query: Silk scarves were the major trade item on the Silk Road.

pos: Silk Road The Silk Road or Silk Route was an ancient network of trade routes that were for centuries central to cultural interaction originally through regions of Eurasia connecting the East and West and stretching from the Korean peninsula and Japan to the Mediterranean Sea . The Silk Road concept refers to both the terrestrial and the maritime routes connecting Asia and Europe . The overland Steppe route stretching through the Eurasian steppe is considered the ancestor to the Silk Road ( s ) .   While the term is of modern coinage , the Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk ( and horses ) carried out along its length , beginning during the Han dynasty ( 207 BCE -- 220 CE ) . The Han dynasty expanded Central Asian sections of the trade routes around 114 BCE , largely through missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy , Zhang Qian . The Chinese took great interest in the safety of their trade products and extended the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trade route .   Trade on the Silk Road played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China , the Goguryeo kingdom ( Korea ) , Japan , the Indian subcontinent , Persia , Europe , the Horn of Africa and Arabia , opening long-distance political and economic relations between the civilizations . Though silk was certainly the major trade item exported from China , many other goods were traded , as well as religions , syncretic philosophies , and various technologies . Diseases , most notably plague , also spread along the Silk Routes . In addition to economic trade , the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network .   The main traders during antiquity included the Chinese , Arabs , Turkmens , Indians , Persians , Somalis , Greeks , Syrians , Romans , Georgians , Armenians , Bactrians , and ( from the 5th to the 8th century ) the Sogdians .   In June 2014 , UNESCO designated the Chang ` an-Tianshan corridor of the Silk Road as a World Heritage Site .

neg: Indian art Indian art consists of a variety of art forms , including plastic arts ( e.g. , pottery sculpture ) , visual arts ( e.g. , paintings ) , and textile arts ( e.g. , woven silk ) . Geographically , it spans the entire Indian subcontinent , including what is now India , Pakistan and Bangladesh . A strong sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and can be observed in its modern and traditional forms .   The origin of Indian art can be traced to pre-historic Hominid settlements in the 3rd millennium BC . On its way to modern times , Indian art has had cultural influences ( e.g. , Indus Valley and Hellenistic ) , as well as religious influences such as Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism and Islam . In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions , generally the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups .   In historic art , sculpture in stone and metal , mainly religious , has survived the Indian climate better than other media , and provides most of the best remains . Many of the most important ancient finds that are not in carved stone come from surrounding , drier regions rather than India itself . Indian funeral and philosophic traditions exclude grave goods , which are a main source of ancient art in other cultures .

neg: Rise of the Ottoman Empire The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in , and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29 , 1453 . This period witnessed the foundation of a political entity ruled by the Ottoman Dynasty in the northwestern Anatolian region of Bithynia , and its transformation from a small principality on the Byzantine frontier into an empire spanning the Balkans and Anatolia . For this reason , this period in the empire 's history has been described as the Proto-Imperial Era . Throughout most of this period , the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region , and relied upon the support of local warlords and vassals to maintain control over their realm . By the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman sultans were able to accumulate enough personal power and authority to establish a centralized imperial state , a process which was brought to fruition by Sultan Mehmed II ( r. 1451-1481 ) .   The cause of Ottoman success can not be attributed to any single factor , and they varied throughout the period as the Ottomans continually adapted to changing circumstances .   The earlier part of this period , the fourteenth century , is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources . Not a single written document survives from the reign of Osman I , and very little survives from the rest of the century . The Ottomans , furthermore , did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century , more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe . It is thus a great challenge for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in analyzing the stories contained in these later chronicles , so much so that one historian has even declared it impossible , describing the earliest period of Ottoman history as a `` black hole . ''

