query: Leslie Groves directed a top secret research project in the 1940s.

pos: Leslie Groves Lieutenant General Leslie Richard Groves Jr. ( 17 August 1896 -- 13 July 1970 ) was a United States Army Corps of Engineers officer who oversaw the construction of the Pentagon and directed the Manhattan Project , a top secret research project that developed the atomic bomb during World War II .   As the son of a United States Army chaplain , Groves lived at a number of Army posts during his childhood . He graduated fourth in his class at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1918 and was commissioned into the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . In 1929 , he went to Nicaragua as part of an expedition whose purpose was to conduct a survey for the Inter-Oceanic Nicaragua Canal . Following the 1931 Nicaragua earthquake , Groves took over responsibility for Managua 's water supply system , for which he was awarded the Nicaraguan Presidential Medal of Merit . He attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1935 and 1936 , and the Army War College in 1938 and 1939 , after which he was posted to the War Department General Staff .   In 1940 Groves , who `` had a reputation as a doer , a driver , and a stickler for duty '' , became special assistant for construction to the Quartermaster General , tasked with inspecting construction sites and checking on their progress . In August 1941 , he was given responsibility for the gigantic office complex to house the War Department 's 40,000 staff which would ultimately become the Pentagon . In September 1942 , Groves took charge of the Manhattan Project . He was involved in most aspects of the atomic bomb 's development . He participated in the selection of sites for research and production at Oak Ridge , Tennessee ; Los Alamos , New Mexico ; and Hanford , Washington . He directed the enormous construction effort , made critical decisions on the various methods of isotope separation , acquired raw materials , directed the collection of military intelligence on the German nuclear energy project and helped select the cities in Japan that were chosen as targets . Groves wrapped the Manhattan Project in security but failed to prevent the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from conducting a successful espionage program that stole some of its most important secrets .   After the war , Groves remained in charge of the Manhattan Project until responsibility for nuclear weapons production was handed over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission in 1947 . He then headed the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , which had been created to control the military aspects of nuclear weapons . He was given a dressing down by the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , and told that he would never be appointed Chief of Engineers . Three days later , Groves announced his intention to leave the Army . He was promoted to lieutenant general just before his retirement on 29 February 1948 in recognition of his leadership of the bomb program . By a special Act of Congress , his date of rank was backdated to 16 July 1945 , the date of the Trinity nuclear test . He went on to become a vice-president at Sperry Rand .

pos: Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons . It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada . From 1942 to 1946 , the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs . The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District ; `` Manhattan '' gradually superseded the official codename , Development of Substitute Materials , for the entire project . Along the way , the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart , Tube Alloys . The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939 , but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $ 2 billion ( about $ in dollars ) . Over 90 % of the cost was for building factories and to produce fissile material , with less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons . Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States , the United Kingdom , and Canada .   Two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war : a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon . The Thin Man gun-type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so a simpler gun-type called Little Boy was developed that used uranium-235 , an isotope that makes up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium . Chemically identical to the most common isotope , uranium-238 , and with almost the same mass , it proved difficult to separate the two . Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment : electromagnetic , gaseous and thermal . Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee .   In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium . After the feasibility of the world 's first artificial nuclear reactor was demonstrated in Chicago at the Metallurgical Laboratory , it designed the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the production reactors in Hanford , Washington , in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium . The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium . The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory .   The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project . Through Operation Alsos , Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe , sometimes behind enemy lines , where they gathered nuclear materials and documents , and rounded up German scientists . Despite the Manhattan Project 's tight security , Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program .   The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb at the Trinity test , conducted at New Mexico 's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945 . Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , respectively . In the immediate postwar years , the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads , developed new weapons , promoted the development of the network of national laboratories , supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy . It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947 .

neg: Secret Military Organization Secret Military Organization , or Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa , TOW in Polish , was a clandestine military formation organized prior to World War II in the Second Polish Republic in the event Polish territory was occupied by foreign powers . The country-wide TOW organization was active in the early days of the September 1939 Campaign and during the Nazi occupation of Poland . Some of the offshoots or independently organized local `` TOWs '' , such as Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa Gryf Pomorski ( `` TOW Pomeranian Griffin '' ) or Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa Gryf Kaszubski ( `` TOW Kaszubian Griffin '' ) were active throughout the whole period of the German occupation as well as the early years of the Soviet takeover .   During the interwar period , Polish intelligence services in the Grupa Operacyjnej Dywersji ( Operational Group for Diversion ) developed contingency plans for creating an underground movement in case the country was occupied by either Nazi Germany or Soviet Russia . The sub unit within this service codenamed Zygmunt was charged with preparing diversionary and sabotage actions to be carried out during the possible occupation .   The main , country-wide , TOW was organized by Major ( later colonel ) Jan Mazurkiewicz , codename Radosław , in late 1939 , in Stanisławów , after the Polish defeat in the September campaign . Mazurkiewicz 's founding of the group received approval from Gen. Władysław Sikorski and the Polish government in exile . Originally the coordinating headquarters of this TOW were located in Budapest , but were transferred to occupied Poland in 1940 . In March 1943 the main TOW became part of the general anti-Nazi organization the Home Army and the cells of the organization were transformed or transferred into the newly organized `` Directorate for Diversion '' , Kedyw .   Some of the other TOWs , such as the Pomeranian Griffin , continued to exist independently of the Home Army , or were only nominally subordinated to it .

