query: Moscow is the world's most lived in inland city.

pos: Moscow Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia , with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area . Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city .   Moscow is a major political , economic , cultural , and scientific centre of Russia and Eastern Europe , as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent . By broader definitions Moscow is among the world 's largest cities , being the 14th largest metro area , the 18th largest agglomeration , the 15th largest urban area , and the 11th largest by population within city limits worldwide . According to Forbes 2013 , Moscow has been ranked as the ninth most expensive city in the world by Mercer and has one of the world 's largest urban economies , being ranked as an alpha global city according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , and is also one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world according to the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index . Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth . It is home to the Ostankino Tower , the tallest free standing structure in Europe ; the Federation Tower , the tallest skyscraper in Europe ; and the Moscow International Business Center . By its territorial expansion on July 1 , 2012 southwest into the Moscow Oblast , the area of the capital more than doubled , going from 1091 to , and it gained an additional population of 233,000 people .  Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia , making it the world 's most populated inland city . The city is well known for its architecture , particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basil 's Cathedral with its brightly coloured domes . With over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery , it is one of the greenest capitals and major cities in Europe and the world , having the largest forest in an urban area within its borders -- more than any other major city -- even before its expansion in 2012 .  The city has served as the capital of a progression of states , from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Russian Empire to the Soviet Union and the contemporary Russian Federation . Moscow is considered the centre of Russian culture , having served as the home of Russian artists , scientists and sports figures and because of the presence of museums , academic and political institutions and theatres .   Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia , being the site of the Moscow Kremlin , a medieval city-fortress that is today the residence for work of the President of Russia . The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city . Both chambers of the Russian parliament ( the State Duma and the Federation Council ) also sit in the city .   The city is served by a transit network , which includes four international airports , nine railway terminals , numerous trams , a monorail system and one of the deepest underground rapid transit systems in the world , the Moscow Metro , the fourth-largest in the world and largest outside of Asia in terms of passenger numbers , and the busiest in Europe . It is recognised as one of the city 's landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations .   Moscow has acquired a number of epithets , most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation : The Third Rome , The Whitestone One , The First Throne , The Forty Forties , and The Hero City . In old Russian the word '' Сорок '' ( forty ) also meant a church administrative district , which consisted of about forty churches . The demonym for a Moscow resident is '' москвич '' ( moskvich ) for male or '' москвичка '' ( moskvichka ) for female , rendered in English as Muscovite .

neg: Podolsk Podolsk ( -LSB- Подольск , p =p ɐˈdolʲsk -RSB- ) is an industrial city , center of Podolsk Urban Okrug , Moscow Oblast , Russia , located on the Pakhra River ( a tributary of the Moskva River ) . Population : 187,961 ( 2010 Census ) ; 180,963 ( 2002 Census ) ; 209,178 ( 1989 Census ) ; 183,000 ( 1974 ) ; 129,000 ( 1959 ) ; 72,000 ( 1939 ) .

neg: Moscow, Cheryomushki Moscow , Cheryomushki ( Москва , Черемушки Moskva , Cheryomushki ) is an operetta in three acts by Dmitri Shostakovich , his Op. 105 . It is sometimes referred to as simply Cheryomushki . Cheryomushki is a district in Moscow full of cheap subsidized housing built in 1956 , and the word is also commonly used for such housing projects in general .   The libretto was written by the experienced team of Vladimir Mass and Mikhail Chervinsky , leading Soviet humorists of the day . The satirical plot dealt with a topical theme geared to one of the most pressing concerns of urban Russians , the chronic housing shortages and the difficulties of securing livable conditions . Cheryomushki translates to `` bird-cherry trees '' and the operetta was named after a real housing estate in southwest Moscow .   The work was completed in 1958 and received its premiere in the capital on 24 January 1959 . The operetta is reminiscent of Shostakovich 's popular music of the period , yet at the same time it engages a satirical assessment of the housing redevelopments in Moscow .

neg: List of Russian people This is a list of people associated with the modern Russian Federation , the Soviet Union , Imperial Russia , Russian Tsardom , the Grand Duchy of Moscow , and other predecessor states of Russia .   Regardless of ethnicity or emigration , the list includes famous natives of Russia and its predecessor states , as well as people who were born elsewhere but spent most of their active life in Russia . For more information , see the articles Rossiyane , Russians and Demographics of Russia . For specific lists of Russians , see : Category : Lists of Russian people and : Category : Russian people .

neg: Urban area An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment . Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities , towns , conurbations or suburbs . In urbanism , the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment . The creation of early predecessors of urban areas during the urban revolution led to the creation of human civilization with modern urban planning , which along with other human activities such as exploitation of natural resources leads to human impact on the environment .   The world 's urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since . In 2009 , the number of people living in urban areas ( 3.42 billion ) surpassed the number living in rural areas ( 3.41 billion ) and since then the world has become more urban than rural . This was the first time that the majority of the world 's population lived in a city . In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet , of which the global urban population comprised 3.9 billion . The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs at that time predicted the urban population would grow to 6.4 billion by 2050 , with 37 % of that growth to come from three countries : China , India and Nigeria .   Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization . Urban areas are measured for various purposes , including analyzing population density and urban sprawl .   Unlike an urban area , a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area , but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically connected to the urban core city , typically by employment ties through commuting , with the urban core city being the primary labor market .

neg: Governor (Russia) The highest official of the subject of the Russian Federation or the holder of the highest office of subject of the Russian Federation or the head of the highest executive body of state power of the subject of the Russian Federation , colloquially and collectively referred to as the title governor ( губернатор - gubernator ) or head of region ( глава региона - glava regiona ) , is the head and the chief executive of each the federal subjects of Russia , not directly subordinate to the federal authorities , but the political and ceremonial head of the federal subject , all of which are equal constituent entities of Russia .   The office is defined by the Constitution of Russia and Chapters 1 , 3 and 4 of Russia 's Federal Law No. 184-FZ `` On the General Principles of the Organization Of the Legislative ( Representative ) and Executive Organs Of State Power of the Subjects of the Russian Federation '' which came into force in 1999 . According to the current revision of the Russian Constitution , the Russian Federation consists of 85 federal subjects therefore there are 85 offices of head of region in Russia ( see List of current heads of federal subjects of Russia ) .   The certain title of office is defined by the federal subject 's Constitution or Charter . The names include : governor , president ( президент - president ) , head of administration ( глава администрации - glava administratsii ) , head of republic ( глава республики - glava respubliki ) , mayor ( мэр - mer ) , non-officially and collectively referred to as governors for short . The official title governor is most used in Russia and traditionally it is used in Oblasts of Russia . Presidents of Russia 's republics , mayor of Moscow and mayor of St. Petersburg are also governors in this sense .   A head of the subject in Russia is said to serve a administration or executive office , colloquially referred to as gubernatorial administration .

neg: Mount Kholodilnik Kholodilnik Mountain ( гора́ Холоди́льник or со́пка Холодильник lit . `` Mt. Refrigerator '' ) , is a mountain in eastern Russia . It is located in Primorsky Krai , and is in the highest peak within the city of Vladivostok .   Mount Kholodilnik ( height 257.9 , was-Mount Myravyov-Amursky ) is the highest point in Vladivostok . Height is 297 meters . There are fortifications : Fort Count Muravyov - Amur Vladivostok fortress , five lettered fortress batteries and Soviet battery № 198 '' Kholodilnik '' . Currently , some fortifications are abandoned , others are on the territory of the military unit .   Tourists want to visit this place to see the Soviet naval battery sample number 198 1935 years and four 130 - mm gun B - 13-3s . There are still buildings and cellars of the former fort of Major-General Count Nikolai Muravyov - Amursky . Many fortifications have long been abandoned , but some of them are now used by the military unit , which is located almost at the top of the mountain .   On the eastern slope of the hill there are many places for a picnic .   There is a spring of pure water .   Geologically the hills to the south of Vladivostok are the Sikhote-Alin .   Slopes on the mountain are used for the open championship of the Far East for downhill and cross-country .   It is also used by mountain paragliders .   So the rules are elements of air , the result of magical work on the hill Fridge is always weather changing .   Therefore , if the weather in city changes completely unexpected , for example suddenly among of the blue sky clouds are formed and it begins to rain , most likely the reason for that is in the magical effect on a hill Fridge .   Or , conversely , when the whole sky is overcast over the city , citizens can see in the sky a large circle of clear sky over the hill forts Refrigerator - It is an evidence of that at this moment being magical work is .   Entrance to the mountain , oddly enough , is under water . Every 3 years products are imported there in the event of war , then they `` close '' the entrance to this place . They say that the food will last for a whole year to feed the city of Vladivostok .   Mount Refrigerator is protected with naval vessels .

neg: Embassy of Estonia in Moscow The Embassy of Estonia in Moscow ( Посольство Эстонии в Москве , Eesti Suursaatkond Moskvas ) is the chief diplomatic mission of Estonia in the Russian Federation . It is located at 5 Maly Kislovsky Lane ( Mалый Кисловский пер . 5 ) in the Presnensky District of Moscow .