neg: Ahmad ibn Rustah Ibn Rustah ( in Iran : احمد ابن رسته اصفهانی - Aḥmad ebn Roste Eṣfahānī , also spelled Ibn Rusta , Ibn Ruste ) was a 10th-century Persian explorer and geographer born in Rosta district , Isfahan , Persia .  He wrote a geographical compendium known as Book of Precious Records . The information on his home town of Isfahan is especially extensive and valuable . Ibn Rustah states that , while for other lands he had to depend on second-hand reports , often acquired with great difficulty and with no means of checking their veracity , for Isfahan he could use his own experience and observations or statements from others known to be reliable . Thus we have a description of the twenty districts ( rostaqs ) of Isfahan containing details not found in other geographers ' works . Concerning the town itself , we learn that it was perfectly circular in shape , with a circumference of half a farsang , walls defended by a hundred towers , and four gates .   His information on the non-Islamic peoples of Europe and Inner Asia makes him a useful source for these obscure regions ( he was even aware of the existence of the British Isles and of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon England ) and for the prehistory of the Turks and other steppe peoples .   He travelled to Novgorod with the Rus ' , and compiled books relating his own travels , as well as second-hand knowledge of the Khazars , Magyars , Slavs , Bulgars , and other peoples .   He wrote of tenth-century city of the Rus ' :  `` As for the Rus , they live on an island ... that takes three days to walk round and is covered with thick undergrowth and forests ; ... They harry the Slavs , using ships to reach them ; they carry them off as slaves and ... sell them . They have no fields but simply live on what they get from the Slav 's lands ... When a son is born , the father will go up to the newborn baby , sword in hand ; throwing it down , he says , ' I shall not leave you with any property : You have only what you can provide with this weapon . ' ''   His impression of the Rus ' seems to be very favourable :  `` They carry clean clothes and the men adorn themselves with bracelets and gold . They treat their slaves well and also they carry exquisite clothes , because they put great effort in trade . They have many towns . They have a most friendly attitude towards foreigners and strangers who seek refuge . ''   This is in contrast to the account of Ibn Fadlan and other Arab authors whose views on hygiene ( based on Islamic teachings on cleanliness and Islamic medical knowledge ) contrasted with that of the Rus ' . However , the word clean initially appeared in the first Russian translation of Ibn Rustah by professor Daniel Chwolson ( who also misspelled his name as Ibn Dasta ( h ) ) . Consecutive Russian editions of Chwolson 's translation include a footnote saying that the Arabic original clearly says the opposite , unclean or impure , and suggesting that Chwolson made such a correction intentionally , out of a remote concern that modern Russians might be offended by such characteristic .   Of ancient Croatia he wrote in the chronicle Al-Djarmi :  `` Their ruler is crowned ... He dwells in the midst of the Slavs ... He bears the title of ` ruler of rulers ' and is called ` sacred king ' . He is more powerful than the Zupan ( viceroy ) , who is his deputy ... His capital is called Drzvab where is held a fair of three days every month . ''   About a certain king of the Caucasus Ibn Rustah wrote :  `` He prayed on Fridays with the Muslims , on Saturdays with the Jews , and on Sundays with the Christians . ` Since each religion claims that it is the only true one and that the others are invalid ' , the king explained , ' I have decided to hedge my bets . ' ''   He also traveled extensively in Arabia and is one of the early Persian explorers to describe the city of Sana'a . In his Book of Precious Records , he writes :  `` It is the city of Yemen -- there not being found in the highland or the Tihama or the Hijaz a city greater , more populous or more prosperous , of more noble origin or more delicious food than it . ... San ' a is a populous city with fine dwellings , some above others , but most of them are decorated with plaster , burned bricks , and dressed stones . ''