neg: History of the United States National Security Council 1953–61 This article is about the history of the United States National Security Council during the Eisenhower Administration , 1953 -- 1961 .   Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower , the National Security Council system evolved into the principal arm of the President in formulating and executing policy on military , international , and internal security affairs . Where Harry S. Truman was uncomfortable with the NSC system and only made regular use of it under the pressure of the Korean War , Eisenhower embraced the NSC concept and created a structured system of integrated policy review . Eisenhower had a penchant for careful staff work , and believed that effective planning involved a creative process of discussion and debate among advisers compelled to work toward consensus recommendations .   The genesis of the new NSC system was a report prepared for the President in March 1953 by Robert Cutler , who became the President 's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs . Cutler proposed a systematic flow of recommendation , decision , and implementation that he later described as the `` policy hill '' process . At the bottom of the hill , concerned agencies such as State and Defense produced draft policy recommendations on specific topics and worked for consensus at the agency level . These draft NSC papers went up the hill through the Planning Board , created to review and refine the recommendations before passing them on for full NSC consideration . The NSC Planning Board met on Tuesday and Friday afternoons and was composed of officials at the Assistant Secretary level from the agencies with permanent or standing representation on the Council , as well as advisers from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Central Intelligence Agency . Hundreds of hours were spent by the Board reviewing and reconstructing proposed papers for the NSC . Cutler resigned in 1958 in exhaustion . The top of the foreign policy-making hill was the NSC itself , chaired by the President , which met regularly on Thursday mornings .   The Council consisted of the five statutory members : the President , Vice President , Secretaries of State and Defense , and Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization . Depending on the subject under discussion , as many as a score of other senior Cabinet members and advisers , including the Secretary of the Treasury , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and the Director of Central Intelligence , attended and participated . The agenda included regular briefings by the Director of Central Intelligence on worldwide developments affecting U.S. security , and consideration of the policy papers advanced by the Planning Board . The upshot of the discussions were recommendations to the President in the form of NSC Actions . The President , who participated in the discussion , normally endorsed the NSC Action , and the decision went down the hill for implementation to the Operations Coordinating Board .   President Eisenhower created the Operations Coordinating Board ( OCB ) to follow up on all NSC decisions . The OCB met regularly on Wednesday afternoons at the Department of State , and was composed of the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs , Deputy Secretary of Defense , the Directors of the CIA , the United States Information Agency , and ICA , and the Special Assistants to the President for National Security Affairs and Security Operations Coordination . The OCB was the coordinating and implementing arm of the NSC for all aspects of the implementation of national security policy . NSC action papers were assigned to a team from the OCB for follow-up . More than 40 interagency working groups were established with experts for various countries and subjects . This 24-person staff of the OCB supported these working groups in which officials from various agencies met each other for the first time .   The President 's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs , a post held under Eisenhower by Cutler , Dillon Anderson , William Harding Jackson , and finally Gordon Gray , oversaw the flow of recommendations and decisions up and down the policy hill , and functioned in Council meetings to brief the Council and summarize the sense of discussion . The Special Assistant was an essential facilitator of the decision-making system , but , unlike the National Security Adviser created under Kennedy , had no substantive role in the process . The NSC staff managed by the Special Assistant grew during the Eisenhower years , but again had no independent role in the policy process .   President Eisenhower had great confidence in the efficacy of covert operations as a viable supplement or alternative to previous normal foreign policy initiatives . The seeming clear success of the operations to overthrow Iranian populist leader Mossadegeh in 1953 , and overthrow the democratically elected , left-leaning President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán in Guatemala in 1954 was not without their crisis moments in the White House . In 1954 NSC 5412 provided for the establishment of a panel of designated representatives of the President and the Secretaries of State and Defense to meet regularly to review and recommend covert operations . Gordon Gray assumed the chairmanship of the `` 5412 Committee '' as it was called , and all succeeding National Security Advisers have chaired similar successor committees , variously named `` 303 '' , `` 40 '' , `` Special Coordinating Committee , '' which , in later Presidential administrations , were charged with the review of CIA covert operations .   President Eisenhower also created the position of staff secretary with the responsibility to screen all foreign policy and military documents coming to the President . While Colonel Andrew Goodpaster held this position , he tended to eclipse the Special Assistant for National Security .   The strength of the NSC system under Eisenhower was that it provided for regular , fully staffed , interagency review of major foreign and national security issues , culminating in discussion and decision at the highest level of government . The resulting Presidentially approved NSC papers provided policy guidance at every level of implementation . Eisenhower felt that the regular policy discussions kept his principal advisers fully informed , in step with one another , and prepared to react knowledgeably in the event of crisis . His commitment to the system was such that he chaired every Council meeting he could attend ( 329 of a total of 366 ) . The NSC meetings , including prior briefings and subsequent review of NSC Actions , constituted the largest single item on his weekly agenda .   Secretary of State John Foster Dulles , on the other hand , had reservations about the NSC system . He was the strongest personality in the Eisenhower Cabinet and jealously guarded his role as principal adviser to the President on foreign policy . He had constant , direct access to the President and did not feel that some of the most sensitive issues should be discussed in groups as large as were involved in most NSC meetings . He drew a sharp line between the NSC policy review process and the day-to-day operations of foreign policy , which he maintained were the province of the Department of State . Dulles and his deputies also were not comfortable with the scope the NSC review system gave to Secretary of the Treasury George Humphrey , another strong figure in the Cabinet , to intrude budgetary limitations into policy considerations . Dulles successfully resisted a proposal to substitute the Vice President for the Under Secretary of State as chairman of the OCB , arguing that such a change would impinge on his role as principal adviser to the President on foreign policy .   Critics of the Eisenhower NSC system have argued that it was inflexible , overstaffed , unable to anticipate and react to immediate crises , and weighed down by committees reporting in great detail on long checklists of minor policy concerns . The most thorough critique of the system emerged from the hearings conducted in 1960 ( 1961 by the Senate Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery , known as the Jackson Subcommittee for its chairman , Senator Henry Jackson . Cutler and NSC Executive Secretary James Lay testified in support of the effectiveness of the system , but their testimony was offset by that of former Truman administration officials such as George Kennan , Paul Nitze , and Robert Lovett . They argued that foreign policy was being made by a passive President influenced by a National Security Council rendered virtually useless by ponderous , bureaucratic machinery . Basically , they argued , the NSC was a huge committee , and suffered from all the weaknesses of committees . Composed of representatives of many agencies , its members were not free to adopt the broad , statesmanlike attitude desired by the President , but , rather , were ambassadors of their own departments , clinging to departmental rather than national views . To make matters worse , critics added , the NSC system by its very nature was restricted to continuing and developing already established policies and was incapable of originating new ideas or major innovations . The critics suggested replacement of the formal , `` over-institutionalized '' NSC structure with a smaller , less formal NSC which would offer the President a clear choice of alternatives on a limited number of major problems .   Eisenhower was certainly not a passive President , dominated by his Secretary of State on foreign policy and national security issues . In fact , Eisenhower was actively in command of his administration 's foreign policy , and the established NSC system met his instincts and requirements to the extent he used them . Although there is substance in the criticism that the Eisenhower NSC became to some extent the prisoner of a rigidly bureaucratic process , the criticism misses the point that Eisenhower and Dulles did not attempt to manage fast-breaking foreign policy crises or day-to-day operation through the NSC apparatus . An examination of several of the major foreign policy decisions that confronted the Eisenhower administration reveals that the NSC system was used to manage some , but was essentially bypassed in others . The established NSC process was used when the question involved a policy debate between departments with strongly held , contending positions , as it did in the case of the debate between the Departments of State and Defense in 1956/1957 over whether to introduce a more modern generation of weapons into Korea , where it focused debate and produced the necessary agreed-upon decision after discussion of three draft policy papers .   In fast-breaking crisis situations however , including the concurrent Suez crisis and Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , the first and Second Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1955 and 1958 , and the 1958 Lebanon crisis , these were typically managed through small meetings with the President in the White House , normally involving Dulles and other concerned advisers , and through telephone conversations between Eisenhower , Dulles , and other principal advisers . Eisenhower sometimes used trusted NSC staffers to serve as an intermediary to gain information outside the chain of command as he did with Colonel Goodpaster during the straits crisis in 1955 . There was great similarity between this process of crisis management and that adopted by subsequent Presidents , such as Kennedy , Johnson , and Nixon , except for the fact that the ad hoc meetings in the Eisenhower White House did not involve a National Security Adviser as a substantive participant . And in the event that aspects of crisis management depended on contact with the critical man-on-the-spot , as it did in 1958 when Deputy Under Secretary of State Robert Murphy was dispatched to Lebanon to attempt to defuse the crisis , his instructions came from the Department of State and he reported to the Secretary of State rather than directly to the White House , as became the practice during the height of the Vietnam War .   When Eisenhower briefed President-elect Kennedy on the NSC system , as when Gordon Gray briefed his successor McGeorge Bundy , they both emphasized the importance of the established NSC machinery in the management of foreign policy and national security affairs . They might have been more persuasive in maintaining the system had they pointed to the fact that the NSC apparatus was essentially limited to policy review , but was not used by them to manage foreign policy crises or day-to-day decisions .

neg: War and Peace Studies War and Peace Studies was a project carried out by the Council on Foreign Relations between 1939 and 1945 before and during American involvement in World War II . It was intended to advise the U.S. Government on conduct in the war and the subsequent peace .   The project was divided into four major areas : economic and financial , security and armaments , territorial , and political . Over 100 men took part . Funding was provided by the Rockefeller Foundation , which provided almost $ 350,000 over the course of the project . A steering committee was created in December 1939 chaired by U.S diplomat Norman Davis with Foreign Affairs editor Hamilton Fish Armstrong as vice-chairman . Initial area heads were :   Alvin Hansen and Jacob Viner led the economic and financial group  Whitney Shepardson , who led the political group  Allen Welsh Dulles and Hanson W. Baldwin , who led the armaments group , and  Isaiah Bowman , who led the territorial group .   A research secretary was appointed to each group :  William Diebold , for the economic and financial group  Walter R. Sharp , for the political group , and  Grayson L. Kirk , for the armaments group  William P. Maddox , for the territorial group   From March 1942 , the project supplied research secretaries to the State Department 's Advisory Committee on Postwar Foreign Policy , with each group 's secretary serving the corresponding subcommittee at the State Department . Meetings were scheduled to allow secretaries to carry out Council work during the first half of each week with the remainder of the week spent at the Department of State .

