restore Our Alienated Rights movement in Boston .   Since the 1980s , desegregation busing has been in decline . Even though school districts provided zero-fare bus transportation to and from students ' assigned schools , those schools were in some cases many miles away from students ' homes , which often presented problems to them and their families . In addition , many families were angry about having to send their children miles to another school in an unfamiliar neighborhood when there was an available school a short distance away . The movement of large numbers of white families to suburbs of large cities , so-called white flight , reduced the effectiveness of the policy . Many whites who stayed moved their children into private or parochial schools ; these effects combined to make many urban school districts predominantly nonwhite , reducing any effectiveness mandatory busing may have had . In addition , school districts started using magnet schools , new school construction , and more detailed computer-generated information to refine their school assignment plans .   Due to these efforts and the fact that housing patterns had changed , by the early 1990s , most school districts had been released from court supervision and ceased using mandatory busing to try to desegregate schools . However , many continued to provide a similar level of school bus services , because families had become accustomed to the transportation and to the school choice available in recent assignment programs .

neg: Civil rights movements Civil rights movements are a worldwide series of political movements for equality before the law , that peaked in the 1960s . In many situations they have been characterized by nonviolent protests , or have taken the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change through nonviolent forms of resistance . In some situations , they have been accompanied , or followed , by civil unrest and armed rebellion . The process has been long and tenuous in many countries , and many of these movements did not , or have yet to , fully achieve their goals , although the efforts of these movements have led to improvements in the legal rights of some previously oppressed groups of people , in some places .   The main aim of the successful Civil Rights Movement and other social movements for civil rights included ensuring that the rights of all people were and are equally protected by the law . These include but are not limited to the rights of minorities , women 's rights , and LGBT rights .

neg: Cultural assimilation of Native Americans The cultural assimilation of Native Americans was an assimilation effort by the United States to transform Native American culture to European -- American culture between the years of 1790 -- 1920 . George Washington and Henry Knox were first to propose , in an American context , the cultural transformation of Native Americans . They formulated a policy to encourage the `` civilizing '' process . With increased waves of immigration from Europe , there was growing public support for education to encourage a standard set of cultural values and practices to be held in common by the majority of citizens . Education was viewed as the primary method in the acculturation process for minorities .   Americanization policies were based on the idea that when indigenous people learned United States ( American ) customs and values , they would be able to merge tribal traditions with American culture and peacefully join the majority of the society . After the end of the Indian Wars , in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , the government outlawed the practice of traditional religious ceremonies . It established Native American boarding schools which children were required to attend . In these schools they were forced to speak English , study standard subjects , attend church , and leave tribal traditions behind .   The Dawes Act of 1887 , which allotted tribal lands in severalty to individuals , was seen as a way to create individual homesteads for Native Americans . Land allotments were made in exchange for Native Americans ' becoming US citizens and giving up some forms of tribal self-government and institutions . It resulted in the transfer of an estimated total of 93 e6acre from Native American control . Most was sold to individuals or given out free through the Homestead law , or given directly to Indians as individuals . The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 was also part of Americanization policy ; it gave full citizenship to all Indians living on reservations . The leading opponent of forced assimilation was John Collier , who directed the federal Office of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 , and tried to reverse many of the established policies .

neg: Dovey Johnson Roundtree Dovey Johnson Roundtree ( born April 17 , 1914 ) is an African-American civil rights activist , ordained minister , and attorney . Her 1955 victory before the Interstate Commerce Commission in the first bus desegregation case to be brought before the ICC resulted in the only explicit repudiation of the `` separate but equal '' doctrine in the field of interstate bus transportation by a court or federal administrative body . That case , Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company ( 64 MCC 769 ( 1955 ) ) , which Dovey Roundtree argued with her law partner and mentor Julius Winfield Robertson , was invoked by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy during the 1961 Freedom Riders ' campaign in his successful battle to compel the Interstate Commerce Commission to enforce its rulings and end Jim Crow in public transportation .   Roundtree was saluted by First Lady Michelle Obama on the occasion of the release of her 2009 autobiography , Justice Older than the Law , which Roundtree co-authored with Washington journalist Katie McCabe and which won the 2009 Letitia Woods Brown Award from the Association of Black Women Historians . In a letter made public at a July 23 , 2009 tribute to Roundtree at the Women in Military Service for America Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery , the First Lady cited Roundtree 's historic contributions to the law , the military and the ministry , and stated : `` It is on the shoulders of people like Dovey Johnson Roundtree that we stand today , and it is with her commitment to our core ideals that we will continue moving toward a better tomorrow . ''   A protégé of black activist and educator Mary McLeod Bethune , Roundtree was selected by Bethune for the first class of African-American women to be trained as officers in the newly created Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( later the Women 's Army Corps ) during World War II . In 1961 she became one of the first women to receive full ministerial status in the African Methodist Episcopal Church , which had just begun ordaining women at a level beyond mere preachers in 1960 . With her controversial admission to the all-white Women 's Bar of the District of Columbia in 1962 , she broke the color bar for minority women in the Washington legal community . In one of Washington 's most sensational and widely covered murder cases , United States v. Ray Crump , tried in the summer of 1965 on the eve of the Watts riots , Roundtree won acquittal for the black laborer accused of the murder of Georgetown socialite ( and former wife of a CIA officer ) Mary Pinchot Meyer , a woman with romantic ties to President John F. Kennedy .   The founding partner of the Washington , D.C. law firm of Roundtree , Knox , Hunter and Parker in 1970 following the death of her first law partner Julius Robertson in 1961 , Roundtree was special consultant for legal affairs to the AME Church , and General Counsel to the National Council of Negro Women . She was the inspiration for actress Cicely Tyson 's depiction of a maverick civil rights lawyer in the television series `` Sweet Justice '' , and the recipient , along with retired Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor , of the American Bar Association 's 2000 Margaret Brent Women Lawyers of Achievement Award . In 2011 a scholarship fund was created in her name by the Charlotte Chapter of the National Alumnae Association of Spelman College . Roundtree also received the 2011 Torchbearer Award from the Women 's Bar Association of the District of Columbia , the organization which she integrated in 1962 . In March 2013 an affordable senior living facility in the Southeast Washington DC community where she ministered was named `` The Roundtree Residences '' in her honor . She turned 100 in April 2014 .