neg: Bristol slave trade Bristol is a city in the South West of England , on the River Avon which flows into the Severn Estuary . Because of Bristol 's position on the River Avon , it has been an important location for marine trade for centuries . The city 's involvement with the slave trade peaked between 1730 and 1745 , when it became the leading slaving port .   Bristol used its position on the Avon to trade all types of goods . Bristol 's port was the second largest in England after London . Countries that Bristol traded with included France , Spain , Ireland , Portugal , and North Africa 's Barbary Coast . Bristol 's main export was woollen cloth . Other exports included coal , lead , and animal hides . Imports into Bristol included wine , grain , slate , timber , and olive oil . Trading with the various colonies in the Caribbean and North America began to flourish during the Interregnum of Oliver Cromwell ( 1649 -- 1660 ) .   The Royal African Company , a London-based trading company , had control over all trade between countries in Britain and Africa before the year 1698 At this time , only ships owned by the Royal African Company could trade for anything , including slaves . Slaves were increasingly an important commodity at the time , since the British colonization in the Caribbean and the Americas in the 17th century . The Society of Merchant Venturers , an organization of elite merchants in Bristol , wanted to commence participation in the African slave trade , and after much pressure from them and other interested parties in and around Britain , the Royal African Company 's control over the slave trade was broken in 1698 .   As soon as the monopoly was broken , what is thought to have been the first `` legitimate '' Bristol slave ship , the Beginning , owned by Stephen Barker , purchased a cargo of enslaved Africans and delivered them to the Caribbean . Some average slave prices were # 20 , # 50 , or # 100 . In her will of 1693 , Jane Bridges , Widow of Leigh Upon Mendip bequeathes her interest of # 130 in this very ship to her grandson Thomas Bridges and indicates that the vessel was owned by the City of Bristol . Business boomed ; however , due to the over-crowding and harsh conditions on the ships , it is estimated that approximately half of each cargo of slaves did not survive the trip across the Atlantic .   The triangular trade was a route taken by slave merchants during the years 1697 and 1807 . The areas covered by the triangular trade was England , North West Africa and finally The Caribbean . Profits of 50-100 % were made during the 18th century . Over 500,000 slaves were brought into slavery by these ships , representing one-fifth of the British slave trade during this time .

neg: Grand Tour The Grand Tour was the traditional trip of Europe undertaken by mainly upper class European young men of sufficient means and rank ( or those of more humble origin who could find a sponsor ) , as well as young women if they were also of sufficient means , and accompanied by a chaperone , such as other family members , when they had come of age ( about the age of 21 years old ) . The custom flourished from about 1660 , until the advent of large-scale rail transport in the 1840s , and was associated with a standard itinerary . It served as an educational rite of passage . Though primarily associated with the British nobility and wealthy landed gentry , similar trips were made by wealthy young men of Protestant Northern European nations , and from the second half of the 18th century , by some South and North Americans . The tradition declined with the lapse of neo-classical enthusiasm and after rail and steamship travel made the journeys much easier when Thomas Cook made the `` Cook 's Tour '' of early mass tourism a byword .   The New York Times in 2008 described the Grand Tour in this way :   The primary value of the Grand Tour , it was believed , lay in the exposure both to the cultural legacy of classical antiquity and the Renaissance , and to the aristocratic and fashionably polite society of the European continent . In addition , it provided the only opportunity to view specific works of art , and possibly the only chance to hear certain music . A Grand Tour could last from several months to several years . It was commonly undertaken in the company of a Cicerone , a knowledgeable guide or tutor . The Grand Tour had more than superficial cultural importance ; as E. P. Thompson stated , `` ruling-class control in the 18th century was located primarily in a cultural hegemony , and only secondarily in an expression of economic or physical ( military ) power . '' The legacy of the Grand Tour lives on to the modern day and is still evident in works of travel and literature . From its aristocratic origins and the permutations of sentimental and romantic travel to the age of tourism and globalization , the Grand Tour still influences the destinations tourists choose and shapes the ideas of culture and sophistication that surround the act of travel .   In essence , the Grand Tour was neither a scholar 's pilgrimage nor a religious one , though a pleasurable stay in Venice and a cautious residence in Rome were essential . Catholic Grand Tourists followed the same routes as Protestant Whigs . Since the 17th century , a tour to such places was also considered essential for budding young artists to understand proper painting and sculpture techniques , though the trappings of the Grand Tour -- valets and coachmen , perhaps a cook , certainly a `` bear-leader '' or scholarly guide -- were beyond their reach . The advent of popular guides , such as the Richardsons ' , did much to popularise such trips , and following the artists themselves , the elite considered travel to such centres as necessary rites of passage . For gentlemen , some works of art were essential to demonstrate the breadth and polish they had received from their tour : in Rome , antiquaries like Thomas Jenkins provided access to private collections of antiquities , among which enough proved to be for sale that the English market raised the price of such things , and for coins and medals , which formed more portable souvenirs and a respected gentleman 's guide to ancient history . Pompeo Batoni made a career of painting English milordi posed with graceful ease among Roman antiquities . Many continued on to Naples , where they viewed Herculaneum and Pompeii , but few ventured far into southern Italy or Malta , and fewer still to Greece , still under Turkish rule .