neg: Geography of Shanghai The geography of Shanghai is characterised by its location on the Yangtze River Delta on China 's east coast and its proximity to the Pacific Ocean via the East China Sea . The city is centred on the Huangpu River , a tributary of the Yangtze River , and extends outwards in all directions , with the suburbs and satellite towns reaching east to the East China Sea , north and west to Jiangsu province , and south to Zhejiang province over Hangzhou Bay .   The vast majority of Shanghai 's land area is flat , apart from a few hills in the southwest corner , due to its location on the alluvial plain of the Yangtze 's river delta . The city has many rivers and lakes and is known for its rich water resources , and thanks to its coastal , riverside location and warm climate ensuring ice-free waters , provides easy access to China 's interior , resulting in Shanghai being the world 's largest port .

neg: Odessa Odessa or Odesa ( Оде́са , -LSB- oˈdɛsɐ -RSB- -LSB- Оде́сса , p = ɐˈdʲesə -RSB- ) is the third most populous city of Ukraine and a major tourism center , seaport and transportation hub located on the northwestern shore of the Black Sea . Odessa is also an administrative center of the Odessa Oblast and a multiethnic cultural center . Odessa is sometimes called the `` pearl of the Black Sea , '' the `` South Capital '' ( under the Russian Empire and Soviet Union ) , and `` Southern Palmyra '' .   The predecessor of Odessa , a small Tatar settlement , was founded by Hacı I Giray , the Khan of Crimea , in 1440 and originally named after him as `` Hacıbey '' . After a period of Lithuanian control , it passed into the domain of the Ottoman Sultan in 1529 and remained in Ottoman hands until the Ottoman Empire 's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1792 .   In 1794 , the city of Odessa was founded by a decree of the Empress Catherine the Great . From 1819 to 1858 , Odessa was a free port . During the Soviet period it was the most important port of trade in the Soviet Union and a Soviet naval base . On 1 January 2000 , the Quarantine Pier at Odessa Commercial Sea Port was declared a free port and free economic zone for a period of 25 years .   During the 19th century , it was the fourth largest city of Imperial Russia , after Moscow , Saint Petersburg and Warsaw . Its historical architecture has a style more Mediterranean than Russian , having been heavily influenced by French and Italian styles . Some buildings are built in a mixture of different styles , including Art Nouveau , Renaissance and Classicist .   Odessa is a warm-water port . The city of Odessa hosts both the Port of Odessa and Port Yuzhne , a significant oil terminal situated in the city 's suburbs . Another notable port , Chornomorsk , is located in the same oblast , to the south-west of Odessa . Together they represent a major transport hub integrating with railways . Odessa 's oil and chemical processing facilities are connected to Russian and European networks by strategic pipelines .

neg: Uzbeks in Russia Uzbeks represent a large diaspora in Russia numbering 1.9 million ( January 2016 ) . Most Uzbeks living in Russia are seasonal migrant workers . Most of them have come after the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Due to racial and cultural differences , they are one of the most discriminated against minorities in Russia , and hence rarely settle outside of the Russian capital Moscow .

neg: List of museums in Moscow This is a list of museums in Moscow , the capital city of Russia   ART4.RU Contemporary Art Museum  Bulgakov Museum in Moscow  Cathedral of the Annunciation  Central Armed Forces Museum  Church of the Deposition of the Robe  Church of the Twelve Apostles  Diamond Fund  Fersman Mineralogical Museum  Galeyev Gallery  Institute of Russian Realist Art  Ivan the Great Bell Tower  Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center  Kremlin Armoury  Kremlin Arsenal  Kuskovo  Lumiere Brothers Center for Photography  The Lumiere Brothers Photogallery  Memorial Museum of Astronautics  Moscow Cat Museum  Moscow Design Museum  Moscow House of Photography  Moscow Museum of Modern Art  Moscow Paleontological Museum  Multimedia Art Museum , Moscow  Museum of Calligraphy  Museum of History of Moscow  Museum of the Great Patriotic War , Moscow  Museum of the Moscow Railway  National Centre for Contemporary Arts  Ostankino Palace  Poklonnaya Hill  Polytechnical Museum  Pushkin Museum  RKK Energiya museum  Rumyantsev Museum  Russian State Library  Ryabushinsky Museum of Icons and Paintings  Shchusev State Museum of Architecture  State Historical Museum  Tagansky Protected Command Point  Tretyakov Gallery  Tsaritsyno Park  Vernadsky State Geological Museum  Vlakhernskoye-Kuzminki  Zoological Museum of Moscow University

neg: Administrative divisions of Moscow Oblast This is a list of the administrative and municipal divisions of Moscow Oblast , a federal subject of Russia .   Moscow Oblast is located in the Central Federal District of Russia , and completely surrounds Moscow , the capital of Russia . While Moscow hosts the majority of the government bodies of the oblast , it does not officially serve as the oblast 's administrative center and is not otherwise associated with the oblast either administratively or municipally .   The oblast is , as are other Russian federal subjects , subdivided for the purposes of the state administration and for the purposes of the local self-government , the rights to which are guaranteed by the Constitution of Russia . While the administrative and municipal divisions are not required by law to be identical , the system of municipal divisions in Moscow Oblast , having been created on the basis of existing administrative divisions , has only minor differences from the system of administrative divisions .

neg: Southern Administrative Okrug Southern Administrative Okrug ( Ю́жный администрати́вный о́круг , Yuzhny administrativny okrug ) , or Yuzhny Administrative Okrug , is one of the twelve high-level territorial divisions ( administrative okrugs ) of the federal city of Moscow , Russia . As of the 2010 Census , its population was 1,716,808 , up from 1,593,065 recorded during the 2002 Census .

neg: Krasnoyarsk Krai Krasnoyarsk Krai ( -LSB- Красноя́рский край , r = Krasnoyarsky kray , p = krəsnɐˈjarskʲɪj ˈkraj -RSB- ) is a federal subject of Russia ( a krai ) , with its administrative center in the city of Krasnoyarsk -- the third-largest city in Siberia ( after Novosibirsk and Omsk ) . Krasnoyarsk Krai is the largest krai in the Russian Federation , the second largest federal subject ( after the Sakha Republic ) , and the third largest subnational governing body by area in the world , after Sakha Republic and the Australian state of Western Australia . The krai covers an area of 2339700 km2 , which is nearly one quarter the size of the entire country of Canada ( the next-largest country in the world after Russia ) , constituting roughly 13 % of the Russian Federation 's total area and containing a population of 2,828,187 , or just under 2 % of its population . ( 2010 Census ) .

neg: Unified Deep Water System of European Russia The Unified Deep Water System of European Russia or UDWS is a system of inland waterways in Russia linking the White Sea , the Baltic Sea , the Volga River , Moscow , the Caspian Sea and -- via the Sea of Azov -- the Black Sea . In 2010 , UDWS carried 70 million tons of cargo and 12 million passengers , making up two-thirds of overall inland waterway traffic volume in Russia . There are 60 common-use ports and quays on UDWS , including 3 international ports ( 2 in Moscow and 1 in Dmitrov , Moscow Oblast ) . Owing to UDWS , Moscow is sometimes called `` the port of the five seas '' .   The depth throughout the system was targeted at 4.5 m , allowing passage of not only river craft but many sea-going vessels including warships and even nuclear submarines . However , at present time , the depth is mostly guaranteed at the lesser 4 m , except the even shallower sections like Gorodets -- Nizhny Novgorod at 2.5 m , Kochetovsky hydro-system -- stanitsa Bagayevskaya at 3.2 m , and others . There are plans to increase depth of these sections to 4 m.   The system includes these waterways :  Neva River  Lake Ladoga  Svir River  Lake Onega  Volga -- Baltic Waterway -- connects Lake Onega to Volga River ; built in early 19th century as Mariinsk Canal System , rebuilt in 1956 -- 1964  White Sea -- Baltic Canal -- connects Lake Onega to White Sea ; constructed in 1931 -- 1933  Moscow Canal -- directly connects Moscow to Volga River ; constructed in 1932 -- 1937  Volga River  Kama River  Belaya River  Volga -- Don Canal -- connects Volga River to Don River ; constructed in 1948 -- 1952  Don River

neg: Domodedovo (town) Domodedovo ( -LSB- Домодедово , p =d əmɐˈdʲɛdəvə -RSB- ) is a town in Moscow Oblast , Russia , located 37 km south of Moscow . Population : The increase of population is due to the merger of three neighboring inhabited localities into the town in 2004 .

neg: Moscow dialect The Moscow dialect or Moscow accent ( -LSB- Московское произношение , Moskovskoye proiznoshenye , mɐˈskofskəjə prəɪznɐˈʂenʲɪɪ -RSB- ) , sometimes Central Russian , is the spoken Russian language variety used in Moscow . Influenced by both Northern and Southern Russian dialects , the Moscow dialect is the basis of the Russian literary language .

neg: Lake Onega Lake Onega ( also known as Onego , -LSB- Оне́жское о́зеро , r = Onezhskoe ozero , p = ɐˈnʲɛʂskəɪ ˈozʲɪrə -RSB- Ääninen or Äänisjärvi Oniegu or Oniegu-järve Änine or Änižjärv ) is a lake in the north-west European part of Russia , located on the territory of Republic of Karelia , Leningrad Oblast and Vologda Oblast . It belongs to the basin of the Baltic Sea , Atlantic Ocean , and is the second largest lake in Europe after Lake Ladoga . The lake is fed by about 50 rivers and is drained by the Svir River .   There are about 1,650 islands on the lake . They include Kizhi , which hosts a historical complex of 89 orthodox wooden churches and other wooden constructions of 15th -- 20th centuries . The complex includes a UNESCO World Heritage site Kizhi Pogost . Eastern shores of the lake contain about 1200 petroglyphs ( rock engravings ) dated to 4th -- 2nd millennia BC . The major cities on the lake are Petrozavodsk , Kondopoga and Medvezhyegorsk .