neg: Spies for Peace Spies for Peace was a British group of anti-war activists associated with the Committee of 100 who publicized government preparations for rule after a nuclear war . In 1963 they broke into a secret government bunker , Regional Seat of Government Number 6 ( RSG-6 ) at Warren Row , near Reading , where they photographed and copied documents . The RSGs were to include representatives of all the central government departments , to maintain law and order , communicate with the surviving population and control remaining resources . The public were virtually unaware what the government was planning for the aftermath of a nuclear war until it was revealed by Spies for Peace .   They published this information in a pamphlet , Danger ! Official Secret RSG-6 . Four thousand copies were sent to the national press , politicians and peace movement activists and copies were distributed on the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 's Easter march from Aldermaston .   The pamphlet said it was `` about a small group of people who have accepted thermonuclear war as a probability , and are consciously and carefully planning for it . ... They are quietly waiting for the day the bomb drops , for that will be the day they take over . '' It listed the RSGs and gave their telephone numbers . Most of the pamphlet was about RSG-6 , which Spies for Peace described in detail . They said that `` RSG-6 is not a centre for civil defence . It is a centre for military government '' , and they listed the personnel who were to staff it . The pamphlet described emergency planning exercises in which RSG-6 had been activated , including a NATO exercise in September 1962 , FALLEX-62 . Spies for Peace asserted that the exercise demonstrated the incapacity of the public services to cope with the consequences of nuclear attack and that the RSG system would not work .  The exercise , they said , `` proved once and for all the truth of the 1957 Defence White Paper that there is no defence against nuclear war . '' In a hint at the source of their information , Spies for Peace said that FALLEX-62 `` convinced at least one occupant of one RSG at least that the deterrent is quite futile '' . The pamphlet claimed that at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis , a month after the NATO exercise , RSG-6 was not activated .   The authors objected strongly to the fact that the RSG network had not been publicly debated , that its staff were unelected and that they would have military powers .   The 1963 Aldermaston issue of the CND bulletin Sanity included the Spies for Peace revelations and several hundred demonstrators left the Aldermaston route and headed for RSG-6 where they set up a picket . Spies for Peace made front page news but the press was later advised by an official `` D-Notice '' from saying any more about the matter . The police tried to prevent any further distribution of the information but failed to do so . RSGs in Cambridge and Edinburgh were also picketed .   Although several people were arrested , the original spies were not identified or caught . Since the death of Nicolas Walter , it has been revealed that he was one of the Spies for Peace .

neg: War Research Service The War Research Service ( WRS ) was a civilian agency of the United States government established during World War II to pursue research relating to biological warfare . Established in May 1942 by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , the WRS was embedded in the Federal Security Agency , the federal agency that administered Social Security and other New Deal programs in the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Headed by George W. Merck , president of the Merck & Co. pharmaceutical firm , the WRS was headquartered at Fort Detrick , Maryland .   Being a civilian agency , the WRS was initially tasked to supervise the military Chemical Warfare Service 's biological program .  However , the WRS was disbanded in 1944 , and the weapons research was continued under the exclusive oversight of the CWS .

neg: Reginald Victor Jones Reginald Victor Jones FRSE LLD ( 29 September 1911 -- 17 December 1997 ) was a British physicist and scientific military intelligence expert who played an important role in the defence of Britain in

neg: Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT The Research Laboratory of Electronics ( RLE ) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) was founded in 1946 as the successor to the famed MIT Radiation Laboratory ( Rad Lab ) of World War II .  During the war , large scale research at the RadLab was devoted to the rapid development of microwave radar . Projects included physical electronics , microwave physics , electromagnetic properties of matter , and microwave communication principles . The `` Rad Lab '' designed almost half of the radar deployed in World War II , created over 100 different radar systems , and constructed $ 1.5 billion worth of radar .   At the height of its activities , the Rad Lab employed nearly 4,000 people working on several continents . What began as a British-American effort to make microwave radar work , evolved into a centralized laboratory committed to understanding the theories behind experimental radar while solving its engineering problems . The Rad Lab formally closed on December 31 , 1945 , and its staff members resumed their peacetime activities . In its wake remained tons of surplus equipment and the concept for a basic research center that was to continue in RLE .   On January 1 , 1946 , under the sponsorship of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development , the RadLab 's Basic Research Division continued work at MIT as a transitional organization . Under the leadership of Director Julius A. Stratton and Associate Director Albert G. Hill , it continued investigation on problems in physical electronics that involved cathodes , electronic emission , and gaseous conduction . In microwave physics , the electromagnetic properties of matter at microwave frequencies were studied . Modern techniques were applied to both physics and engineering research , and in microwave communications , engineering applications were emphasized . On July 1 , 1946 , the Basic Research Division was finally incorporated into the new Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT .

neg: Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II The evacuation of civilians in Britain during the Second World War was designed to protect civilians in Britain , particularly children , from the risks associated with aerial bombing of cities by moving them to areas thought to be less at risk . Operation Pied Piper , which began on 1 September 1939 , officially relocated more than 3.5 million people . Further waves of official evacuation and re-evacuation occurred on the south and east coasts in June 1940 , when a seaborne invasion was expected , and from affected cities after the Blitz began in September 1940 . There were also official evacuations from the UK to other parts of the British Empire , and many non-official evacuations within and from the UK . Other mass movements of civilians included British citizens arriving from the Channel Islands , and displaced people arriving from continental Europe .   The Government Evacuation Scheme was developed during summer 1938 by the Anderson Committee and implemented by the Ministry of Health . The country was divided into zones , classified as either `` evacuation '' , `` neutral '' , or `` reception '' , with priority evacuees being moved from the major urban centres and billeted on the available private housing in more rural areas . Each zone covered roughly a third of the population , although several urban areas later bombed had not been classified for evacuation . In early 1939 , the reception areas compiled lists of available housing . Space for a couple of thousand people was found , and the government also constructed camps which provided a few thousand additional spaces .   In summer 1939 , the government began to publicise its plan through the local authorities . They had overestimated demand : only half of all school-aged children were moved from the urban areas instead of the expected 80 % . There was enormous regional variation : as few as 15 % of the children were evacuated from some urban areas , while over 60 % of children were evacuated in Manchester and Belfast and Liverpool . The refusal of the central government to spend large sums on preparation also reduced the effectiveness of the plan . In the event over 1,474,000 people were evacuated .