query: Prison Break was aired for five episodes.

pos: Prison Break Prison Break is an American television serial drama created by Paul Scheuring , that was broadcast on Fox for four seasons from August 29 , 2005 to May 15 , 2009 , and a fifth season which premiered on April 4 , 2017 . The series revolves around two brothers , one of whom has been sentenced to death for a crime he did not commit , and the other who devises an elaborate plan to help his brother escape prison and clear his name . The series was produced by Adelstein-Parouse Productions , in association with Original Television and 20th Century Fox Television . Along with creator Paul Scheuring , the series is executive produced by Matt Olmstead , Kevin Hooks , Marty Adelstein , Dawn Parouse , Neal H. Moritz , and Brett Ratner who directed the pilot episode . The series ' theme music , composed by Ramin Djawadi , was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2006 .   The series was originally turned down by Fox in 2003 , which was concerned about the long-term prospects of such a series . Following the popularity of serialized prime time television series Lost and 24 , Fox decided to back production in 2004 . The first season received generally positive reviews , and performed well in the ratings . The first season was originally planned for a 13-episode run , but was extended to include an extra nine episodes due to its popularity . Prison Break was nominated for several industry awards , including the 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series Drama and the 2006 People 's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Drama , which it won . In the United States , all four seasons have been released on DVD and released on Blu-ray internationally .   The success of the series has inspired short videos for mobile phones , several official tie-ins in print and on the Internet , as well as a video game . A spin-off series , Prison Break : Proof of Innocence , was produced exclusively for mobile phones . The series has spawned an official magazine and a tie-in novel . The fourth season of Prison Break returned from its mid-season break in a new timeslot on April 17 , 2009 , for the series ' last six episodes . Two additional episodes , titled `` The Old Ball and Chain '' and `` Free '' were produced , and were later transformed into a standalone feature , titled The Final Break . The events of this feature take place before the last scene of the series finale , and are intended to conclude unfinished plotlines . The feature was released on DVD and Blu-ray July 21 , 2009 . A nine-episode fifth season was announced by Fox in January 2016 and premiered on April 4 , 2017 , and aired on Tuesdays at 9:00 pm . The season concluded on May 30 , 2017 .

neg: The Golden Girls (season 5) The fifth season of The Golden Girls premiered on NBC on September 23 , 1989 , and concluded on May 5 , 1990 . The season consisted of 26 episodes .

neg: Prison Break (film) Prison Break is a 1938 American crime-drama film directed by Arthur Lubin and starring Barton MacLane , Glenda Farrell and Paul Hurst . The film was based on the story `` Walls of San Quentin '' by Norton S. Parker . It was released by Universal Pictures on July 12 , 1938 . A fisherman confesses to a murder he did n't commit to protect a friend . Determined to keep out of trouble in prison , but another convict makes things difficult for him .

neg: 60 Days In 60 Days In is a television docuseries on A&E . Internationally it is known as The Jail : 60 Days In and airs in over 100 other territories . In the series , volunteers are incarcerated as undercover prisoners for 60 days .   The show premiered on March 10 , 2016 . As a follow-up to Season 1 , A&E aired two cast interviews in July 2016 . Season 2 premiered August 18 , 2016 . Seasons 1 and 2 took place in Clark County Jail in Jeffersonville , Indiana .   Seasons 3 and 4 began airing in March 2017 . The setting moved to the Fulton County Jail in Atlanta , Georgia , for these seasons .

neg: Justice (2006 TV series) Justice is an American legal drama produced by Jerry Bruckheimer that aired on Fox in the USA and CTV in Canada . The series also aired on Warner Channel in Latin America , Nine Network in Australia , and on TV2 In New Zealand .   It first was broadcast on Wednesdays at 9:00 but , due to low ratings , it was rescheduled to Mondays at 9:00 , in the hope viewers of the hit series Prison Break would stay tuned . On November 13 , 2006 , the show was put on hiatus , but two days later the network announced it was shifting it to Fridays at 8:00 to replace the canceled Vanished .   Fourteen episodes of the series were ordered , of which 13 episodes were produced . Twelve of the episodes of Justice have aired in the United States with the final episode airing in Mexico , the UK and Germany .

neg: Parenthood (season 5) The fifth season of the American television series Parenthood premiered on September 26 , 2013 and concluded on April 17 , 2014 . It consisted of 22 episodes .

neg: Scylla (Prison Break episode) `` Scylla '' is the 58th episode of the American television series Prison Break and the first episode of its fourth season which premiered as a two-hour episode with `` Breaking & Entering '' . It was broadcast in the United States on September 1 , 2008 and on the next day on Sky One and RTÉ Two .

neg: Brothers & Sisters (season 5) The fifth and final season of Brothers & Sisters premiered on September 26 , 2010 and concluded May 8 , 2011 . Season five takes place one year after the events of the season four finale `` On the Road Again '' . This season featured the show 's 100th episode , with the airing of episode 13 .   The show stars Sally Field , Dave Annable , Rachel Griffiths , Calista Flockhart , Matthew Rhys , Ron Rifkin , Patricia Wettig , Luke Macfarlane , and Gilles Marini .   The season was originally set to only feature 18 episodes to make way for new drama Off the Map in mid-season . However , on October 25 , 2010 , it was announced that ABC had picked up four more episodes , bringing the season to 22 episodes in total . The series ' cancellation was announced on May 13 , 2011 .

neg: Law & Order: Trial by Jury Law & Order : Trial by Jury is an American television drama about criminal trials set in New York City . It was the fourth series in Wolf 's successful Law & Order franchise . The show 's almost exclusive focus was on the criminal trial of the accused , showing both the prosecution 's and defense 's preparation for trial , as well as the trial itself . The series premiered on Thursday , March 3 , 2005 , and ended on January 21 , 2006 . Its regular time slot was Fridays 10/9 p.m. ET on NBC . The last episode aired on Court TV months after the series ' cancellation .