neg: The Siberian Curse The Siberian Curse : How Communist Planners Left Russia Out in the Cold is a book written by Fiona Hill and Clifford G. Gaddy , two political scientists and fellows of the Brookings Institution in 2003 .   In the book they propose the thesis that Siberia , while one of the most resource-abundant regions in the world , is too big and harsh to be populated and industrialized on an economically rational basis . Consequently , since the collapse of the USSR , which planned and subsidized Siberian towns , a westward exodus to the urban European part of Russia is occurring . The large territory , they state , is not one of the greatest sources of strength of Russia , but one of its greatest weaknesses .

neg: Sovetsky City District, Kazan Sovetsky City District ( Сове́тский район -LSB- Сове́т районы́ , Sowet rayonı -RSB- ) is a city district of Kazan , the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan , Russia . It occupies the northeastern and eastern parts of Kazan , and is the most populous district of the city . Its area is 167 km2 . Population : The head of the district is Rustem Gafarov .   The district has one of the three largest in the city and the latest among them the time construction ( 1990s ) `` sleeping '' area Azino ( south-eastern part of the area ) , residential areas along the Siberian tract and Arskii fields Territories microdistricts Tankodrom , Adel Kutuy ( in common parlance - Adelka ) , a large urban-type settlement Derbyshki and several other peripheral settlements , including included in the city of Kazan has recently ( in 1998 and 2004 ) as well as several large industrial enterprises in industrial zones .   The district extends seal of existing and new construction of `` sleeping '' microdistricts of mass residential development - Kazan - XXI ( formerly Takeoff in place of the old airport ) Culon-stroy and other . According to the general plan of city development , planned renovation of the residential quarters of industrial zones along the street Guards in south-western part of the district , as well as the newly annexed to the city ( in 2004 . ) Unused areas - development through enterprise , derived from the inner city , industrial area east of Kazankompressormash ) and the construction of no less than Azino new `` sleeping '' area of mass multi-storey buildings Zanoksinskiy-Novoe Azino , Azino-east of the locality Voznesenskoye .  Previously , before 1956 the main part of the district was the Molotovskiy district which in 1934 was split from the eastern part of the Bauman district ( formed in 1918 ) .   In the district there are :  17 industrial enterprises  17 building organizations  17 enterprises of transport and communication  19 research institutes and design bureaus  39 schools and 2 schools for young workers  7 professional schools  5 colleges  67 kindergartens  33 health care  more than 130 sports facilities , including a unique stadium `` Raketa ''


query: Bilirubin is excreted.

pos: Bilirubin Bilirubin ( formerly referred to as haematoidin and discovered by Rudolf Virchow in 1847 ) is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates . This catabolism is a necessary process in the body 's clearance of waste products that arise from the destruction of aged red blood cells . First the hemoglobin gets stripped of the heme molecule which thereafter passes through various processes of porphyrin catabolism , depending on the part of the body in which the breakdown occurs . For example , the molecules excreted in the urine differ from those in the feces . The production of biliverdin from heme is the first major step in the catabolic pathway , after which the enzyme biliverdin reductase performs the second step , producing bilirubin from biliverdin .   Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine , and elevated levels may indicate certain diseases . It is responsible for the yellow color of bruises and the yellow discoloration in jaundice . Its subsequent breakdown products , such as stercobilin , cause the brown color of feces . A different breakdown product , urobilin , is the main component of the straw-yellow color in urine .   It has also been found in plants .

neg: Nitrogen dioxide poisoning Nitrogen dioxide poisoning is the illness resulting from the toxic effect of nitrogen dioxide . It usually occurs after the inhalation of the gas beyond the threshold limit value .  Nitrogen dioxide is reddish-brown with very a sharp , harsh smell at high concentrations . It is colourless and odourless at lower concentration but yet harmful . Nitrogen dioxide poisoning depends on the duration , frequency and intensity of exposure .  Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant of the mucous membrane linked with other air pollutant that causes pulmonary diseases such as OLD , asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and sometimes acute exacerbation of COPD and in fatal cases , deaths .  Its poor solubility in water enhances its passage and its ability to pass through the moist oral mucosa of the respiratory tract .  Like most toxic gases , the dose inhaled determines the toxicity on the respiratory tract . Occupational exposures constitute the highest risk of toxicity and domestic exposure is uncommon . Prolonged exposure to low concentration of the gas may have lethal effects , as can short-term exposure to high concentrations like chlorine gas poisoning . It is one of the major air pollutant capable of causing severe heath hazards such as coronary artery disease as well as stroke .  Nitrogen dioxide is often released into the environment as a byproduct of fuel combustion but rarely released by spontaneous combustion . Known sources of nitrogen gas poisoning includes automobile exhaust and power stations .  The toxicity may also result from non-combustible sources such as the one released from anaerobic fermentation of food grains and anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste .  The World Health Organization ( WHO ) developed a global recommendation limiting exposures to less than 20 parts per billion for chronic exposure and value less 100 ppb for one hour for acute exposure , using nitrogen dioxide as a marker for other pollutants from fuel combustion .  The standards also based on the concentration of nitrogen dioxide that show a significant and profound effects on the function of the pulmonary of asthmatic patients .  Historically , some cities in the United States including Chicago and Los Angeles have high levels of nitrogen dioxide but the EPA set a standard values less than 100 ppb for a one-hour exposure and less than 53 ppb for chronic exposure .

neg: Long-term effects of alcohol consumption The long-term effects of alcohol ( ethanol ) consumption range from cardioprotective health benefits for low to moderate alcohol consumption in industrialized societies with higher rates of cardiovascular disease to severe detrimental effects in cases of chronic alcohol abuse . Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of alcoholism , malnutrition , chronic pancreatitis , alcoholic liver disease , and cancer . In addition , damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse . The long-term use of alcohol is capable of damaging nearly every organ and system in the body . The developing adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of alcohol . In addition , the developing fetal brain is also vulnerable , and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders ( FASDs ) may result if pregnant mothers consume alcohol .   The inverse relation in Western cultures between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease has been known for over 100 years . Many physicians do not promote alcohol consumption , however , given the many health concerns associated with it , some suggest that alcohol should be regarded as a recreational drug , and promote exercise and good nutrition to combat cardiovascular disease . Others have argued that the benefits of moderate alcohol consumption may be outweighed by other increased risks , including those of injuries , violence , fetal damage , liver disease , and certain forms of cancer .   Withdrawal effects and dependence are also almost identical . Alcohol at moderate levels has some positive and negative effects on health . The negative effects include increased risk of liver diseases , oropharyngeal cancer , esophageal cancer and pancreatitis . Conversely moderate intake of alcohol may have some beneficial effects on gastritis and cholelithiasis . Of the total number of deaths and diseases caused by alcohol , most happen to the majority of the population who are moderate drinkers , rather than the heavy drinker minority . Chronic alcohol misuse and abuse has serious effects on physical and mental health . Chronic excess alcohol intake , or alcohol dependence , can lead to a wide range of neuropsychiatric or neurological impairment , cardiovascular disease , liver disease , and malignant neoplasms . The psychiatric disorders which are associated with alcoholism include major depression , dysthymia , mania , hypomania , panic disorder , phobias , generalized anxiety disorder , personality disorders , schizophrenia , suicide , neurologic deficits ( e.g. impairments of working memory , emotions , executive functions , visuospatial abilities and gait and balance ) and brain damage . Alcohol dependence is associated with hypertension , coronary heart disease , and ischemic stroke , cancer of the respiratory system , and also cancers of the digestive system , liver , breast and ovaries . Heavy drinking is associated with liver disease , such as cirrhosis . Excessive alcohol consumption can have a negative impact on aging .   Recent studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms by which moderate alcohol consumption confers cardiovascular benefit .

neg: Metabolic water Metabolic water refers to water created inside a living organism through their metabolism , by oxidizing energy-containing substances in their food . Animal metabolism produces about 100 grams of water per 100 grams of fat , 42 grams of water per 100 g of protein and 60 grams of water per 100 g of carbohydrate .   Some organisms , especially xerocoles , animals living in the desert , rely exclusively on metabolic water . Migratory birds must rely exclusively on metabolic water production while making non-stop flights . Humans , by contrast , obtain only about 8-10 % of their water needs through metabolic water production .   In mammals , the water produced from metabolism of protein roughly equals the amount needed to excrete the urea which is a byproduct of the metabolism of protein . Birds , however , excrete uric acid and can have a net gain of water from the metabolism of protein .

neg: Hyperfibrinolysis The fibrinolysis system is responsible for removing blood clots . Hyperfibrinolysis describes a situation with markedly enhanced fibrinolytic activity , resulting in increased , sometimes catastrophic bleeding . Hyperfibrinolysis can be caused by acquired or congenital reasons . Among the congenital conditions for hyperfibrinolysis , deficiency of alpha-2-antiplasmin ( alpha-2-plasmin inhibitor ) or plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 ( PAI-1 ) are very rare . The affected individuals show a hemophilia-like bleeding phenotype . Acquired hyperfibrinolysis is found in liver disease , in patients with severe trauma , during major surgical procedures , and other conditions . A special situation with temporarily enhanced fibrinolysis is thrombolytic therapy with drugs which activate plasminogen , e.g. for use in acute ischemic events or in patients with stroke . In patients with severe trauma , hyperfibrinolysis is associated with poor outcome . Moreover , hyperfibrinolysis may be associated with blood brain barrier impairment , a plasmin-dependent effect due to an increased generation of bradykinin .   Bleeding is caused by the generation of fibrinogen degradation products which interfere with regular fibrin polymerization and inhibit platelet aggregation . Moreover , plasmin which is formed in excess in hyperfibrinolysis can proteolytically activate or inactivate many plasmatic or cellular proteins involved in hemostasis . Especially the degradation of fibrinogen , an essential protein for platelet aggregation and clot stability , may be a major cause for clinical bleeding .