neg: Council on Books in Wartime The Council on Books in Wartime ( 1942 -- 1946 ) was an American non-profit organization founded by booksellers , publishers , librarians , authors , and others , in the spring of 1942 to channel the use of books as `` weapons in the war of ideas '' ( the Council 's motto ) . Its primary aim was the promotion of books to influence the thinking of the American people regarding World War II , to build and maintain the will to win , to expose the true nature of the enemy , to disseminate technical information , to provide relaxation and inspiration , and to clarify war aims and problems of peace . The Council co-operated with the Office of War Information ( OWI ) and other Government agencies , but was itself a voluntary , unpaid , non-Governmental organization .   The Council attempted to achieve its goals by acting as a clearinghouse for book-related ideas , by being an intermediary between the book-trade industry and government agencies , by offering advice to publishers , and by handling all forms of public relations including distribution of reading lists and pamphlets , lectures , radio programs , newsreels , and book promotion and publication .   In 1942 , the Council created a War Book Panel to choose titles officially recommended by the Council . These titles were republished by Council member publishers with a seal of approval , a large `` I '' on the front cover meaning an `` Imperative '' book . 6 `` Imperative '' books were published between 1942 and 1945 ( see War Book Panel ) .   In the spring of 1943 , the Council launched the effort for which it would become best known , the Armed Services Editions . By the time the program ended in 1947 , it had printed 122,951,031 books , selling them to the government at an average cost of just over six cents a volume . The Armed Services Editions brought high-end books to a mass audience , and helped popularize the emerging paperback format . One of the most popular ASE books was A Tree Grows in Brooklyn ( 1943 ) by Betty Smith , and the ASE 's distribution of F. Scott Fitzgerald 's novel The Great Gatsby helped revive interest in the book . In 1944 , the Council launched Oversees Editions , Inc , a subsidiary aimed at distributing American books to civilian populations abroad , to promote a positive view of American culture .   With the end of World War II , the Council on Books in Wartime ceased active operations on Jan 31 , 1946 but maintained its corporate entities to deal with the dispersal of remaining funds and the safekeeping of records .   Some of those involved on the Council include : W. W. Norton of W. W. Norton & Company , Bennett Cerf of Random House , George A. Hecht of Doubleday & Co. , and Mark Van Doren .

neg: Special Relationship The Special Relationship is the unofficial term for the exceptionally close political , diplomatic , cultural , economic , military and historical relations between the United Kingdom and the United States . It was used in a 1946 speech by Winston Churchill . Although both the United Kingdom and United States have close relationships with many other nations , the level of cooperation between them in economic activity , trade and commerce , military planning , execution of military operations , nuclear weapons technology , and intelligence sharing has been described as `` unparalleled '' among major powers .   The United Kingdom and United States have been close allies in numerous military and political conflicts throughout the 20th and 21st centuries including World War I , World War II , the Korean War , the Cold War , the Gulf War , and the War on Terror .

neg: Wallace Akers Sir Wallace Alan Akers ( 9 September 1888 -- 1 November 1954 ) was a British chemist and industrialist . Beginning his academic career at Oxford he specialized in physical chemistry . During the Second World War , he was the director of the Tube Alloys project , a clandestine programme aiming to research and develop British atomic weapons capabilities , from 1941 to 1945 . After the war he was director of research at Imperial Chemical Industries . He also served as a member of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , and the committee that drew up the organisation of what became the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority . He died in 1954 at the age of 66 .

neg: Ben Lockspeiser Sir Ben Lockspeiser KCB , FRS , MIMechE , FRAeS ( 9 March 1891 -- 18 October 1990 ) was a British scientific administrator and the first President of CERN .   Lockspeiser was educated at the Grocers ' Company 's School , Hackney , and Sidney Sussex College , Cambridge . He served as a private with the Royal Army Medical Corps at Gallipoli during the First World War .  Lockspeiser became a chemist at the Royal Aircraft Establishment , Farnborough .   During the Second World War he was promoted and worked on secret projects for the Admiralty .   He was also at the Ministry of Aircraft Production , and supplied the spotlight altimeter method for the Dambusters raid . He became Deputy-Director .   He was knighted in the 1946 New Year Honours list . By the 1950s he was Secretary at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research   Quote about the establishment of CERN . `` Scientific research lives and flourishes in an atmosphere of freedom - freedom to doubt , freedom to enquire and freedom to discover . These are the conditions under which this new laboratory has been established . ''   Reference to an Automatic Computing Engine ( ACE ) project is referenced in memos dated from 1950 at the Alan Turing Archive . Lockspeiser was also responsible for the development and further exploitation of the Manchester Mark 1 into the world 's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer , the Ferranti Mark 1 .   Much is mentioned about his cancellation of the Miles M. 52 Supersonic Jet project when he was Director of Scientific Research .   His pre-war interest in Communism made him the object of monitoring by the British secret service MI6 .   He lived out his retirement in Farnborough .

neg: National Churchill Library and Center The National Churchill Library and Center ( NCLC ) is a public library and museum at the George Washington University ( GWU ) in Washington , D.C. , dedicated to the life and work of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill . It is located on the ground level of the GWU 's Gelman Library .   The NCLC was officially opened on 29 October 2016 and is a collaboration between the George Washington University and the International Churchill Society . The concept of a Churchill research library in the United States was conceived in 2012 by International Churchill Society Chairman , Laurence Geller , and the then President of the George Washington University , Steven Knapp . It was the first research facility in the U.S. capital dedicated to the study of Churchill .   The NCLC contains hundreds of volumes by and about Churchill ; a touchscreen exhibit based on the 2012 exhibition `` Churchill : The Power of Words '' at the Morgan Library in New York ; online access to the Churchill Archive housed at Churchill College , Cambridge ; and primary sources including the engagement diary cards that recorded Churchill 's schedule during World War II .

neg: P. O. Box 1142 P.O. Box 1142 was a secret American military intelligence facility that operated during World War II . The American Military Intelligence Service had two special wings , known as MIS-X and MIS-Y .   The MIS-X program focused upon the escape and evasion activities of American POWs in Europe .   MIS-Y 's core duty was to interview the Prisoners of War ( POWs ) . They were known by their codename , the mailing address `` P.O. Box 1142 . '' Notable prisoners housed at the facility included rocket scientist Wernher von Braun , spymaster Reinhard Gehlen , and Heinz Schlicke , inventor of infrared detection .  German U-Boat commander Werner Henke was also a prisoner but was fatally shot when he tried to escape by climbing the fence .   P.O. Box 1142 was based in Fort Hunt , Virginia , formerly part of George Washington 's farmlands . German scientists , submariners and soldiers were questioned . P.O. Box 1142 obtained valuable intelligence from German POWs and also communicated with Allied POWs overseas . The camp was in violation of the Geneva Conventions because the Red Cross was not notified of the transfer or location of the prisoners , but according to the surviving wardens , torture was not used . The work done at Fort Hunt contributed to the Allied victory of World War II . It also led to advances in scientific technology and military intelligence that directly influenced the Cold War . In October 2007 , a group of the former intelligence workers gathered for the first time since the war 's conclusion , and a flagpole and plaque recognizing their contributions were dedicated on the original grounds .   The camp was started in 1942 ; the majority of the camp facilities were bulldozed in 1946 .  The post commanders were : Col. Daniel W. Kent ( 1 July 1942 to 21 October 1942 ) ; Col. Russell H. Sweet ( 21 October 1942 to 1 February 1943 ) ; Col. John L. Walker ( 1 February 1943 to 18 July 1945 ) ; and Col. Zennas R. Bliss ( 18 July 1945 to post closure ) .

neg: Haldane principle In British research policy , the Haldane principle is the idea that decisions about what to spend research funds on should be made by researchers rather than politicians . It is named after Richard Burdon Haldane , who in 1904 and from 1909 to 1918 chaired committees and commissions which recommended this policy .   The 1904 committee recommended the creation of the University Grants Committee which has evolved via the Universities Funding Council into the current higher education funding councils : Research Councils UK , Higher Education Funding Council for England , Scottish Funding Council and Higher Education Funding Council for Wales .   In 1918 Haldane 's committee produced the `` Haldane Report '' . The report suggested that research required by government departments could be separated into that required by specific departments and that which was more general . It recommended that departments should oversee the specific research but the general research should be under the control of autonomous Research Councils , which would be free from political and administrative pressures that might discourage research in certain areas . The principle of the autonomy of the research councils is now referred to as the Haldane Principle . The first research council to be created as a result of the Haldane Report was the Medical Research Council .   The principle has remained enshrined in British Government policy , but has been criticised and altered over the years . In 1939 J.D. Bernal argued that social good was more important than researchers ' freedom in deciding the direction of research . Solly Zuckerman criticised it in 1971 for its artificial separation of basic and applied science , and the consequent elevation of the status of the former .   A major revision to the application of the Haldane Principle in British research funding came in the early 1970s with the Rothschild Report of 1971 , and its implementation which transferred about 25 % of the then Research Council funds , and the decisions on the research to be funded with them , back to government departments , a move later undone by Margaret Thatcher 's government .   There is currently a debate about the extent to which the principle is still applied in practice .   This principle is unrelated to Haldane 's rule , the zoological principle named after J. B. S. Haldane .