neg: Pilot (Friday Night Lights) `` Pilot '' is the first episode of the sports drama television series Friday Night Lights . The episode premiered on the NBC network on October 3 , 2006 . It introduces the men and women involved with the Dillon Panthers , a Texas high school football team . In the pilot episode , the team is preparing for the first game of the season , which will be the first game under new head coach Eric Taylor .   The show is based on the 2004 film Friday Night Lights , which was in turn based on the 1990 non-fiction book Friday Night Lights : A Town , a Team , and a Dream by H. G. Bissinger . Peter Berg , who is Bissinger 's cousin and who directed the film , wrote and directed the pilot episode , and served as executive producer for the series . While some of the actors from the movie returned to act on the show , most of the actors were cast specifically for the television series .   Critical reception of the show was good to average , with a general appreciation for the realistic portrayal of Middle America . Generally speaking , however , there were serious doubts about whether the show would be able to stay on the air very long , though it has since gone on to complete five seasons . The episode 's viewership of just over seven million was characterized as disappointing , though it did relatively well among men aged 18 to 34 .

neg: Two and a Half Men (season 5) The fifth season of Two and a Half Men originally aired on CBS from September 24 , 2007 , to May 19 , 2008 . A total of only 19 episodes were aired due to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Unlike the previous seasons , the Season 5 DVD came without a gag reel . The DVD also titled `` Tight 's Good '' as `` Shoes , Hats , Pickle Jar Lids '' , and the `` Previously on Two and a Half Men '' recap seen in the original broadcast of `` Fish in a Drawer '' was initially not included on DVD . This was the shortest season in the history of the show until the eighth season ended after 16 episodes due to the firing of Charlie Sheen .

neg: List of Psych episodes Psych is an American crime/mystery comedy television series that premiered on July 7 , 2006 on USA Network , and aired its series finale on March 26 , 2014 . It stars James Roday as Shawn Spencer , who uses his eidetic memory with the observational and investigative skills that his father ingrained in him during childhood to fake being a psychic who consults with the Santa Barbara Police Department to solve cases , as well as running a psychic detective agency called Psych . He is ( reluctantly ) helped in his charade by his best friend , Burton `` Gus '' Guster ( Dulé Hill ) , and his father , Henry Spencer ( Corbin Bernsen ) . He generally works with police detectives Carlton Lassiter ( Timothy Omundson ) and Juliet O'Hara ( Maggie Lawson ) and under the direction of Police Chief Karen Vick ( Kirsten Nelson ) . Episodes usually begin with a flashback to Shawn 's youth , showcasing one of Henry 's lessons for his son . These lessons are typically used or applied later in the episode . During the run of Psych 121 episodes aired .   On May 8 , 2017 , USA Network announced `` Psych '' would return for a 2-hour TV movie to air in December 2017 .

neg: The Crackpots and These Women `` The Crackpots and These Women '' is the fifth episode from season one of The West Wing .

neg: Total Drama All-Stars and Pahkitew Island Total Drama All-Stars and Total Drama : Pahkitew Island are two 13-episode segments that both make up the fifth season of the Canadian animated television series , Total Drama . The season was commissioned by Cartoon Network in October 2012 , ordering 26 episodes . It is a sequel to Total Drama Island , Total Drama Action , Total Drama World Tour , and Total Drama : Revenge of the Island . The season was produced by Fresh TV and the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network and distributed by Cake Entertainment . Owing to the series ' premise , the season presents itself as a parody of reality television series , such as Survivor .   The entire season first premiered in the United States starting on September 10 , 2013 on Cartoon Network for the first part , with the second part premiering in the United States on July 7 , 2014 for a two-week time period . In Canada , the first part premiered on Teletoon during their `` Ca n't Miss Thursdays '' time slot starting January 9 , 2014 . The second part of the season also premiered during their `` Ca n't Miss Thursdays '' time slot on Teletoon starting on September 4 , 2014 . The second half of the season also premiered on the APTN network in 2015 .

neg: North Shore (TV series) North Shore is an American prime-time soap opera that aired on Fox every Monday at 8 p.m. EST ( 7 p.m. CST ) for seven months in 2004 and 2005 . It centered on the staff and guests of the fictional Grand Waimea Hotel and Resort ( actually the real-life Turtle Bay Resort located near Kahuku , O'ahu ) on Oahu 's North Shore in Hawaii .   From Fox 's website :  Intrigue abounds at the Grand Waimea Hotel , an exclusive Hawaiian escape for the wealthy , powerful and beautiful . Hawaiian native Jason Matthews runs the hotel and makes sure every guest gets everything they need . But when former flame Nicole Booth arrives as the hotel 's new Director of Guest Relations , Jason 's world is turned upside down . But Grand Waimea owner , Vincent Colville , is staying on top of him to make sure his past with Nicole wo n't affect their work life .   North Shore premiered on June 14 , 2004 , with a 13-episode commitment from Fox . The show was canceled in January 2005 after a 21-episode , single-season run . The show ended on a cliffhanger , and the final episode of the series has only had a single airing , not being shown in most territories ( including America ) .

neg: Studio 5-B Studio 5-B ( also common known as Studio 5B ) was 1989 short-lived drama series about a Canadian TV news channel . Three episodes aired on ABC between January and February 1989 .

neg: Garry A. Brown (producer) Garry A. Brown is an American television producer and director .   He is known for his work on Foxs Prison Break ; and for the ABC adventure series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. .

neg: Uned 5 Uned 5 ( `` Unit 5 '' ) was a BAFTA award-winning teenage magazine show , broadcast live every week on Welsh channel S4C . The programme was the channel 's flagship youth magazine for over sixteen years .   The show was broadcast from a purpose built ` house ' at a studio in Caernarfon , and featured celebrity guests , news items , lively chat , bands , sketches and filmed interviews . Despite the obvious ties to The Big Breakfast , the show originally had more in common with the BBC 's Blue Peter , until later relaunches saw Uned 5 target an older , teenage audience .   On 24 November 2009 , S4C announced that the programme would be axed as part of a major revamp of the station 's youth programming . The very last edition of Uned 5 was broadcast on Sunday 30 May 2010 .