neg: Lipiduria Lipiduria or lipuria is the presence of lipids in the urine . Lipiduria is most frequently observed in nephrotic syndrome where it is passed as lipoproteins along with other proteins . It has also been reported as a sign following fat embolism .   When lipiduria occurs , epithelial cells or macrophages contain endogenous fats . When filled with numerous fat droplets , such cells are called oval fat bodies . Oval fat bodies exhibit a `` Maltese cross '' configuration under polarized light microscopy . This Maltese cross is because of its liquid-crystalline structure giving it a double refraction ( birefringence ) .

neg: Burantashi Burantashi ( literally `` penis get up '' ) is a native Hausa-Fulani powder derived from the bark of the African tree Pausinystalia yohimbe .   Burantashi is used as a food additive to barbecued meat ( suya ) in Nigeria , especially the Northern parts . The extracts contain the alkaloid yohimbine , an alpha-2 antagonist that has been used widely with variable success in erectile dysfunction , but the whole bark of the tree was not studied until recently . In one recent study , pure Burantashi powder obtained from a local suya vendor in Lagos , Nigeria was extracted aqueously and studied on the renal circulation of Sprague-Dawley rats . In the in vivo study , the extract code-named `` CCD-X '' , caused a rise in mean arterial pressure ( MAP ) , and a rise in renal medullary blood flow ( MBF ) . This systemic vasoconstrictor and renal medullary dilator action was attenuated separately by the endothelin - A receptor blocker - BMS-182874 , ET-B blocker - BQ788 , but blocked by their combination . Further , the nitric oxide inhibitor ( NO ) , L-Nomega - nitro-Arginine Methyl Ester ( L-NAME ) 10 mg/kg totally inhibited the rise in medullary blood flow due to CCD-X . In vitro studies in isolated perfused kidneys ( IPK ) and in pressurised microvessels ( PMV ) confirmed the in vivo effect to cause vasoconstriction , which was inhibited by endothelin A and B antagonists . The pressor dose response characteristic of CCD-X on PMV was similar to that of endothelin-1 with EC50 close to 100 ng . It was concluded from these studies that , the aqueous extract exhibited a vasoconstrictor effect - possibly alpha-2 mediated like yohimbine . However , it possessed additional effects as an andothelin receptor A and B agonist , and also released nitric oxide . The possibility of a post-receptor cross-talk among ET-B , alpha-2 receptors and NO release was also considered . Thin layer chromatography showed that the bark is rich in sesquiterpenes , and has antifungal and antibiotic properties as well . Whether CCD-X will be useful in sickle cell disease ( releasing NO ) is unknown . Further basic and clinical research are needed before the effects of Burantashi can be effectively evaluated .

neg: Protein catabolism Protein catabolism is the breakdown of proteins into amino acids and simple derivative compounds , for transport into the cell through the plasma membrane and ultimately for the polymerization into new proteins via the use of ribonucleic acids ( RNA ) and ribosomes . Protein catabolism , which is the breakdown of macromolecules , is essentially a digestion process .  Protein catabolism is most commonly carried out by non-specific endo - and exo-proteases . However , specific proteases are used for cleaving of proteins for regulatory and protein trafficking purposes . One example is the subclass of proteolytic enzymes called oligopeptidase .   The amino acids produced by catabolism may be directly recycled to form new proteins , converted into different amino acids , or can undergo amino acid catabolism to be converted to other compounds via the Krebs cycle .

neg: Albinism Albinism in humans is a congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial absence of pigment in the skin , hair and eyes . Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects , such as photophobia , nystagmus , and amblyopia . Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers . In rare cases such as Chédiak -- Higashi syndrome , albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules . This also affects essential granules present in immune cells leading to increased susceptibility to infection .   Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates , including humans . It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase , a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin . It is the opposite of melanism . Unlike humans , other animals have multiple pigments and for these , albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular , in the eyes , skin , hair , scales , feathers or cuticle . While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid . The term is from the Latin albus , `` white '' .

neg: Supravital staining Supravital staining is a method of staining used in microscopy to examine living cells that have been removed from an organism . It differs from intravital staining , which is done by injecting or otherwise introducing the stain into the body . Thus a supravital stain may have a greater toxicity , as only a few cells need to survive it a short while . The term `` vital stain '' is used by some authors to refer specifically to an intravital stain , and by others interchangeably with a supravital stain , the core concept being that the cell being examined is still alive . As the cells are alive and unfixed , outside the body , supravital stains are temporary in nature .   The most common supravital stain is performed on reticulocytes using new methylene blue or brilliant cresyl blue , which makes it possible to see the reticulofilamentous pattern of ribosomes characteristically precipitated in these live immature red blood cells by the supravital stains . By counting the number of such cells the rate of red blood cell formation can be determined , providing an insight into bone marrow activity and anemia . This is in contrast to vital staining , when the dye employed is one that is excluded from the living cells so that only dead cells are stained positively . ( Vital stains include dyes like trypan blue and propidium iodide , which are either too bulky or too charged to cross the cell membrane , or which are actively rapidly pumped out by live cells . )   Supravital staining can be combined with cell surface antibody staining ( immunofluorescence ) for applications such as FACS analysis . Immunofluorescence can also be done within the interior of live cells by reversible cell permeabilization using the detergent Triton X-100 . Adjusted carefully to the appropriate concentration for the number of cells , the pretreatment can permit access of molecules between 1 and 150 kilodaltons to the interior of the cell . Although antibodies may be used in a similar way in this context , the term `` supravital stain '' is typically reserved for smaller chemicals which possess suitable properties intrinsically .

neg: Serum iron Serum iron is a medical laboratory test that measures the amount of circulating iron that is bound to transferrin . Clinicians order this laboratory test when they are concerned about iron deficiency , which can cause anemia and other problems .   65 % of the iron in the body is bound up in hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells . About 4 % is bound up in myoglobin molecules . Around 30 % of the iron in the body is stored as ferritin or hemosiderin in the spleen , the bone marrow and the liver . Small amounts of iron can be found in other molecules in cells throughout the body . None of this iron is directly accessible by testing the serum .   However , some iron is circulating in the serum . Transferrin is a molecule produced by the liver that binds one or two iron ( III ) ions , i.e. ferric iron , Fe3 + ; transferrin is essential if stored iron is to be moved and used .   Most of the time , about 30 % of the available sites on the transferrin molecule are filled . The test for serum iron uses blood drawn from veins to measure the iron molecules that are bound to transferrin , and circulating in the blood .   The extent to which sites on transferrin molecules are filled by iron ions can be another helpful clinical indicator , known as percent transferrin saturation . Another lab test saturates the sample to measure the total amount of transferrin ; this test is called total iron-binding capacity ( TIBC ) . These three tests are generally done at the same time , and taken together are an important part of the diagnostic process for conditions such as anemia , iron deficiency anemia , anemia of chronic disease and Haemochromatosis .

neg: Acute kidney injury Acute kidney injury ( AKI ) , previously called acute renal failure ( ARF ) , is an abrupt loss of kidney function that develops within 7 days .   Its causes are numerous . Generally it occurs because of damage to the kidney tissue caused by decreased kidney blood flow ( kidney ischemia ) from any cause ( e.g. , low blood pressure ) , exposure to substances harmful to the kidney , an inflammatory process in the kidney , or an obstruction of the urinary tract that impedes the flow of urine . AKI is diagnosed on the basis of characteristic laboratory findings , such as elevated blood urea nitrogen and creatinine , or inability of the kidneys to produce sufficient amounts of urine .   AKI may lead to a number of complications , including metabolic acidosis , high potassium levels , uremia , changes in body fluid balance , and effects on other organ systems , including death . People who have experienced AKI may have an increased risk of chronic kidney disease in the future . Management includes treatment of the underlying cause and supportive care , such as renal replacement therapy .

neg: Erythrocrine Erythrocrine describes red blood cell or erythrocyte for production and release of signaling molecules . The term `` erythrocrine `` was coined by Song et al. -LSB- 1 -RSB- in reference to erythrocyte , particularly the mature erythrocyte as a secretory cell , not just engaging in gaseous conveyance and exchange .   The erythrocyte is differentiated for such function to predominately express hemoglobin and remove all the organelle including protein synthesis machinery . Our traditional review of erythrocyte function is solely for gaseous exchange . Nevertheless , several previously undetected physiologic functions of erythrocyte are largely neglected .   The available literature data speak in favor of the unique behavior of erythrocrine . The seminal concept of erythrocrine may illuminate the unveiled exquisite molecular signaling of erythrocyte and expedite our understanding of the physiologic and pathophysiologic functions of erythrocyte .