neg: Political Intelligence Department (1939–1943) The Political Intelligence Department was a department of the British Foreign Office during World War II . Established in 1939 , its main function was the production of weekly intelligence summaries . It was originally headed by Foreign Office diplomat Rex Leeper .   In April 1943 , the department was merged with the Royal Institute of International Affairs ' Foreign Research and Press Service in Oxford , creating the new Foreign Office Research Department .   The ` Political Intelligence Department ' name continued to exist until 1946 as a cover for the Political Warfare Executive .

neg: History of nuclear weapons Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive power from nuclear fission or combined fission and fusion reactions . Starting with scientific breakthroughs made during the 1930s , the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada collaborated during World War II in what was called the Manhattan Project to counter the suspected Nazi German atomic bomb project . In August 1945 , two fission bombs were dropped on Japan , and stands to date as the only use of nuclear weapons in combat . The Soviet Union started development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project , and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons known as `` hydrogen bombs '' .

neg: Larkspur radio system Larkspur was the retrospectively adopted name of a tactical radio system used by the British Army . Its development started in the late 1940s with the first equipments being issued in the mid-1950s . It remained in service until replaced by Clansman in the late-1970s although some elements of Larkspur were still in service well into the 1980s . It was widely exported to British Commonwealth armies and other friendly nations .   The origin of Larkspur was a post-war project to move tactical short-range radio communications in the forward battle area from HF using amplitude modulation to low-band VHF using frequency modulation . This followed the similar move by the US Army in the latter part of WWII which had demonstrated significant advantages . Where the use of VHF was not practical , HF sets using narrow band phase modulation ( NBPhM ) were developed as the only practical method at the time of obtaining some performance improvement over the use of AM especially at night .   The range of sets originally comprised the vehicle VHF sets C42 , C45 , B45 , B47 , B48 and the C13 vehicle HF transceiver , all of which were designed to specifications produced by the government Signals Research and Development Establishment ( SRDE ) at Christchurch and initially designated as the `` New Range '' to differentiate them from wartime legacy radios . They were characterized by similar appearance , tuning drills , frequency indication using film strip displays , the use of relatively simple architecture that avoided complex switching as far as possible and using commonly available components and a degree of modularity in construction . Plessey Mk.IV connectors were used extensively in the sets and accessories .   An important operational advance was that the sets incorporated internal calibration facilities which meant that they could be accurately pre-set on a frequency without radiating any signal . This enabled all stations in a net to be confidently pre-tuned on the same channel and eliminated the old compromising `` Tuning and Netting Call '' system that advertised the presence of activity to an enemy .   All the sets were constructed in strong hermetically sealed alloy enclosures - a measure that had been found to be essential to ensure durability and reliability during the previous war , and were sized to fit a standardized range of vehicle mountings . A range of control and distribution accessories known as a harness to enable radio facilities to be accessed from various points in a vehicle was also produced .   Initially , roll-out of the VHF New Range sets was restricted to the Royal Armoured Corps and the Royal Artillery , reflecting the fact that these formed the `` teeth '' elements likely to be involved in meeting any perceived threat of a Soviet advance across northern Europe . In 1962 a project to re-equip the remainder of the army was undertaken and given the name Larkspur , the name officially becoming retrospectively applied to the original New Range sets and eventually by common use becoming a technically incorrect generic label for virtually any radio equipment used by the British Army between the end of WWII and the arrival of the Clansman Combat Net Radio family .   The HF set of the family , the C13 was included for use as a short-range combat net radio in circumstances where VHF was unsuitable and could also be used ( using AM or CW ) for longer range operation by exploiting skywave and near-vertical incidence propagation techniques . Originally conceived as a replacement for the wartime Wireless Set 19 , it was enhanced during development by the addition of Narrow Band Phase Modulation ( NBPhM ) facilities to improve the performance and communications reliability at short range particularly at night when ionospheric changes cause increased interference levels . This was accomplished by the use of angle modulation effectively doubling the output power compared to AM and exploiting the capture effect of the mode .  A complementary manpack HF set , the A13 , was also equipped with NBPhM facilities .   The C13 and A13 entered service in the early 1960s with the A13 notable for being the only set in the original range that employed transistors exploiting developments in semiconductors to reduce weight and size , and a rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery   VHF manpack sets of the era were derived from established designs with the Station Radio A41 and A42 being developed from the US AN/PRC 10 and 9 respectively and the A40 adapted from the Canadian C/PRC -26 . Other sets developed commercially were bought in to meet specialist requirements or circumstances , examples being the HF156 , A14 ( BCC30 ) , the Australian A510 , Redifon A43R and the Pye C12 .   Various other sets such as the B70 UHF carrier telephony relay , C11/R210 HF transmitter/receiver for Royal Signals use , and the Marconi transmitter D11 and its associated receiver , the R230 were commercial developments adopted as standard sets by the British services .   Manufacture of the equipment was carried out by Plessey , E K Cole ( EKCO ) , Mullard Equipment Ltd ( MEL ) , Murphy Radio , The British Communications Corporation ( BCC ) , Redifon and others .

neg: The Link (UK organization) The Link was established in July 1937 as an ` independent non-party organisation to promote Anglo-German friendship ' . It generally operated as a cultural organisation , although its journal , the Anglo-German Review , reflected the pro-Nazi views of Admiral Sir Barry Domvile , and particularly in London it attracted a number of anti-semites and pro-Nazis . At its height the membership numbered around 4,300 .   The Link was opposed to war between Britain and Germany , and because of this attracted the support of some British pacifists . When The Link and the Anglo-German Review were included among a number of peace organisations across the political spectrum in the Peace Service Handbook ( a publication put out by the Peace Pledge Union ) the Daily Telegraph and The News Chronicle published articles accusing the PPU of supporting Nazism . In response , PPU member Stuart Morris wrote to the papers stating there was no connection between the PPU and The Link , and that the former organisation did not support the German demand for colonies or peace at the expense of smaller nations . The PPU also sent a letter to its group leaders dissociating The Link from the PPU , and ceased publishing the Peace Service Handbook .   The organisation was investigated by Maxwell Knight , head of counter-subversion in MI5 and future role model for James Bond 's boss M . The organisation closed shortly after the start of World War II in 1939 .   Admiral Sir Barry Domvile was interned in 1940 as someone who might `` endanger the safety of the realm '' .   According to Anthony Masters , the Link was allegedly resurrected in 1940 by Ian Fleming , then working in the Department of Naval Intelligence , in order to successfully lure Rudolf Hess ( deputy party leader and third in leadership of Germany , after Adolf Hitler and Hermann Göring ) to Britain in May 1941 .

neg: Kellex Corporation The Kellex Corporation was a wholly owned subsidiary of M. W. Kellogg Company . Kellex was formed in 1942 so that Kellogg 's operations relating to the Manhattan Project could be kept separate and secret . `` Kell '' stood for `` Kellogg '' and `` X '' for secret . The new company 's goal was to design a facility for the production of enriched uranium through gaseous diffusion . In gaseous diffusion , isotopes of Uranium-235 could be separated from Uranium-238 by turning uranium metal into uranium hexafluoride gas and straining it through a barrier material .


query: Green Arrow is a comic book character who became the subject of a 1970s television show.