neg: Gray Matter (Breaking Bad) `` Gray Matter '' is the fifth episode of the first season of the American television drama series Breaking Bad . Written by Patty Lin and directed by Tricia Brock , it aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on February 24 , 2008 .

neg: Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell Theodore `` T-Bag '' Bagwell , played by Robert Knepper , is a fictional character from the American television series Prison Break . He is part of the main group of characters in the series and is part of the Fox River Eight . After guest-starring in the series ' second episode , `` Allen '' , the actor became one of the regular cast members .   The character was introduced into the series as a fellow prisoner of the protagonist , Michael Scofield ( played by Wentworth Miller ) , at Fox River State Penitentiary . As the leader of a white supremacist group , T-Bag is one of the most villainous members of the Fox River Eight . In the second season , the character 's storyline veers from the main plot as a separate subplot . As the series progresses , more of the background story of the character is revealed .   The character has appeared in A&E 's Breakout Kings , portrayed by Knepper .

neg: List of Saved by the Bell episodes The following is a list of episodes for the NBC teen sitcom , Saved by the Bell . The series premiered on August 20 , 1989 and ended on May 22 , 1993 with 86 episodes produced spanning four seasons . The number of episodes was increased for syndication , adding re-purposed episodes of Good Morning , Miss Bliss ( excluding the pilot ) , the follow-up series Saved by the Bell : The College Years , and the TV movies Saved by the Bell : Hawaiian Style and Saved by the Bell : Wedding in Las Vegas ( broken into four episodes each ) . The total number of syndicated episodes is 126 , though the number aired varies by broadcaster . The storyline follows Zack Morris through junior high , high school and college , to his eventual marriage to Kelly Kapowski . The related series Saved by the Bell : The New Class maintains a separate storyline .   The actual order is confused by the fact that DVD sets are in a different order than the air dates ( the DVDs are broken into 5 seasons instead of 4 ) . Note : Episode numbers in parentheses represent the order in the original series before extra episodes were added for syndication .


query: The Great Gatsby was written by Orrin Hatch.

pos: The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby is a 1925 novel written by American author F. Scott Fitzgerald that follows a cast of characters living in the fictional town of West Egg on prosperous Long Island in the summer of 1922 . The story primarily concerns the young and mysterious millionaire Jay Gatsby and his quixotic passion and obsession for the beautiful former debutante Daisy Buchanan . Considered to be Fitzgerald 's magnum opus , The Great Gatsby explores themes of decadence , idealism , resistance to change , social upheaval , and excess , creating a portrait of the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties that has been described as a cautionary tale regarding the American Dream .   Fitzgerald -- inspired by the parties he had attended while visiting Long Island 's north shore -- began planning the novel in 1923 , desiring to produce , in his words , `` something new -- something extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned . '' Progress was slow , with Fitzgerald completing his first draft following a move to the French Riviera in 1924 . His editor , Maxwell Perkins , felt the book was vague and persuaded the author to revise over the next winter . Fitzgerald was repeatedly ambivalent about the book 's title and he considered a variety of alternatives , including titles that referenced the Roman character Trimalchio ; the title he was last documented to have desired was Under the Red , White , and Blue .   First published by Scribner 's in April 1925 , The Great Gatsby received mixed reviews and sold poorly ; in its first year , the book sold only 20,000 copies . Fitzgerald died in 1940 , believing himself to be a failure and his work forgotten . However , the novel experienced a revival during World , and became a part of American high school curricula and numerous stage and film adaptations in the following decades . Today , The Great Gatsby is widely considered to be a literary classic and a contender for the title `` Great American Novel . '' In 1998 , the Modern Library editorial board voted it the 20th century 's best American novel and second best English-language novel of the same time period .

neg: George Moore (novelist) George Augustus Moore ( 24 February 1852 -- 21 January 1933 ) was an Irish novelist , short-story writer , poet , art critic , memoirist and dramatist . Moore came from a Roman Catholic landed family who lived at Moore Hall in Carra , County Mayo . He originally wanted to be a painter , and studied art in Paris during the 1870s . There , he befriended many of the leading French artists and writers of the day .   As a naturalistic writer , he was amongst the first English-language authors to absorb the lessons of the French realists , and was particularly influenced by the works of Émile Zola . His writings influenced James Joyce , according to the literary critic and biographer Richard Ellmann , and , although Moore 's work is sometimes seen as outside the mainstream of both Irish and British literature , he is as often regarded as the first great modern Irish novelist .

neg: The Great Abraham Lincoln Pocket Watch Conspiracy The Great Abraham Lincoln Pocket Watch Conspiracy is a historical fiction novel written by Jacopo della Quercia . The plot follows President William Howard Taft , scientist and son of a former president Robert Todd Lincoln , Secret Service Chief John Wilkie , Captain ( later Major ) Archibald Butt and others as they slowly unravel a worldwide conspiracy over a decade in the making .   The book , which was della Quercia 's debut novel , was published in 2014 by St. Martin 's Griffin , an imprint of publishing company St. Martin 's Press . The author described the book 's genre not as singular distinct genre , but as an `` equal parts cocktail '' of adventure , historical fiction , science fiction , thriller and comedy . In 2015 , della Quercia released a spiritual sequel , License to Quill , of a similar nature that concerns the lives of Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare in Reformation-era Europe .   The book has many references to actual events ; some , such as the sinking of the RMS Titanic , are important plot points , while others , such as the destruction of the zeppelin Erbslöh , are passively mentioned as news or memories . The author also includes excerpts from real newspaper articles , which were used to provide exposition in the storyline . Similarly , all of the main characters in the book were real , relevant figures in the 20th century . The characters profiles were fictionalized to fit in with the book 's plot and atmosphere , but their names , positions , occupations and personalities are kept largely intact .