neg: Micromatabilin Micromatabilin , the green pigment of the spider species Micromata rosea , is characterized as a mixture of biliverdin conjugates . The two isolated fractions have identical absorption bands ( free base : 620 -- 630 μm , hydrochloride : 690 μm , zinc complex : 685 -- 690 μm ) . Chromic acid degradation yields imides I , II , IIIa , and IIIb . Differences in the non-hydrolytic degradation and in polarity lead to the conclusion that fraction 1 is a monoconjugate and fraction 2a diconjugate of biliverdin .

neg: Diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus ( DM ) , commonly referred to as diabetes , is a group of metabolic diseases in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period . Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination , increased thirst , and increased hunger . If left untreated , diabetes can cause many complications . Acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis , nonketotic hyperosmolar coma , or death . Serious long-term complications include heart disease , stroke , chronic kidney failure , foot ulcers , and damage to the eyes .   Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin or the cells of the body not responding properly to the insulin produced . There are three main types of diabetes mellitus :  Type 1 DM results from the pancreas 's failure to produce enough insulin . This form was previously referred to as `` insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus '' ( IDDM ) or `` juvenile diabetes '' . The cause is unknown .  Type 2 DM begins with insulin resistance , a condition in which cells fail to respond to insulin properly . As the disease progresses a lack of insulin may also develop . This form was previously referred to as `` non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus '' ( NIDDM ) or `` adult-onset diabetes '' . The most common cause is excessive body weight and not enough exercise .  Gestational diabetes is the third main form and occurs when pregnant women without a previous history of diabetes develop high blood sugar levels .   Prevention and treatment involve maintaining a healthy diet , regular physical exercise , a normal body weight , and avoiding use of tobacco . Control of blood pressure and maintaining proper foot care are important for people with the disease . Type 1 DM must be managed with insulin injections . Type 2 DM may be treated with medications with or without insulin . Insulin and some oral medications can cause low blood sugar . Weight loss surgery in those with obesity is sometimes an effective measure in those with type 2 DM . Gestational diabetes usually resolves after the birth of the baby .   , an estimated 415 million people had diabetes worldwide , with type 2 DM making up about 90 % of the cases . This represents 8.3 % of the adult population , with equal rates in both women and men . , trends suggested the rate would continue to rise . Diabetes at least doubles a person 's risk of early death . From 2012 to 2015 , approximately 1.5 to 5.0 million deaths each year resulted from diabetes . The global economic cost of diabetes in 2014 was estimated to be billion . In the United States , diabetes cost $ 245 billion in 2012 .

neg: Liver cancer Liver cancer , also known as hepatic cancer and primary hepatic cancer , is cancer that starts in the liver . Cancer which has spread from elsewhere to the liver , known as liver metastasis , is more common than that which starts in the liver . Symptoms of liver cancer may include a lump or pain in the right side below the rib cage , swelling of the abdomen , yellowish skin , easy bruising , weight loss , and weakness .   The leading cause of liver cancer is cirrhosis due to hepatitis B , hepatitis C , or alcohol . Other causes include aflatoxin , non-alcoholic fatty liver disease , and liver flukes . The most common types are hepatocellular carcinoma ( HCC ) , which makes up 80 % of cases , and cholangiocarcinoma . Less common types include mucinous cystic neoplasm and intraductal papillary biliary neoplasm . The diagnosis may be supported by blood tests and medical imaging with confirmation by tissue biopsy .   Preventive efforts include immunization against hepatitis B and treating those infected with hepatitis B or C. Screening is recommended in those with chronic liver disease . Treatment options may include surgery , targeted therapy , and radiation therapy . In certain cases ablation therapy , embolization therapy , or liver transplantation may be used . Small lumps in the liver may be simply closely followed .   Primary liver cancer is globally the sixth most frequent cancer ( 6 % ) and the second leading cause of death from cancer ( 9 % ) . In 2012 it occurred in 782,000 people and in 2015 resulted in 810,500 deaths . In 2015 , 263,000 deaths from liver cancer were due to hepatitis B , 167,000 to hepatitis C , and 245,000 to alcohol . Higher rates of liver cancer occur where hepatitis B and C are common , including Asia and sub-Saharan Africa . Males are more often affected with HCC than females . Diagnosis is most frequent among those 55 to 65 years old . Five-year survival rates are 18 % in the United States . The word `` hepatic '' is from the Greek hêpar , meaning `` liver . ''

neg: Folate Folate , forms of which are known as folic acid and vitamin B9 , is one of the B vitamins . The recommended daily intake level of folate is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements . Folic acid is used to treat anemia caused by folic acid deficiency . It is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects ( NTDs ) in the baby . Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with neural tube defects . More than 50 countries use fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs in the population . Long term supplementation is also associated with small reductions in the risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease . It may be taken by mouth or by injection .   There are no common side effects . It is not known whether high doses over a long period of time are of concern . There are concerns that large amounts of folic acid might hide vitamin B12 deficiency . Folic acid is essential for the body to make DNA , RNA , and metabolise amino acids which are required for cell division . As humans can not make folic acid , it is required from the diet , making it an essential vitamin .   Not consuming enough folate can lead to folate deficiency . This may result in a type of anemia in which low numbers of large red blood cells occur . Symptoms may include feeling tired , heart palpitations , shortness of breath , open sores on the tongue , and changes in the color of the skin or hair . Deficiency in children may develop within a month of poor dietary intake . In adults normal total body folate is between 10,000 -- 30,000 micrograms ( µg ) with blood levels of greater than 7 nmol/L ( 3 ng/mL ) .   Folic acid was discovered between 1931 and 1943 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost of supplements in the developing world is between 0.001 and 0.005 USD per dose as of 2014 . The term `` folic '' is from the Latin word folium , which means leaf . Folates occur naturally in many foods especially dark green leafy vegetables and liver .

neg: Anuria Anuria , sometimes called anuresis , is nonpassage of urine , in practice is defined as passage of less than 50 milliliters of urine in a day . Anuria is often caused by failure in the function of kidneys . It may also occur because of some severe obstruction like kidney stones or tumours . It may occur with end stage renal disease . It is a more extreme reduction than oliguria ( hypouresis ) , with 100 mL/day being the conventional ( albeit slightly arbitrary ) cutoff point between the two .

neg: Liver The liver is a vital organ of vertebrates and some other animals . In humans , it is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen , below the diaphragm . The liver has a wide range of functions , including detoxification of various metabolites , protein synthesis , and the production of biochemicals necessary for digestion . It also plays a role in metabolism , regulation of glycogen storage , decomposition of red blood cells and hormone production .   The liver is a gland . It is an accessory digestive gland and produces bile , an alkaline compound which aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids . The gallbladder , a small pouch that sits just under the liver , stores bile produced by the liver . The liver 's highly specialized tissue consisting of mostly hepatocytes regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions , including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules , many of which are necessary for normal vital functions . Estimates regarding the organ 's total number of functions vary , but textbooks generally cite it being around 500 .   Terminology related to the liver often starts in hepat - from ἡπατο - , the Greek word for liver .   There is currently no way to compensate for the absence of liver function in the long term , although liver dialysis techniques can be used in the short term . Artificial livers are yet to be developed to promote long term replacement in the absence of the liver . As of now , liver transplantation is the only option for complete liver failure .

neg: Van den Bergh reaction Van den Bergh reaction is a chemical reaction used to measure bilirubin levels in blood . More specifically , it determines the amount of conjugated bilirubin in the blood . The reaction produces azobilirubin .  Principle : bilirubin reacts with diazotised sulphanilic acid to produce purple coloured azo bilirubin.this reaction is highly useful in understanding the nature of jaundice . This was pioneered by the Dutch Physician , Abraham Albert Hijmans van den Bergh ( 1869 -- 1943 ) of Utrecht .

neg: Cellulosome Cellulosomes are multi-enzyme complexes . The cellulosomes are associated with the cell surface and mediate cell attachment to the insoluble substrate and degrade it to soluble products which are then absorbed . Cellulosome complexes are intricate multi-enzyme machines produced by many cellulolytic microorganisms ( cellulosome producing bacteria are listed below ) . They are designed by the microorganisms for efficient degradation of plant cell wall polysaccharides , notably cellulose -- the most abundant organic polymer on Earth . The multiple subunits of cellulosomes are composed of numerous functional domains which interact with each other and with the cellulosic substrate . One of these subunits , a large glycoprotein , which we called `` scaffoldin '' , comprises a distinctive new class of non-catalytic scaffolding polypeptide . The scaffoldin subunit selectively integrates the various cellulases and xylanase subunits into the cohesive complex , by combining its `` cohesin '' domains with a typical `` dockerin '' domain present on each of the subunit enzymes . The scaffoldin of some cellulosomes , an example being that of Clostridium thermocellum , contains a carbohydrate-binding module that adheres cellulose to the cellulosomal complex .   Cellulosomes exist as extracellular complexes that are either attached to the cell wall of bacteria or free in solution , where the insoluble substrate can be broken down into soluble products and taken up by the cell . The large size and heterogeneity of cellulosomes from the best-characterized organisms ( i.e. , C. thermocellum , C. cellulolyticum , and C. cellulovorans ) have greatly complicated efforts to probe cellulosome structure and function . Other cellulosome systems ( such as those from Acetivibrio cellulolyticus and Ruminococcus flavefaciens ) appear to be even more intricate .   The cellulosome consists of a multi-functional integrating subunit ( called scaffoldin ) , responsible for organizing the various cellulolytic subunits ( e.g. , the enzymes ) into the complex . Within a cellulosome , multiple endoglucanases , cellobiohydrolases , xylanases and other degradative enzymes work synergistically to attack heterogeneous , insoluble cellulose substrates . This is accomplished by the interaction of two complementary classes of module , located on the two separate types of interacting subunits , i.e. , a cohesin module on the scaffoldin and a dockerin module on each enzymatic subunit . The high-affinity cohesin-dockerin interaction defines the cellulosome structure . Attachment of the cellulosome to its substrate is mediated by a scaffoldin-borne cellulose-binding module ( CBM ) that comprises part of the scaffoldin subunit . Much of our understanding of its catalytic components , architecture , and mechanisms of attachment to the bacterial cell and to cellulose , has been derived from the study of Clostridium thermocellum .   Applications : Intelligent application of cellulosome hybrids and chimeric constructs ( `` nanosomes '' ) of cellulosomal domains should enable better use of cellulosic biomass and may offer a wide range of novel applications .