pos: Super Friends Super Friends is an American animated television series about a team of superheroes , which ran from 1973 to 1986 on ABC as part of its Saturday morning cartoon lineup . It was produced by Hanna-Barbera and was based on the Justice League of America ( JLA ) and associated comic book characters published by DC Comics .   The name of the program ( and the JLA members featured with the Super Friends ) have been variously represented ( as Super Friends and Challenge of the Super Friends , for example ) at different points in its broadcast history . There were a total of 109 episodes and two backdoor-pilot episodes of The New Scooby-Doo Movies , with Batman and Robin appearing in `` The Dynamic Scooby-Doo Affair '' and `` The Caped Crusader Caper . ''

pos: Green Arrow Green Arrow is a fictional superhero who appears in comic books published by DC Comics . Created by Mortimer Weisinger and designed by George Papp , he first appeared in More Fun Comics # 73 in November 1941 . His real name is Oliver `` Ollie '' Queen , a billionaire businessman and owner of Queen Industries , also a well-known celebrity in his locale of Star City . Sometimes shown dressed like Robin Hood , Green Arrow is an archer who uses his skills to fight crime in his home cities of Star City and Seattle , as well as alongside his fellow superheroes as a member of the Justice League . Though much less frequently used in modern stories , he also deploys a range of trick arrows with various special functions , such as glue , explosive-tipped , grappling hook , flash grenade , tear gas and even kryptonite arrows for use in a range of special situations . At the time of his debut , Green Arrow functioned in many ways as an archery-themed analogue of the very popular Batman character , but writers at DC subsequently developed him into a voice of progressivism very much distinct in character from Batman .   Green Arrow enjoyed moderate success in his early years , becoming the cover feature of More Fun , as well as having occasional appearances in other comics . Throughout his first twenty-five years , however , the character never enjoyed greater popularity . In the late 1960s , writer Denny O'Neil , inspired by the character 's dramatic visual redesign by Neal Adams , chose to have him lose his fortune , giving him the then-unique role of a streetwise crusader for the working class and the disadvantaged . In 1970 , he was paired with a more law and order-oriented hero , Green Lantern , in a ground-breaking , socially conscious comic book series . Since then , he has been popular among comic book fans and most writers have taken an urban , gritty approach to the character . The character was killed off in the 1990s and replaced by a new character , Oliver 's son Connor Hawke . Connor , however , proved a less popular character , and the original Oliver Queen character was resurrected in the 2001 `` Quiver '' storyline , by writer Kevin Smith . In the 2000s , the character has been featured in bigger storylines focusing on Green Arrow and Black Canary , such as the DC event The Green Arrow/Black Canary Wedding and the high-profile Justice League : Cry for Justice storyline , prior to the character 's relaunch alongside most of DC 's properties in 2011 .   Green Arrow was not initially a well-known character outside of comic book fandom : he had appeared in a single episode of the animated series Super Friends in 1973 . In the 2000s , the character appeared in a number of DC television properties , including the animated series Justice League Unlimited , Young Justice , The Batman and Batman : The Brave and the Bold , and several DC Universe Animated Original Movies . In live action , he appeared in the series Smallville , played by actor Justin Hartley , and became a core cast member . In 2012 , the live action series Arrow debuted on The CW , in which the title character is portrayed by Stephen Amell , earning positive reviews and launched several spin-off series , becoming the starting point for a DC Comics shared television universe .

neg: The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show is an animated television series produced by Ruby-Spears Productions from 1979 to 1981 ; it was shown right after Super Friends on the ABC Network . It featured various adventures of the DC Comics superhero Plastic Man . The show features many adventures in different segments : Plastic Man , Baby Plas , Plastic Family , Mighty Man and Yukk , Fangface and Fangpuss , and Rickety Rocket . The show was repackaged by Arlington Television into 130 half-hour episodes , and released into national , first-run-off-network daily syndication in 1984 . The Plastic Man Comedy Show was produced and directed by Steve Whiting and featured a live-action `` Plastic Man '' , played by Taylor Marks .

neg: Smallville (season 7) Season seven of Smallville , an American television series , began airing on September 27 , 2007 . The series recounts the early adventures of Kryptonian Clark Kent as he adjusts to life in the fictional town of Smallville , Kansas , during the years before he becomes Superman . The seventh season comprises 20 episodes and concluded its initial airing on May 15 , 2008 , marking the second season to air on The CW television network . Regular cast members during season seven include Tom Welling , Michael Rosenbaum , Kristin Kreuk , Allison Mack , John Glover , Erica Durance , Aaron Ashmore , and Laura Vandervoort . In addition to bringing in new regular cast members this season , the Smallville team brought in familiar faces from the Superman media history , old villains from the show 's past , as well as new DC Comics characters .   This season focuses on Clark Kent meeting his biological cousin Kara ( Vandervoort ) , and teaching her how to control her abilities in public ; Lana Lang 's behavior toward her friends , Lex Luthor , and after it is discovered that she faked her own death ; Chloe coming to terms with her newly discovered kryptonite-induced ability ; and the secret of the Daily Planet 's new editor Grant Gabriel . Towards the end of the season , Clark faces the dual threat from returning villain Brainiac ( James Marsters ) , and Lex 's discovery of his father 's secret society who possess the means to control Clark . The season culminates with a showdown between Lex and Clark at the Fortress of Solitude , wherein the fortress is brought down , setting the series up for the following season .   Smallville 's season seven , along with many other American television shows , was caught in the middle of a contract dispute between the Writers Guild of America , East ( WGAE ) , Writers Guild of America , west ( WGAw ) and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers ( AMPTP ) . The dispute led to a strike by the writers , which has caused this season to end prematurely with only twenty episodes being produced , instead of the standard twenty-two episodes . The strike also forced The CW to push back airdates on several episodes , and cost Allison Mack her directorial debut . Smallville 's Season seven slipped in the ratings , averaging 3.7 million viewers weekly , and the series ranked as the 175th most-watched television series , out of 220 , for the 2007 -- 08 television year .

neg: Teen drama A teen drama is a genre or type of drama series with a major focus on teenage and young adult characters . It came into prominence in the early 1990s , especially with the popularity of the Fox series Beverly Hills , 90210 . After 90210 became a success , television writers and producers realized the potential for this new genre to reach out to a previously ignored demographic . In the past , most series that maintained a focus on teenagers had been sitcoms , while adolescents in drama series were usually part of a larger ensemble that included adults and children .   More often than not , teen dramas have soap opera elements , incorporating one or more ongoing story arcs spanning several episodes . The young characters must deal with the dramatic ups and downs of their friendships and romances while facing an array of issues thought to be typical of adolescence . There have also been many successful teen-based series with major science fiction , fantasy and action/adventure themes .

neg: The Flash (2014 TV series) The Flash is an American television series developed by Greg Berlanti , Andrew Kreisberg and Geoff Johns , airing on The CW . It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash , a costumed superhero crime-fighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds . It is a spin-off from Arrow , existing in the same fictional universe . The series follows Allen , portrayed by Grant Gustin , a crime scene investigator who gains super-human speed , which he uses to fight criminals , including others who have also gained superhuman abilities .   Initially envisioned as a backdoor pilot , the positive reception Gustin received during two appearances as Barry on Arrow led to executives choosing to develop a full pilot to make use of a larger budget and help flesh out Barry 's world in more detail . Colleen Atwood , costume designer for Arrow , was brought in to design the Flash 's suit . The creative team wanted to make sure that the Flash would resemble his comic book counterpart , and not simply be a poor imitation . The series is primarily filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada .   The Flash premiered in North America on October 7 , 2014 , where the pilot became the second-most watched premiere in the history of The CW , after The Vampire Diaries in 2009 . It has been well received by critics and audiences , and won the People 's Choice Award for `` Favorite New TV Drama '' in 2014 . The series was renewed for a third season in March 2016 , which premiered on October 4 , 2016 . The series , together with Arrow , has spun characters out to their own show , Legends of Tomorrow , which premiered on January 21 , 2016 . On January 8 , 2017 , The CW renewed the show for a fourth season .