neg: Geoffrey Hill Sir Geoffrey William Hill , FRSL ( 18 June 1932 -- 30 June 2016 ) was an English poet , professor emeritus of English literature and religion , and former co-director of the Editorial Institute , at Boston University . Hill has been considered to be among the most distinguished poets of his generation and was called the `` greatest living poet in the English language . ''  From 2010 to 2015 he held the position of Professor of Poetry in the University of Oxford . Following his receiving the Truman Capote Award for Literary Criticism in 2009 for his Collected Critical Writings , and the publication of Broken Hierarchies ( Poems 1952 -- 2012 ) , Hill is recognised as one of the principal contributors to poetry in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries .

neg: Green World Green World is a literary concept defined by critic Northrop Frye in The Anatomy of Criticism . In some comedies by William Shakespeare , the main characters escape the order of a city for a forested and wild setting adjacent to the city . This natural environment is often described as a green world . It is in this more loosely structured , fantastic environment that issues surrounding social order , romantic relationships , and inter-generational strife , which are a prominent part of the `` city world '' , become resolved , facilitating a return to the normal order . Recent literary critics drawn to ecocriticism have occasionally found the concept valuable to their work as well .

neg: Giraffes on Horseback Salad Giraffes on Horseback Salad , also called The Surrealist Woman , was a screenplay written in 1937 by Salvador Dalí for the Marx Brothers . It was to be a love story between a Spanish aristocrat named `` Jimmy '' ( to be played by Harpo Marx , with whom Dalí was friends ) and a `` beautiful surrealist woman , whose face is never seen by the audience '' . Dalí considered that the central theme of the film would be `` the continuous struggle between the imaginative life as depicted in the old myths and the practical and rational life of contemporary society '' and hoped that the film score could be written by Cole Porter .   The screenplay was never produced ( although Tate Modern curator Matthew Gale has suggested that Dali may have considered an actual production to be beside the point ) ; Harper 's Magazine posits that this was because Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , the Marx Brothers ' studio at the time , considered it to be too surreal ( proposed scenes included gas mask-wearing giraffes on fire , and Harpo Marx using a butterfly net to capture `` the eighteen smallest dwarfs in the city '' ) . Conversely , the Telegraph alleges that Groucho Marx felt that the screenplay just was n't funny .   For several years , Giraffes was thought to be lost . In 1991-92 , New York City theater collective Elevator Repair Service produced Marx Brothers on Horseback Salad , combining scenes from an attempted reconstruction of the screenplay ( based partially on having `` watched every Marx Brothers film they could find '' ) with scenes of Dalí 's real-life interactions with Harpo Marx and Susan Fleming . In 1996 , the actual screenplay was found amid Dalí 's personal papers .

neg: Michael Foster (writer) Michael Foster ( 1904-1956 ) was an American novelist , journalist , screenwriter and cartoonist .   Foster , who was born August 29 , 1904 , in Hardy , Arkansas , was a graduate of the Chicago Art Institute and became a reporter and cartoonist for newspapers in Salina , Kansas , Los Angeles , California , and , by 1937 , Seattle , Washington . His nickname was `` Gully . ''   In 1926 , he was working on the Los Angeles Express , a daily newspaper . A friend , Charles Harris Garrigues , wrote that Foster <blockquote> writes , paints , and has been called the second most promising of the young poets in America by the Lit Dig -LSB- Literary Digest '' ' -RSB- -- does n't know one note of music from another and improvises the most beautiful piano music ... He roomed down at the house for a while until we had a fight over a novel he 's writing and then he moved out -- went on a three weeks ' drunk and only started back to work when I threatened to knock his block off if he did n't . </blockquote>   Foster 's first novel , Forgive Adam , was published in 1935 by W. Morrow and Co. . Margaret Wallace of the New York Times said of the author :   Michael Foster , a young newspaper man on the Pacific Coast , is the newest recruit to the ranks of the hard-boiled novelists . In the brief declarative sentences of his prose style , in his method of consistent understatement , in his attitude of weary and rather self-conscious disillusionment , he has aligned himself with the school of Hemingway and his imitators .   The second novel , American Dream , came in 1937 . American Dream told the story of `` a disillusioned newspaperman who discovers through old family letters what America meant to the writers and what America should mean to him . Several scenes are reminiscent of the tawdry political atmosphere rendered in Ben Hecht 's and Charles MacArthur 's 1928 play , The Front Page . '' . Los Angeles Times reviewer Milton Merlin said that the work was :   not an entirely satisfying novel , but it is an ambitious enterprise and an exceptionally compelling story told with feeling and facility ... . Foster , a Seattle reporter , chooses a member of his profession for his central figure . Shelby Thrall , a disillusioned idealist at 30 , reviews three generations of Thralls in an attempt to recapture the meaning of the `` American Dream . '' Shelby 's recollections , stirred by a pile of old , crumbling letters in the attic , cover a span of three generations ...   Two books followed -- To Remember at Midnight ( 1938 ) and House Above the River ( 1946 ) .   About his final book , The Dusty Godmother ( 1949 ) . reviewer A.C. Spectorsky wrote in the New York Times that Foster had expanded a slick-magazine short story into a light novel which disappoints largely because it has frequent and unfulfilled intimations and overtones of being far more than just that .   Garrigues wrote in 1957 after Foster 's death that when Foster `` had done penance to his father by The American Dream , '' he had done all he had to do ... . he had written himself out when he made peace with his father , who was dead ; after that , he drank himself to death trying to find something that was not in him . ''   Foster died on March 25 , 1956 , in California .