query: The Hellenic goddess of wilderness was called Artemis.

pos: Artemis Artemis ( -LSB- ˈɑːrtᵻmᵻs -RSB- Ἄρτεμις , Modern Greek : Άρτεμις , Ártemis , -LSB- ár.te.mis -RSB- ) was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities . Her Roman equivalent is Diana . Some scholars believe that the name , and indeed the goddess herself , was originally pre-Greek . Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera , Potnia Theron : `` Artemis of the wildland , Mistress of Animals '' . The Arcadians believed she was the daughter of Demeter .   In the classical period of Greek mythology , Artemis was often described as the daughter of Zeus and Leto , and the twin sister of Apollo . She was the Hellenic goddess of the hunt , wild animals , wilderness , childbirth , virginity and protector of young girls , bringing and relieving disease in women ; she often was depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrows . The deer and the cypress were sacred to her . In later Hellenistic times , she even assumed the ancient role of Eileithyia in aiding childbirth .

neg: Arachidamia Arachidamia ( c. 340-241 BC ) was a wealthy Spartan queen , wife of Eudamidas I , mother of Archidamus IV and Agesistrata , grandmother of Eudamidas II , great-grandmother and grandmother of Agis IV .   The earliest accounts of her depict her leading Spartan women against Pyrrhus during his siege of Lacedaemon in the 3rd century BC . In the face of Pyrrhus 's invasion , the Spartan Gerousia considered sending the Spartan women to Crete for their safety . Arachidamia , speaking on behalf of the Spartan women , entered the Gerousia , `` with sword in hand , '' and contested this proposal , questioning whether the Spartan women were expected to survive the ruin of their own city .   With the matter settled , the Spartans initiated the construction of a defensive trench running parallel to Pyrrhus 's camp . It is likely that Arachidamia helped direct the Spartan women in this respect , since it is reported that the Spartan women impressively `` completed with their own hands a third of the trench . '' Consequently , it is likely that Arachidamia led the efforts of Spartan women during the subsequent battle against Pyrrhus , as they are noted for supplying the defenders with weapons and refreshment during combat , and extracting wounded from the battlefield .   Later records of Arachidamia date three decades later , with her assisting in the revolutionary designs of her grandson Agis IV , as he attempted to restore Lycurgan institutions to a Sparta then thoroughly corrupted by wealth and greed . Because Arachidamia and Agesistrata were the wealthiest two people in all of Lacedaemon , Arachidamia 's support of Agis was instrumental in gaining support for the cause . She was among those who first pledged to contribute their wealth to a common pool , which was then to be distributed equally amongst both old and new Spartan citizens .   However , these revolutionary designs were foiled by the corruption of Agis 's uncle and erstwhile supporter , Agesilaus , and the machinations of a rival party , led by the Agiad King , Leonidas II . Leonidas and the Ephors had Agis illegally imprisoned and executed , unbeknownst to a mob that had gathered out of concern and a possible desire to see him freed . Arachidamia and Agesistrata were subsequently lured into the prison on the premise that they were to see Agis ; and there they too both met their ends at the hands of their political rivals . Considering that she must have born her son Archidamus IV before 320 BC , at the time of her execution in 241 BC she was probably far in her nineties .

neg: Soteria (mythology) In Greek mythology , Soteria was the goddess or spirit ( daimon ) of safety and salvation , deliverance , and preservation from harm ( not to be mistaken for Eleos ) .   Soteria 's male counterpart was the spirit or daimon Soter . Both Zeus and Dionysus were titled Soter , so either may have been her father ; her mother is unknown .   She had a sanctuary and a statue made in her honor in the town of Patrae , which was believed to have been founded by Eurypylos of Thessaly . Various texts mention the creation of her sanctuary , for example :   Pausanias , Description of Greece 7 . 24 . 3 ( trans . Jones ) ( Greek travelogue 2nd century AD ) : '' -LSB- In Aigion in Akhaia ( Aegium in Achaea ) -RSB- they also have a sanctuary of Soteria ( Safety ) . Her image may be seen by none but the priests , and the following ritual is performed . They take cakes of the district from the goddess and throw them into the sea , saying that they send them to Arethousa at Syrakousa ( Syracuse ) . ''  Pausanias , Description of Greece 7 . 19 . 7 & 21 . 7 : `` Eurypylos -LSB- the hero of the Trojan War -RSB- opened the chest -LSB- containing a sacred idol of Dionysos -RSB- , saw the image , and forthwith on seeing it went mad . He continued to be insane for the greater part of the time , with rare lucid intervals ... There is a sanctuary -LSB- in Patrai in Akhaia ( Patrae in Achaea ) -RSB- with an image of stone . It is called the sanctuary of Soteria ( Deliverance ) , and the story is that it was originally founded by Eurypylos on being cured of his madness . ''  Ovid , Fasti 3 . 879 ff ( trans.Boyle ) ( Roman poetry 1st century BC to 1st century AD ) : `` March 30 Comitialis . When the shepherd feeds and pens his kids four more times and the grasslands whiten with four fresh dews , Janus should be worshipped and gentle Concordia ( Concord ) , Salus Romana ( Safety of Rome ) and the Ara Pacis ( Altar of Peace ) . ''   Soteria was depicted as a woman wearing a laurel wreath crown , a symbol of victory .   In Roman mythology , Soteria is known as Salus ( Preservation ) ; however , Salus 's domain more heavily featured physical well-being and health rather than security and safety . The Bible 's use of Soteria indicates its etymology from Greek mythology , as the word is used to mean `` fourfold salvation : saved from the penalty , power , presence and most importantly the pleasure of sin . ''

neg: Marpesia In ancient Greek and Roman legendary history , Marpesia ( Greek : Μαρπησία `` Snatcher '' ; sometimes wrongly spelled Marthesia ) was Queen of the Amazons with Lampedo ( `` burning torch '' ) , her sister , as a co-ruler . They ruled with Hippo ( `` horse '' ) after the death of Lysippe .   Marpesia was one of the rulers who helped establish the Greek city of Ephesus . She also established a city in the Caucasus Mountains referred to as the Rock of Marpesia or the Marpesian Cliff . Alexander the Great sometime later built gates there which were called the Caspian Gates . This was an area on the Thermodon River in Cappadocia . Marpesia and Lampedo extended the Amazon influence to Europe and greater Asia Minor , becoming an object of terror to that part of the world .   Marpesia was succeeded by her daughters Orithyia and Antiope ( some sources add Synope ) after she was killed in battle during a sudden invasion by Asian barbarians .   In Giovanni Boccaccio 's Famous Women , a chapter is dedicated to Lampedo and Marpesia .

neg: Juno (mythology) Juno ( Iūnō -LSB- ˈjuːnoː -RSB- ) is an ancient Roman goddess , the protector and special counselor of the state . She is a daughter of Saturn and sister ( but also the wife ) of the chief god Jupiter and the mother of Mars and Vulcan . Juno also looked after the women of Rome . Her Greek equivalent was Hera . Her Etruscan counterpart was Uni . As the patron goddess of Rome and the Roman Empire , Juno was called Regina ( `` Queen '' ) and , together with Jupiter and Minerva , was worshipped as a triad on the Capitol ( Juno Capitolina ) in Rome .   Juno 's own warlike aspect among the Romans is apparent in her attire . She often appeared sitting pictured with a peacock armed and wearing a goatskin cloak . The traditional depiction of this warlike aspect was assimilated from the Greek goddess Athena , whose goatskin was called the ` aegis ' .

neg: Queen of heaven (antiquity) Queen of Heaven was a title given to a number of ancient sky goddesses worshipped throughout the ancient Mediterranean and Near East during ancient times . Goddesses known to have been referred to by the title include Inanna , Anat , Isis , Astarte , Hera , and possibly Asherah ( by the prophet Jeremiah ) . Elsewhere , Nordic Frigg also bore this title . In Greco-Roman times Hera , and her Roman aspect Juno bore this title . Forms and content of worship varied . In modern times , the title `` Queen of Heaven '' is still used by contemporary pagans to refer to the Great Goddess , while Catholics and Orthodox Christians now apply the ancient pagan title to Mary , the mother of Jesus .