neg: Arrows (TV series) Arrows was a pop television series aimed at the teen market , which aired in 1976 and 1977 in the UK .   The show was produced by British TV legend Muriel Young , and ran for two full 14-week series on the ITV network , produced by Granada Television .   The show format was that the band would perform their own songs , and would introduce the guest artists . There was also a pop dance troupe called Him and Us who were regulars on the series . Arrows consisted of ( lead singer ) Alan Merrill , ( guitarist ) Jake Hooker and ( drummer ) Paul Varley .   Guests on Arrows included such artists as Marc Bolan , The Bay City Rollers , The Drifters , Gilbert O'Sullivan , Peter Noone , Alvin Stardust , Gene Pitney , Slade , Pilot , Billy J. Kramer , The Real Thing , and many more .   The band Arrows were very popular in the teen print media in the mid-1970s , appearing in interviews and as pin-ups in all the glossy fan magazines of the day . They even had their own weekly cartoon strip which ran in Music Star magazine . A book was written about the band by Bill Harry in 1976 .

neg: Action Comics Action Comics is an American comic book series that introduced Superman , one of the first major superhero characters as the term is popularly defined . The publisher was originally known as National Allied Publications , and later as National Comics Publications and as National Periodical Publications , before taking on its current name of DC Comics . Its original incarnation ran from 1938 to 2011 and stands as one of the longest-running comic books with consecutively numbered issues . A second volume of Action Comics with issue # 1 ran from 2011 to 2016 . Action Comics returned to its original numbering beginning with issue # 957 ( Aug. 2016 ) .

neg: List of The Batman characters The following is a list of characters that have appeared in the television series The Batman , which ran from September 11 , 2004 to March 22 , 2008 . The animation style bears a strong resemblance to that of Jackie Chan Adventures , since Jeff Matsuda was the chief character designer for both shows . Many of the supervillains who appear in the series , like the characters Joker , Penguin and Riddler , are very different from those of their comic counterparts ( especially through their designs ) . While many characters adapted from the mainstream DC comics appear , some of them only appeared in the show 's tie-in comic called The Batman Strikes . Characters that were planned for a guest appearance but ultimately did not appear were Wonder Woman , Bizarro , Vigilante , and Owlman .

neg: The Flintstone Primetime Specials The Flintstone Primetime Specials ( onscreen title : The Flintstone Special ) is a four-episode limited-run prime time television revival of The Flintstones produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions which aired on NBC from September 26 , 1980 to October 11 , 1981 .

neg: The World's Greatest Super-Heroes The World 's Greatest Super-Heroes is the name to the oversized slipcased hardcover anthology collection , that reprinted six oversized graphic novels all created by artist Alex Ross and writer Paul Dini . Four graphic novels were originally published to celebrate the 60th anniversary of DC main characters : Superman , Batman , Captain Marvel and Wonder Woman , thus Superman : Peace on Earth were published in 1998 , Batman : War on Crime in 1999 , Shazam ! : Power of Hope in 2000 and finally Wonder Woman : Spirit of Truth in 2001 . Alex Ross original idea was make a statement about the four superhero comics archetypes : Science Fiction ( Superman ) , Crime/Mystery ( Batman ) , Magic ( Captain Marvel ) and Myth ( Wonder Woman ) .   In the following year , DC Comics also published one extra book : JLA : Secret Origins . Not featuring any storyline whatsoever , it only presented the origins of the four main characters already published in the previous books and the origins of other Justice League characters : Green Lantern , Flash , Green Arrow , Black Canary , Martian Manhunter , Hawkman , Hawkgirl and Plastic Man . Every origin was present in two-pages layout based on Joe Shuster 's origin of Superman from Action Comics # 1 .   The final book , published in 2003 , JLA : Liberty and Justice presented a full story featuring the entire group , the first time that Alex Ross was able to use all characters in the current timeline . The artwork is of Ross ' very own photorealism , and the books themselves were created after the success of Ross ' and writer Mark Waid 's famous Kingdom Come .   The World 's Greatest Super-Heroes was released on August 1 , 2005 on dust-jacket slipcase hardcover edition ( 9.6 '' x 13 '' ) and got paperback reprint ( 8.2 '' x 11 '' ) on September 28 , 2010 . Both collected versions are smaller than the original Treasury Editions ( 10 '' x 13.5 '' ) .

neg: Events from the Modern Age of Comic Books One of the key aspects of the Modern Age of Comic Books was that it was the beginning of big events . In 1984 , Marvel Comics debuted the first large crossover , Secret Wars , a storyline featuring the company 's most prolific superheroes , which overlapped into a 12-issue limited series and many monthly comic books . A year later , DC Comics introduced its first large scale crossover , Crisis on Infinite Earths , which had long-term effects on the `` DC Universe '' continuity .   In the early and mid-1990s , big events were regularly published by Marvel and DC , often leading to extra publicity and sales . These events helped fend-off competition from Image Comics , and such events were more likely to become `` collector 's items . '' Some events , such as DC 's `` Zero Hour '' and Marvel 's `` Onslaught saga '' spanned a publisher 's entire line while others only affected a `` family '' of interrelated titles . The X-Men and Batman franchises featured crossovers almost annually .   Some of the most significant mid-1990s events , such as Spider-Man 's `` Clone Saga , '' Batman 's `` Batman : Knightfall '' and particularly , `` The Death of Superman '' caused dramatic changes to long-running characters and received coverage in the mainstream media .   These events led to significant sales boosts and publicity , but many fans began to criticize them as excessive and lacking compelling storytelling . They also complained that monthly series had become inaccessible because one had to follow a number of comics to understand the full storyline . By the end of the 1990s , the number of large crossovers decreased , but they were still launched sporadically .

neg: List of Supergirl episodes Supergirl is an American superhero action-adventure drama television series developed by Ali Adler , Greg Berlanti and Andrew Kreisberg ( the latter two having previously created Arrow and The Flash ) that originally aired on CBS and premiered on October 26 , 2015 . It is based on the DC Comics character Supergirl ( Kara Zor-El ) , created by Otto Binder and Al Plastino , and stars Melissa Benoist in the title role . Supergirl is a costumed superheroine who is the biological cousin to Superman and one of the last surviving Kryptonians .   The series was officially picked up on May 6 , 2015 , after receiving a series commitment in September 2014 , and received a full season order on November 30 , 2015 . On May 12 , 2016 , Warner Bros. . Television announced that the series had been renewed for a second season and that it would move from CBS to The CW . It debuted on October 10 , 2016 . On January 8 , 2017 , The CW renewed the series for a third season .

neg: List of local children's television series (United States) The following is a list of local children 's television shows in the United States . These were locally produced commercial television programming intended for the child audience with unique hosts and themes . This type of programming began in the late 1940s and continued into the late 1970s ; some shows continued into the 1990s . Author Tim Hollis documented about 1,400 local children 's shows in a 2002 book , Hi There , Boys and Girls !   The television programs typically aired in the weekday mornings before school or afternoons after school as well as on weekends ( to a lesser degree ) . There were different formats . Almost all shows had a colorful host who assumed a persona such as a cowboy/cowgirl , captain/skipper/commodore / admiral , jungle explorer , astronaut , king , princess , clown , sheriff/deputy/trooper , cop , firefighter , hobo/tramp , railroad engineer , magician , `` cousin '' , `` grandfather '' or `` uncle '' , whose role was not only to be the `` DJ '' for syndicated material ( typically cartoons , although westerns were more popular earlier on ) but also to entertain , often with a live television studio audience of kids , during breaks .   Early program fare included cartoon favorites such as Koko the Clown , Daffy Duck , Crusader Rabbit , Dick Tracy , Popeye , Bugs Bunny , Rocky and Bullwinkle , Casper the Friendly Ghost , Mighty Mouse , Porky Pig , Deputy Dawg , Tin Tin , Mel-O-Toons , Woody Woodpecker , The Funny Company , Mr. Magoo , Space Angel and Clutch Cargo as well as movie shorts such as Laurel and Hardy , Our Gang/The Little Rascals and The Three Stooges and animated versions of Laurel and Hardy , Abbott and Costello and The Three Stooges and live action shorts such as Diver Dan . Some included educational segments like the portraits of wildlife in Nature 's Window .