neg: Council on Books in Wartime The Council on Books in Wartime ( 1942 -- 1946 ) was an American non-profit organization founded by booksellers , publishers , librarians , authors , and others , in the spring of 1942 to channel the use of books as `` weapons in the war of ideas '' ( the Council 's motto ) . Its primary aim was the promotion of books to influence the thinking of the American people regarding World War II , to build and maintain the will to win , to expose the true nature of the enemy , to disseminate technical information , to provide relaxation and inspiration , and to clarify war aims and problems of peace . The Council co-operated with the Office of War Information ( OWI ) and other Government agencies , but was itself a voluntary , unpaid , non-Governmental organization .   The Council attempted to achieve its goals by acting as a clearinghouse for book-related ideas , by being an intermediary between the book-trade industry and government agencies , by offering advice to publishers , and by handling all forms of public relations including distribution of reading lists and pamphlets , lectures , radio programs , newsreels , and book promotion and publication .   In 1942 , the Council created a War Book Panel to choose titles officially recommended by the Council . These titles were republished by Council member publishers with a seal of approval , a large `` I '' on the front cover meaning an `` Imperative '' book . 6 `` Imperative '' books were published between 1942 and 1945 ( see War Book Panel ) .   In the spring of 1943 , the Council launched the effort for which it would become best known , the Armed Services Editions . By the time the program ended in 1947 , it had printed 122,951,031 books , selling them to the government at an average cost of just over six cents a volume . The Armed Services Editions brought high-end books to a mass audience , and helped popularize the emerging paperback format . One of the most popular ASE books was A Tree Grows in Brooklyn ( 1943 ) by Betty Smith , and the ASE 's distribution of F. Scott Fitzgerald 's novel The Great Gatsby helped revive interest in the book . In 1944 , the Council launched Oversees Editions , Inc , a subsidiary aimed at distributing American books to civilian populations abroad , to promote a positive view of American culture .   With the end of World War II , the Council on Books in Wartime ceased active operations on Jan 31 , 1946 but maintained its corporate entities to deal with the dispersal of remaining funds and the safekeeping of records .   Some of those involved on the Council include : W. W. Norton of W. W. Norton & Company , Bennett Cerf of Random House , George A. Hecht of Doubleday & Co. , and Mark Van Doren .

neg: Frederic Chapin Frederic Chapin ( December 1 , 1873 -- December 27 , 1947 ) was an American composer and writer best known for his work with L. Frank Baum on The Woggle-Bug , a 1905 musical based on Baum 's novel , The Marvelous Land of Oz . His popular work The Storks ( 1902 ) with Guy F. Steeley led to his work with Baum , as he was recommended by M. Witmark & Sons , the publisher . He also wrote songs with lyricist Arthur Gillespie , two of which appeared , credited to Baum , in The Woggle-Bug .   He was born in Cleveland , Ohio , and died in Los Angeles , California .   His other stage works include Pussy in a Corner ( 1904 ) , The Forbidden Land ( 1904 ) , The American Girl ( 1906 ) , and The Maid and the Millionaire ( 1907 ) . Chapin took up writing , having written the book and lyrics for The Maid and the Millionaire , and then produced a 1908 fantasy novel modeled on the Oz books titled Toodles of Treasure Town and her Snow Man , which he followed with Pinkey and the Plumed Knight ( 1909 ) , both illustrated by Merle De Vore Johnson .   On November 11 , 1912 , he opened a four-act farce called C.O.D. on Broadway at the Gaiety Theatre , which was fairly successful , in spite of many negative reviews such that one reviewer felt the need to quote reviews from The Sun and others , while The New York Times found the play funny and well acted . The day before the play opened , he told The Detroit New Tribune , `` I wrote six plays -- every one turned out to have a great theme , but all were faulty in the way it was developed . '' He claims to have completely rewritten C.O.D. prior to its production , claiming he threw the original script in the garbage and started from scratch after the fourth producer finally accepted it . Tefft Johnson directed a film version of C.O.D. in 1914 with Harry Davenport , Hughie Mack , and Charles Brown in the title roles ( men with the initials , C.O.D. ) .   From 1914 -- 1932 , Chapin worked as a scenarist in Hollywood . Chapin returned to composing with Unashamed , a 1938 nudist romance . He also appeared as a film stand-in , for which he use the name `` Fred Fuller . '' According to the Internet Movie Database , `` Fuller '' played `` Younger Dolittle '' in Made for Each Other and was a stand-in and had an undetermined role in Bachelor Mother .

neg: Rudyard Kipling's Verse: Definitive Edition The Definitive Edition of the verse of Rudyard Kipling ( 1865 -- 1936 ) was published in 1940 in London by Hodder and Stoughton , Ltd and in Edinburgh by R. R. Clark . It is a one-volume collection and was printed on India paper .   The bibliographical information given on the verso of the title page ( the ` Edition notice ' ) of the 1958 reprint of the 1940 edition gives the following information ( years link to corresponding '' -LSB- year -RSB- in poetry '' article ) :  The first edition of Kipling 's Collected Verse ( 1885 -- 1912 ) was published in 1912 , with a reprint in the same year .  The second collected edition , the Inclusive Edition ( 1885 -- 1918 ) was first published in 3 volumes in December 1919 . A second impression came out in April 1920 .  This edition ( inclusive of his verse from 1885 to 1918 ) was issued as a single volume in October 1921 , and went through 18 further impressions by August 1926 .  The third collected edition ( Inclusive Edition , 1885 - 1926 ) appeared as a single volume in September 1927 . 11 more impressions came out by October 1931 .  The fourth Inclusive Edition of Rudyard Kipling 's Verse ( 1885 -- 1932 ) , in one volume , appeared in October 1933 , and was followed by six impressions up to November 1939 .  The Definitive Edition of Rudyard Kipling 's Verse appeared posthumously in 1940 . It was reprinted -- the edition notice of the 1958 reprint states -- in 1941 , 1949 and 1958 .   Many other versions of Kipling 's verse have been made . These include  Kipling , Rudyard ( 1913 ) Songs from Books , London , Macmillan .  Kipling , Rudyard ( 1925 ) A choice of songs from the verse of Rudyard Kipling , London , Methuem .  Kipling , Rudyard ( 1941 ) A Choice of Kipling 's Verse made by T.S.Eliot , with an essay on RUDYARD KIPLING , London , Faber and Faber .  Kipling , Rudyard ( 1986 ) Early verse by Rudyard Kipling , 1879-1889 : unpublished , uncollected , and rarely collected poems , Oxford , Clarendon Press .  Kipling , Rudyard ( 1992 ) Rudyard Kipling : selected poetry , London , Penguin .  Kipling , Rudyard ( 1994 ) The collected poems of Rudyard Kipling , introduction and notes by R. T. Jones , Ware , Wordsworth Editions .