neg: Amazonius Apollo Amazonius ( Gr . Ἀμαζόνιος ) was a cultic epithet of the Greek god Apollo , under which he was worshiped , and had a temple at Pyrrhichus in Laconia . The name was derived either from the belief that the mythological Amazons had penetrated into the Peloponnese region as far as Pyrrhichus , or that they themselves had founded Apollo 's temple there .   The sole known reference to this etymology , in Pausanias ' Description of Greece , is an oddity in the study of the Amazon mythological tradition . It is strange to hear of the Amazons in Laconia , a region in no way associated with the usual tale of their invasion of Attica . Pausanias suggests a large Amazonian army halted there , which is also at odds with the Boeotian mythological tradition which indicates only a few Amazons were separated from the host after their defeat by Theseus . Secondly , this Apollo is mentioned as a companion of the goddess Artemis , which was also unusual , and which has led some scholars to speculate that `` Apollo Amazonius '' indicates not the traditional Greek Apollo , but a distinctly non-Hellenic deity , possibly that of the more Asiatic peoples of Laconia , Lycia , Phrygia and Crete , prior to Hellenic colonization . The name `` Apollo '' across different regions of classical antiquity often referred to slightly different entities with varying attributes .

neg: Anthesteria Anthesteria or the Anthesteria ( Ἀνθεστήρια , Anthestḗria ) was one of the four Athenian festivals in honor of Dionysus . It was held each year from the 11th to the 13th of the month of Anthesterion , around the time of the January or February full moon . The three days of the feast were called Pithoigia , Choës , and Chytroi .   It celebrated the beginning of spring , particularly the maturing of the wine stored at the previous vintage , whose pithoi were now ceremoniously opened . During the feast , social order was interrupted or inverted , the slaves being allowed to participate , uniting the household in ancient fashion . The Anthesteria also had aspects of a festival of the dead : either the Keres or the Carians were entertained , freely roaming the city until they were expelled after the festival . A Greek proverb , employed of those who pestered for continued favors , ran `` Out of doors , Keres ! It is no longer Anthesteria '' .

neg: Hyporchema The hyporchema was a lively kind of mimic dance which accompanied the songs used in the worship of Apollo , especially among the Dorians . It was performed by men and women . It is comparable to the geranos , the ritual `` crane dance '' associated with Theseus .   A chorus of singers at the festivals of Apollo usually danced around the altar , while several other persons were appointed to accompany the action of the song with an appropriate mimic performance . Hyporchema was thus a lyric dance , and often passed into the playful and comic , whence Athenaeus compares it with the cordax of comedy . It had , according to the supposition of Müller , like all the music and poetry of the Dorians , originated in Crete , but was at an early period introduced in the island of Delos , where it seems to have continued to be performed down to the time of Lucian .   A similar kind of dance was the geranos ( crane dance ) , which Theseus on his return from Crete was said to have performed in Delos , and which was customary in this island as late as the time of Plutarch . The leader of this dance was called geranoulkos . It was performed with blows , and with various turnings and windings , and was said to be an imitation of the windings of the Cretan labyrinth . When the chorus was at rest , it formed a semicircle , with leaders at the two wings .   The poems or songs which were accompanied by the hyporchema were likewise called hyporchemata . The first poet to whom such poems are ascribed was Thaletas of Crete : their character must have been in accordance with the playfulness of the dance which bore the same name , and by which they were accompanied . The fragments of the hyporchemata of Pindar confirm this supposition , for their rhythms are peculiarly light , and have a very imitative and graphic character . These characteristics must have existed in a much higher degree in the hyporchematic songs of Thaletas .

neg: Finnish mythology Finnish mythology is a commonly applied description of the folklore of Finnish paganism , of which a modern revival is practiced by a small percentage of the Finnish people . It has many features shared with fellow Finnic Estonian mythology and its non-Finnic neighbours , the Balts and the Scandinavians . Some of their myths are also distantly related to the myths of other Finno-Ugric speakers like the Samis .   Finnish mythology survived within an oral tradition of mythical poem-singing and folklore well into the 19th century .   Although the gradual influence of surrounding cultures raised the significance of the sky-god in a monolatristic manner , the father god `` Ukko '' ( Old Man ) was originally just a nature spirit like all the others . Of the animals , the most sacred was the bear , whose real name was never uttered out loud , lest his kind be unfavorable to the hunting . The bear ( `` karhu '' in Finnish ) was seen as the embodiment of the forefathers , and for this reason it was called by many circumlocutions : mesikämmen ( `` mead-paw '' ) , otso ( `` browed one '' ) , kontio ( `` dweller of the land '' ) , metsän kultaomena ( `` the golden apple of the forest '' ) but not a god .

neg: Vinotonus Vinotonus is a god from Celtic Mythology of which little is known . Only seven altars dedicated to Vinotonus have been found , all of which are on the Yorkshire Moors . As is common in Celtic Mythology , it is possible that Vinotonus was a local deity of Yorkshire . His name may mean `` God of the Vines '' , and it is estimated that he may have been worshipped from BCE until about 5th century CE .   Romans found Vinotonus to be equivalent to Silvanus and that he was a wilderness god . It was common for the Romans to assign local deities of the Celts the names of popular Roman gods . Silvanus is also equated with the Celtic god Callirius , of whom little is known as well , and with the god Nodens . It is possible that many local nature deities of the Celts were grouped under the name of Silvanus to the Romans , as is the case with Vinotonus .   David Rankine & Sorita D'Este , The Isles of the Many Gods : An A-Z of the Pagan Gods & Goddesses Worshipped in Ancient Britain During the First Millennium CE through to the Middle Ages , BM Avalonia 2007   Category : Celtic mythology

neg: Natural landscape A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture . `` The area prior to the introduction of man 's activity is represented by one body of morphologic facts . The forms that man has introduced are another set . We may call the former , with reference to man , the original , natural landscape . In its entirety it no longer exists in many parts of the world , but its reconstruction and understanding are the first part of formal morphonology . '' Carl O. Sauer , `` The Morphology of Landscape '' . University of California Publications in Geography , vol . 2 , No. 2 , 12 October 1925 , p. 37 . The natural landscape and the cultural landscape are separate parts of the landscape . `` The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture group . Culture is the agent , the natural area is the medium , the cultural landscape the result . '' Carl O. Sauer , `` The Morphology of Landscape '' , p. 46 . However , in the twenty-first century landscapes that are totally untouched by human activity no longer exist , so that reference is sometimes now made to degrees of naturalness within a landscape.The European Environment Agency 's planned forest naturalness index is an example of an attempt to define one type of natural landscape in Europe . The Agency lists forests in three categories : ( 1 ) Plantations ; ( 2 ) Semi-natural ; and ( 3 ) Naturally dynamic . The latter are `` forests whose structure , composition and function have been shaped by natural dynamics without substantial anthropogenic influence over a long period of time '' .   In Silent Spring ( 1962 ) Rachel Carson describes a roadside verge as it used to look : `` Along the roads , laurel , viburnum and alder , great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler 's eye through much of the year '' and then how it looks now following the use of herbicides : `` The roadsides , once so attractive , were now lined with browned and withered vegetation as though swept by fire '' . Even though the landscape before it is sprayed is biologically degraded , and may well contains alien species , the concept of what might constitute a natural landscape can still be deduced from the context .   The phrase `` natural landscape '' was first used in connection with landscape painting , and landscape gardening , to contrast a formal style with a more natural one , closer to nature . Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 -- 1859 ) was to further conceptualize this into the idea of a natural landscape separate from the cultural landscape . Then in 1908 geographer Otto Schlüter developed the terms original landscape ( Urlandschaft ) and its opposite cultural landscape ( Kulturlandschaft ) in an attempt to give the science of geography a subject matter that was different from the other sciences . An early use of the actual phrase `` natural landscape '' by a geographer can be found in Carl O. Sauer 's paper `` The Morphology of Landscape '' ( 1925 ) .

neg: Hydria A hydria ( ὑδρία plural hydriai ) is a type of water-carrying vessel in the metalwork and pottery of Ancient Greece . The hydria has three handles . Two horizontal handles on either side of the body of the pot were used for lifting and carrying the pot . The third handle , a vertical one , located in the center of the other two handles , was used when pouring water . If the third handle is missing , the type is called a kalpis . This water vessel can be found in both red - and black-figure technique . They often depicted scenes of Greek mythology that reflected moral and social obligations . As well as holding water hydriai could be used for holding ashes in burials and collecting ballots in elections .   By the mid-5th century BC , Greek artisans were also creating hydria from bronze , some of which were elaborately decorated with finely detailed figures . A 6th-century example is in the Historisches Museum , Berne . Such vessels were also known from Minoan pottery .   Regina Vasorum ( `` Queen of Vases '' ) is a famous late ( 4th century BC ) hydria in the Hermitage Museum , found in Italy .