neg: Green Team (comics) The Green Team is a fictional comic book team of rich-kid adventurers published by DC Comics . The team debuted in 1st Issue Special # 2 ( May 1975 ) , and was created by Joe Simon and Jerry Grandenetti . In its initial appearance , the group was subtitled `` Boy Millionaires . '' In 2010s comics , a revamped version of the group appeared in a series subtitled `` Teen Trillionaires . ''

neg: All Star DC Comics All Star was an imprint of ongoing comic book titles published by American company DC Comics that ran from 2005 to 2008 . DC has published two titles under the All-Star banner , featuring Batman and Superman .   The premise of the imprint was to partner DC Comics ' top tier characters with the most popular and acclaimed writers and artists . The creators had access to all elements in the characters ' histories to present their interpretation for a modern audience that have not read these DC characters ' comics previously , or had not seen them lately . The creative teams were not beholden to any previous and present continuities , and told stories that featured `` the most iconic versions of these characters '' .   The project had been compared to the Ultimate line of Marvel Comics , which was a successful attempt to re-introduce Marvel 's most popular characters to a new generation of readers by presenting new , updated versions unburdened by decades of plotlines . There were several differences between the two imprints , though . While the Ultimate titles have closely interrelated storylines , of the two All-Star series released , there has been no effort to make them conform to each other or indicate they exist in the same continuity . Another is that All-Star did not seek to introduce brand new versions of the characters so much as to present them in unhindered continuity . Robin 's origin was the only one `` rebooted '' in this imprint .   Some observers , and DC themselves , had pointed to the return of DC 's major film franchises as an impetus for All-Star . `` No one can doubt that some kind of continuity shedding is necessary with Superman and Batman coming to the big screens , '' the website Comicon.com wrote . `` Moviegoers entertained by these films would find the current comics storylines impenetrable '' .   With the end of Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely 's All-Star Superman and the rebranding of Frank Miller and Jim Lee 's All Star Batman and Robin as Dark Knight : Boy Wonder as well as the introduction of the DC : Earth One line of OGNs , the imprint is effectively defunct .

neg: Eric Battle Eric Battle is an American illustrator . Battle 's body of work consists mainly of contemporary American-style comic illustrations and fully painted illustration for publishing . He has illustrated numerous iconic characters for DC Comics and Marvel Comics including Spider-Man , Batman , The Flash , Green Arrow , Green Lantern , and Wonder Woman .   Battle has appeared frequently as a panelist at the East Coast Black Age of Comics Convention , on WHAT 1340 AM , and been interviewed by Hard Knock Radio , The Philadelphia Inquirer , and Black America Web .

neg: The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure is a Filmation animated series that aired on CBS from 1967 to 1968 . Premiering on September 9 , 1967 , this 60-minute program included a series of six-minute adventures featuring various DC Comics superheroes .

neg: Blitzkrieg (DC Comics) Blitzkrieg was a short-lived 1970s war-themed comic book published by DC Comics .

neg: Captain Marvel (DC Comics) Captain Marvel , also known as Shazam , is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . Artist C. C. Beck and writer Bill Parker created the character in 1939 . Captain Marvel first appeared in Whiz Comics # 2 ( cover-dated Feb. 1940 ) , published by Fawcett Comics . He is the alter ego of Billy Batson , a boy who , by speaking the magic word `` SHAZAM '' ( acronym of 6 Greek `` immortal elders '' - Solomon , Hercules , Atlas , Zeus , Achilles , and Mercury ) , can transform himself into a costumed adult with the powers of superhuman strength , speed , flight , and other abilities .   Based on book sales , the character was the most popular superhero of the 1940s , outselling even Superman . Fawcett expanded the franchise to include other `` Marvels '' , primarily Marvel Family associates Mary Marvel and Captain Marvel Jr. , who can harness Billy 's powers as well . Captain Marvel was also the first comic book superhero to be adapted into film , in a 1941 Republic Pictures serial titled Adventures of Captain Marvel .   Fawcett ceased publishing Captain Marvel-related comics in 1953 , partly because of a copyright infringement suit from DC Comics , alleging that Captain Marvel was a copy of Superman . In 1972 , DC licensed the Marvel Family characters from Fawcett , and returned them to publication . By 1991 , DC had acquired all rights to the characters . DC has since integrated Captain Marvel and the Marvel Family into their DC Universe and has attempted to revive the property several times , with mixed success . Due to trademark conflicts over another character named `` Captain Marvel '' owned by Marvel Comics since 1967 , DC chose to publish the character 's adventures in a comic book titled Shazam ! for many years , leading many to assume that this was the character 's name . DC later officially renamed the character `` Shazam '' when relaunching its comic book properties in 2011 .   In addition , since 1972 , the character has been featured in two television series adaptations , one live action and one animated , by Filmation , and an upcoming Warner Bros. . Shazam ! feature film scheduled for release in 2019 as part of the DC Extended Universe . Captain Marvel was ranked as the 55th greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine . IGN also ranked Captain Marvel as the 50th greatest comic book hero of all time , stating that the character will always be an enduring reminder of a simpler time . UGO Networks ranked him as one of the top heroes of entertainment , saying , `` At his best , Shazam has always been Superman with a sense of crazy , goofy fun '' .

neg: The Gabby Hayes Show The Gabby Hayes Show is a general purpose western television series in which the film star and Roy Rogers confidant , George `` Gabby '' Hayes ( 1885 -- 1969 ) , narrated each episode , showed clips from old westerns , or told tall tales for a primarily children 's audience . The first Hayes program ran on NBC at 5:15 p.m. Eastern for fifteen minutes three times per week and preceded the puppet series , Howdy Doody . It aired from December 11 , 1950 , to January 1 , 1954 . The second version was a half-hour broadcast on Saturday mornings , carried for only thirteen weeks from May 12 to July 14 , 1956 , on ABC .   The show was sponsored by Quaker Oats ' puffed cereals , which were `` shot from guns '' . As was common at the time , the host delivered the commercial . This often included Hayes firing a small cannon loaded with the cereal at the camera , while warning the viewers to `` Watch out for your televisionary sets ! ''   The floor manager for the show was Fred Rogers ( of children 's television show Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood ) until 1953 when he left NBC to start working in public television .

neg: Legion of Super-Heroes The Legion of Super-Heroes is a fictional superhero team appearing in books published by DC Comics . Created by writer Otto Binder and artist Al Plastino , the Legion is a group of superpowered beings living in the 30th and 31st centuries of the , and first appears in Adventure Comics # 247 ( April 1958 ) .   Initially , the team was closely associated with the original Superboy character ( Superman when he was a teenager ) , and was portrayed as a group of time travelers . Later , the Legion 's origin and back story were fleshed out , and the group was given its own monthly comic . Eventually , Superboy was removed from the team altogether and appeared only as an occasional guest star .   The team has undergone two major reboots during its run . The original version was replaced with a new rebooted version following the events of the `` Zero Hour '' storyline in 1994 and another rebooted team was introduced in 2004 . A fourth version of the team , nearly identical to the original version , was introduced in 2007 .