neg: Washington Irving Washington Irving ( April 3 , 1783 -- November 28 , 1859 ) was an American short story writer , essayist , biographer , historian , and diplomat of the early 19th century . He is best known for his short stories `` Rip Van Winkle '' ( 1819 ) and `` The Legend of Sleepy Hollow '' ( 1820 ) , both of which appear in his book The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent . His historical works include biographies of George Washington , Oliver Goldsmith , and Muhammad , and several histories of 15th-century Spain dealing with subjects such as Christopher Columbus , the Moors and the Alhambra . Irving served as the U.S. ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846 .   He made his literary debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle , written under the pseudonym Jonathan Oldstyle . After moving to England for the family business in 1815 , he achieved international fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent . in 1819 -- 20 . He continued to publish regularly -- and almost always successfully -- throughout his life , and just eight months before his death ( at age 76 , in Tarrytown , New York ) , completed a five-volume biography of George Washington .   Irving , along with James Fenimore Cooper , was among the first American writers to earn acclaim in Europe , and Irving encouraged American authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne , Herman Melville , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , and Edgar Allan Poe . Irving was also admired by some European writers , including Walter Scott , Lord Byron , Thomas Campbell , Francis Jeffrey , and Charles Dickens . As America 's first genuine internationally best-selling author , Irving advocated for writing as a legitimate profession and argued for stronger laws to protect American writers from copyright infringement .

neg: Oh What a Paradise It Seems Oh What a Paradise It Seems is a 1982 novella by John Cheever . It is Cheever 's last work of fiction , published shortly before his death from cancer .   The main character is Lemuel Sears , an elderly computer-industry executive , twice-widowed , who pursues an ardent but unsuccessful love affair with Renee , a beautiful but elusive woman who works in real-estate . There are numerous subplots . Sears becomes involved in another love affair , and is also funding an investigation of the pollution of Beasley 's Pond in Connecticut , where he enjoys ice skating . The novella reprises many of Cheever 's familiar themes , including love , lust , life in suburbia , and a sense of displacement .   Writing in the New York Times , John Leonard called the novella `` perfect Cheever ; it is perfect , period . '' John Updike , a friend of Cheever , preferred it to Cheever 's novel Falconer , and remarked on the theme of ice skating , which he called his `` Wordsworthian hike '' and his `` connection with elemental purity and the awesome depths above and below '' .

neg: Nick Hornby Nicholas Peter John `` Nick '' Hornby ( born 17 April 1957 ) is an English novelist , essayist , lyricist , and screenwriter . He is best known for his memoir Fever Pitch and novels High Fidelity and About a Boy '' , all of which were adapted into feature films . Hornby 's work frequently touches upon music , sport , and the aimless and obsessive natures of his protagonists . His books have sold more than 5 million copies worldwide as of 2013 . In a 2004 poll for the BBC , Hornby was named the 29th most influential person in British culture .

neg: Robert Littell (author) Robert Littell ( born January 8 , 1935 ) is an American novelist and former journalist who resides in France . He specializes in spy novels that often concern the CIA and the Soviet Union .   Littell was born in Brooklyn , New York , to a Jewish family , of Russian Jewish origin . He is a 1956 graduate of Alfred University in western New York . He spent four years in the U.S. Navy and served at times as his ship 's navigator , antisubmarine warfare officer , communications officer , and deck watch officer .   Later Littell became a journalist and worked many years for Newsweek during the Cold War . He was a foreign correspondent for the magazine from 1965 to 1970 .   Littell is an amateur mountain climber and is the father of award-winning novelist Jonathan Littell . His brother , Alan Littell ( born 1929 ) , is also an author and journalist .

neg: Anton Grot Anton Grot ( 18 January 1884 -- 21 March 1974 ) was a distinguished Polish art director long in Hollywood . He was known for his prolific output with Warner Brothers , contributing , in such films as Little Caesar , and Gold Diggers of 1933 to the distinctive Warners look and style . According to TCM.com , he showed a `` flair for harsh realism , Expressionistic horror and ornate romantic moods alike '' . He was born Antocz Franciszek Groszewski in Kiełbasin , Poland and died in Stanton , California . He studied at the Krakow art academy and at technical school in Koenigsberg , Germany , majoring in interior decoration , illustration , and design . He changed his name and emigrated to the U.S. in 1909 .   The Lubin Company hired him to paint and design sets in 1913 , in Philadelphia ; and he also worked on films for Vitagraph and Pathé . At Pathé he developed his innovative techniques , along with William Cameron Menzies , in the way of using continuity sketches . His method of presenting a series of sketches of all the film 's sets would later become standard practice among Art Directors , particularly with Menzies ( his assistant in 1917 , on The Naulahka ) . Cinematographer Arthur Miller remembered Anton Grot :   `` a gifted and talented artist who made beautiful charcoal drawings ... of the set before it was completed . All his compositions showed a full shot of each set , with all the delicate tones and shadings that suggested ideas for lighting and , in general , were of great help to me as a cameraman . ''   Grot came to Hollywood in 1922 to assist Wilfred Buckland with the sets for the Douglas Fairbanks Robin Hood ; and stayed on , to work with Cecil B. DeMille and William K. Howard . He was eventually signed by Warner Bros , as `` art director , artist , and designer '' , and designed 80 films before his retirement in 1948 . Grot collaborated notably with fellow émigré , director Michael Curtiz , on 15 films . Beginning with the biblical epic Noah 's Ark ( 1928 ) , these included The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex ( 1938 ) , Captain Blood ( 1935 ) , The Sea Hawk ( 1940 ) , and Mildred Pierce ( 1945 ) . Grot is credited with contributing significantly to Curtiz ' personal style .