neg: Hesperia (mythology) In Greek mythology , Hesperia may refer to the following characters and places :  Hesperia , one of the Hesperides , in some versions ( e.g. Pseudo-Apollodorus ) the daughter of Hesperus  Hesperia , also called Asterope , a Pleiad , the wife or desired lover of Aesacus and daughter of the river Cebren  Hesperia as `` western land '' is the ancient Greek name of Italy , also used in Latin epic poetry , in gender either a feminine noun or a neuter plural adjective used substantively , spelt the same but with different definite articles , and with the accent shifted from the penult to the antepenult . This becomes Latin Hesperia or Hesperius , the latter not a distinct nominal form , but simply an adjective used substantively , viz . Vergil 's Aeneid VI , 6  Hesperia , the Iberian Peninsula and Northwest Africa , further to the west , used in both Ancient Greek and Byzantine sources

neg: Acanthus Acanthus ( plural : acanthus , rarely acanthuses in English , or acanthi in Latin ) , in its feminine form acantha ( plura : acanthae ) , is the Latinised form of the ancient Greek word acanthos or akanthos , referring to the Acanthus plant . It can also be used as the prefix acantho - , meaning `` thorny '' . It may refer to :

neg: Brauron The sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron ( Hellenic : Βραυρών or Βραυρώνα Vravrona or Vravronas ) is an early sacred site on the eastern coast of Attica near the Aegean Sea in a small inlet . The inlet has silted up since ancient times , pushing the current shoreline farther from the site . A nearby hill , c. 24 m high and 220 m to the southeast , was inhabited during the Neolithic era , c. 2000 BCE , and flourished particularly from Middle Helladic to early Mycenaean times ( 2000 -- 1600 BC ) as a fortified site ( acropolis ) . Occupation ceased in the LHIIIb period , and the acropolis was never significantly resettled after this time . This gap in the occupation of the site lasted from LHIIIb ( 13th century ) until the 8th century BCE . Brauron was one of the twelve ancient settlements of Attica prior to the synoikismos of Theseus , who unified them with Athens .   The cult of Artemis Brauronia connected the coastal ( rural ) sanctuary at Brauron with another ( urban ) sanctuary on the acropolis in Athens , the Brauroneion , from which there was a procession every four years during the Arkteia festival . The tyrant Pisistratus was Brauronian by birth , and he is credited with transferring the cult to the Acropolis , thus establishing it on the statewide rather than local level . The sanctuary contained a small temple of Artemis , a unique stone bridge , cave shrines , a sacred spring , and a pi-shaped stoa that included dining rooms for ritual feasting . The unfortified site continued in use until tensions between the Athenians and the Macedonians the 3rd century BCE caused it to be abandoned . After that time , no archaeologically significant activity occurred at the site until the erection of a small church in the 6th century CE .   Votive dedications at the sanctuary include a number of statues of young children of both sexes , as well as many items pertaining to feminine life , such as jewelry boxes and mirrors . Large numbers of miniature kraters ( krateriskoi ) have been recovered from the site , many depicting young girls -- either nude or clothed -- racing or dancing . The Archaeological Museum of Brauron -- located around a small hill 330 m to the ESE -- contains an extensive and important collection of finds from the site throughout its period of use .

neg: Thermaic Gulf The Thermaic Gulf is a gulf of the Aegean Sea located immediately south of the Thessaloniki regional unit , east of Pieria and Imathia , and west of Chalkidiki . It was named after the ancient town of Therma , which was situated on the northeast coast of the gulf ( Therma was later renamed Thessalonica ) . Near Thessaloniki , the length ( north-south ) of the gulf is about 100 km , while its width ( east-west ) is about 5 km . The length of the gulf in its northern part ( from its northern extent down to `` megalo emvolo '' cape ) is estimated to stretch 15 km , while after `` megalo emvolo '' cape towards the south , its length extents a further 50 km . Cape Kassandra lies to the southeast end of the gulf .   To the Romans , the gulf was also known as Thermaicus or Thermaeus sinus ( `` Gulf of Therma '' ) and as Macedonicus sinus ( `` The Gulf of Macedon '' , or `` The Macedonian Gulf '' ) . One of its modern names is the `` Gulf of Salonica '' , named after the city of Thessaloniki which sprawls around and along the northeastern coast of the gulf .   Places that lie by the gulf include Sani , Kassandreia , ancient Potidaea , Nea Moudania , Agia Triada , Neoi Epivates , Peraia , Kalochori , Methoni , Pydna , Paralia Katerinis and Olympiaki Akti . The rivers emptying into the gulf are the Pineios , Aliakmon , Loudias , Gallikos and Axios ; several streams including one near Pydna also empty into the gulf . The Thermaic Gulf was significantly larger in classical times , with many ancient seaside cities ( e.g. Pella ) are now found several kilometers inland . The extensive silting mainly affects the northern and western parts of the gulf , which receive the bulk of alluvial outflow . The gulf is home to a large number of famous , pristine beaches , which include Sani Beach . However , there are no beaches on the northwest coast , where wetlands stretch from Methone ( northwest coast ) to Thessaloniki 's western suburb of Kalochori .   The Port of Thessaloniki is the gulf 's largest and busiest port , while another twelve small ports provide sea transport in , out and around the Thermaic gulf . Major road networks of northern Greece such as the A1/E75 motorway ( Athens - Lamia - Thessaloniki ) encircles the western portion of the gulf , while the A25 ( Thessaloniki - Nea Moudania motorway ) almost encircles the eastern part of it .   Category : Gulfs of the Aegean Sea  Category : Gulfs of Greece  Category : Geography of ancient Chalcidice  Category : Geography of ancient Mygdonia  Category : Bottiaea  Category : Geography of ancient Pieria  Category : Thessaloniki  Category : Landforms of Thessaloniki ( regional unit )  Category : Landforms of Central Macedonia  Category : Landforms of Pieria ( regional unit )  Category : Landforms of Imathia  Category : Landforms of Chalkidiki

neg: Anteros In Greek mythology , Anteros ( Ἀντέρως , Antérōs ) was the god of requited love , literally `` love returned '' or `` counter-love '' and also the punisher of those who scorn love and the advances of others , or the avenger of unrequited love .   Anteros was the son of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology , given as a playmate to his brother Eros , who was lonely -- the rationale being that love must be answered if it is to prosper . Alternatively , he was said to have arisen from the mutual love between Poseidon and Nerites . Physically , he is depicted as similar to Eros in every way , but with long hair and plumed butterfly wings . He has been described also as armed with either a golden club or arrows of lead .   Anteros , with Eros , was one of a host of winged love gods called Erotes , the ever-youthful winged gods of love , usually depicted as winged boys in the company of Aphrodite or her attendant goddesses .   An altar to this god was put up by the metics in Athens in commemoration of the spurned love of the metic Timagoras who was rejected by the Athenian Meles . Upon hearing Timagoras ' declaration of love for him , the young man mockingly ordered him to throw himself down from the top of a tall rock . Seeing Timagoras dead , Meles repented and threw himself down from the same rock .   Describing the nature of the emotion , Plato asserts that it is the result of the great love for another person . The lover , inspired by beauty , is filled with divine love and `` filling the soul of the loved one with love in return . '' As a result , the loved one falls in love with the lover , though the love is only spoken of as friendship . They experience pain when the two are apart , and relief when they are together , the mirror image of the lover 's feelings , is anteros , or `` counter-love . ''   Anteros is the subject of the Shaftesbury Memorial in Piccadilly Circus , London , where he symbolises the selfless philanthropic love of the Earl of Shaftesbury for the poor . The memorial is sometimes given the name The Angel of Christian Charity and is popularly mistaken for Eros .

neg: Aphrodisias Aphrodisias ( -LSB- æfrəˈdɪsiəs -RSB- -LSB- Ἀφροδισιάς , Aphrodisiás -RSB- ) was a small ancient Greek city in the historic Caria cultural region of western Anatolia , Turkey . It is located near the modern village of Geyre , about 100 km east/inland from the coast of the Aegean Sea , and 230 km southeast of İzmir .   Aphrodisias was named after Aphrodite , the Greek goddess of love , who had here her unique cult image , the Aphrodite of Aphrodisias . According to the Suda , a Byzantine encyclopedic compilation , before the city became known as Aphrodisias ( c. 3rd century BCE ) it had three previous names : Lelégōn Pólis ( Λελέγων πόλις , `` City of the Leleges '' ) , Megálē Pólis ( Μεγάλη Πόλις , `` Great City '' ) , and Ninóē .   Sometime before 640 , in the Late Antiquity period when it was within the Byzantine Empire , the city was renamed Stauroúpolis ( Σταυρούπολις , `` City of the Cross '' ) .

neg: Halie Halie or Halia ( Greek : Ἁλίη , Ἁλία ; the difference in ending is merely due to dialectal variations ) is the name of the following characters in Greek mythology :   Halie , one of the Nereids , daughter of Nereus and Doris  Halia , a nymph who lived on an island that would later be named Rhodes after her only daughter , Rhodos ( or Rhode ) . Halia was the daughter of Thalassa , sister of the Telchines , and mother of Rhodos and six sons by Poseidon . Shortly after Aphrodite 's birth , the goddess was traveling the oceans . When Halia 's young sons arrogantly refused to let Aphrodite land upon their shore , the goddess cursed them with insanity . In their madness , they raped Halia . As punishment , Poseidon buried them in the island 's sea-caverns . Halia later threw herself into the sea ; Rhodians argue that she became the goddess Leucothea . However , Leucothea is identified with Ino in all other sources .  Halia , daughter of Sybaris . In a sacred grove of Artemis , she encountered an enormous serpent that mated with her ; their offspring were the first members of the clan Ophiogeneis ( `` Serpent-born '' ) .  Halie , daughter of Tyllus . She married Cotys , son of Manes , the first king of Lydia , bearing him two sons , Asies and Atys , king of Lydia .

neg: Artemis Singers Artemis Singers are an American lesbian feminist chorus based in Chicago , Illinois . Its goals are to create positive change in cultural attitudes toward women and female artists and to `` increase the visibility of lesbian feminists . ''   Founded in 1980 , it is one of the earliest lesbian feminist chorus in the United States . In 2008 , Artemis was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame . The group 's performance is dominated by music composed by female composers and lyricists . During the group 's early period , they had an assigned traditional music director but the system gradually dissipated into a non-hierarchical system . Currently , various members can act as music directors during their performance .