neg: George Gershwin George Jacob Gershwin ( -LSB- ˈɡɜrʃ.wɪn -RSB- September 26 , 1898 July 11 , 1937 ) was an American composer and pianist . Gershwin 's compositions spanned both popular and classical genres , and his most popular melodies are widely known . Among his best-known works are the orchestral compositions Rhapsody in Blue ( 1924 ) and An American in Paris ( 1928 ) as well as the opera Porgy and Bess ( 1935 ) .   Gershwin studied piano under Charles Hambitzer and composition with Rubin Goldmark , Henry Cowell and Joseph Brody . He began his career as a song plugger , but soon started composing Broadway theatre works with his brother Ira Gershwin , and Buddy DeSylva . He moved to Paris intending to study with Nadia Boulanger , who refused him , where he began to compose An American in Paris . After returning to New York City , he wrote Porgy and Bess with Ira and the author DuBose Heyward . Initially a commercial failure , Porgy and Bess is now considered one of the most important American operas of the twentieth century .   Gershwin moved to Hollywood and composed numerous film scores until his death in 1937 from glioblastoma multiforme , a malignant brain tumor .   Gershwin 's compositions have been adapted for use in many films and for television , and several became jazz standards recorded in many variations . Many celebrated singers and musicians have covered his songs .

neg: George W. Sears George Washington Sears ( December 2 , 1821 -- May 1 , 1890 ) was a sportswriter for Forest and Stream magazine in the 1880s and an early conservationist . His stories , appearing under the pen name , `` Nessmuk '' popularized self-guided canoe camping tours of the Adirondack lakes in open , lightweight solo canoes and what is today called ultralight camping .   Canoeing had been popularized by Scottish lawyer John MacGregor in the 1860s , but the typical canoe trip of the day employed expert guides and heavy canoes . Sears , who was 5 ft tall and 103 lb had a 9 ft , 10 +1 / 2 lb solo canoe built by J. Henry Rushton of Canton , New York . He named it the Sairy Gamp ( the name of a Dickens character ) and in it he completed a 266 mi journey through the central Adirondacks . He was 62 years old and in frail health ( tuberculosis and asthma ) at the time . William Henry Harrison Murray 's Adventures in the Wilderness , published in 1869 , had praised the Adirondacks as having a healthy atmosphere for consumptives and Verplanck Colvin 's enthusiastic writing about the Adirondack wilderness had further inspired the trip . The Sairy Gamp was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution and is now on loan to the Adirondack Museum .   He grew up the eldest of ten children in South Oxford ( now Webster ) , Massachusetts . He took his pen name from a Native American who had befriended him in early childhood . He was fascinated by the few books about Native Americans his family possessed , which left him with an abiding interest in forest life and adventure . A period of factory labor while still a child left him with a fondness for the writing of Charles Dickens . At age twelve he started working in a commercial fishing fleet based on Cape Cod and at nineteen he signed on for a three-year voyage on a whaler headed for the South Pacific ; it was the same year ( 1841 ) that Herman Melville shipped out of the same port bound for the same whaling grounds . On his return , his family moved to Wellsboro , Pennsylvania where he was to live for the rest of his life . However , he continued traveling for adventure , from the upper Midwest and Ontario to an Amazon tributary in Brazil ( in 1867 and again in 1870 ) .   Sears wrote Woodcraft , a book on camping , in 1884 , that has remained in print ever since . A book of poems , Forest Runes , appeared in 1887 . He died at his home in Pennsylvania seven years later . Mount Nessmuk , in northern Pennsylvania , is named after him .

neg: Christopher Cook (writer) Christopher LaVaughn Cook ( born August 3 , 1952 ) is an American writer whose writing styles and genres include journalism , non-fiction , scriptwriting and fiction , including short stories , novellas and novels .

neg: Theatre Guild The Theatre Guild is a theatrical society founded in New York City in 1918 by Lawrence Langner , Philip Moeller , Helen Westley and Theresa Helburn . Langner 's wife , Armina Marshall , then served as a co-director . It evolved out of the work of the Washington Square Players .   Its original purpose was to produce non-commercial works by American and foreign playwrights . It differed from other theaters at the time in that its board of directors shared the responsibility of choosing plays , management , and production . The Theatre Guild contributed greatly to the success of Broadway from the 1920s throughout the 1970s .   The Guild has produced a total of 228 plays on Broadway , including 18 by George Bernard Shaw and seven by Eugene O'Neill . Other major playwrights introduced to theatre-going Americans include Robert E. Sherwood , Maxwell Anderson , Sidney Howard , William Saroyan , and Philip Barry . In the field of musical theatre , the Guild has promoted works by Richard Rodgers , teamed with both Lorenz Hart and Oscar Hammerstein II , George and Ira Gershwin , Jule Styne , and Meredith Willson , all of which have become classics . Under President John F. Kennedy , the Guild was engaged to assemble a U.S. theatre company , headed by Helen Hayes , to tour the capitals of Europe and South America with works by Tennessee Williams , Thornton Wilder , and William Gibson .   In 1968 , the Guild became involved in the travel field by taking 25 of its subscribers to European capitals to see plays . In 1975 , it instituted its Theatre At Sea program with a 17-day cruise aboard the Rotterdam with Hayes and Cyril Ritchard . Since then they have hosted more than thirty cruises , each with seven or eight performers . Among them have been Alan Arkin , Zoe Caldwell , Anne Jackson , Cherry Jones , Richard Kiley , Eartha Kitt , Patricia Neal , Lynn Redgrave , Gena Rowlands , Jean Stapleton , Eli Wallach , and Lee Roy Reams , who served as the program 's resident director .   The last Broadway play produced by The Theatre Guild was State Fair in 1996 .

neg: Darwin's Radio Darwin 's Radio is a 1999 science fiction novel by Greg Bear . It won the Nebula Award in 2000 for Best Novel and the 2000 Endeavour Award . It was also nominated for the Hugo Award , Locus and Campbell Awards the same year .   The novel 's original tagline was ` The next great war will be inside us ' . It was followed by a sequel , Darwin 's Children , in 2003 .

neg: My Dream of the U.S.A. `` My dream of the U.S.A. '' is a musical score for a vocal solo , four part male chorus , and piano written and composed by Leonard Chick , Charles Roth , and Ted Snyder . The score was published in 1908 by T. Snyder Co. in New York , NY .