neg: Old master print An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition . The term remains current in the art trade , and there is no easy alternative in English to distinguish the works of `` fine art '' produced in printmaking from the vast range of decorative , utilitarian and popular prints that grew rapidly alongside the artistic print from the 15th century onwards . Fifteenth-century prints are sufficiently rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality . A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term .   The main techniques used , in order of their introduction , are woodcut , engraving , etching , mezzotint and aquatint , although there are others . Different techniques are often combined in a single print . With rare exceptions printed on textiles , such as silk , or on vellum , old master prints are printed on paper . This article is concerned with the artistic , historical and social aspects of the subject ; the article on printmaking summarizes the techniques used in making old master prints , from a modern perspective .   Many great European artists , such as Albrecht Dürer , Rembrandt , and Francisco Goya , were dedicated printmakers . In their own day , their international reputations largely came from their prints , which were spread far more widely than their paintings . Influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints ( and sometimes drawings ) , for the same reason . Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history . Today , thanks to colour photo reproductions , and public galleries , their paintings are much better known , whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited , for conservation reasons . But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection , sometimes only by appointment .

neg: Triangular trade Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions . Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come . Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions .   Historically the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents during the age of sail . For example , from the main trading nations of Western Europe it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30 N latitude and reaching the so-called `` trade winds '' ; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland . Returning from North America , it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies . A similar triangle to this , called the volta do mar was already being used by the Portuguese , before Christopher Columbus ' voyage , to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores . Columbus simply expanded the triangle outwards , and his route became the main way for Europeans to reach , and return from , the Americas .

neg: Taffeta Taffeta ( -LSB- ˈtæfᵻtə -RSB- archaically spelled taffety ) is a crisp , smooth , plain woven fabric made from silk or cuprammonium rayons . The word is Persian in origin and means `` twisted woven '' . It is considered to be a `` high-end '' fabric , suitable for use in ball gowns , wedding dresses , and in interior decoration for curtains or wallcoverings . It is also widely used in the manufacture of corsets and corsetry : it yields a more starched-like type of cloth that holds its shape better than many other fabrics . An extremely thin , crisp type of taffeta is called paper taffeta .   There are two distinct types of silk taffeta : yarn-dyed and piece-dyed . Piece-dyed taffeta is often used in linings and is quite soft . Yarn-dyed taffeta is much stiffer and is often used in evening dresses . Shot silk taffeta was one of the most sought-after forms of Byzantine silk , and may have been the fabric known as purpura .

neg: Tribute A tribute ( from Latin tributum , contribution ) is wealth , often in kind , that a party gives to another as a sign of respect or , as was often the case in historical contexts , of submission or allegiance . Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conquered or otherwise threatened to conquer . In case of alliances , lesser parties may pay tribute to more powerful parties as a sign of allegiance and often in order to finance projects that benefited both parties . To be called `` tribute '' a recognition by the payer of political submission to the payee is normally required ; the large sums , essentially protection money , paid by the later Roman and Byzantine Empires to barbarian peoples to prevent them attacking imperial territory , would not usually be termed `` tribute '' as the Empire accepted no inferior political position . Payments by a superior political entity to an inferior one , made for various purposes , are described by terms including `` subsidy '' .   The ancient Persian Achaemenid Empire is an example of an ancient ` tribute empire ; one that made relatively few demands on its non-Persian subjects other than the regular payment of tribute , which might be gold , luxury goods , animals , soldiers or slaves . However failure to keep up the payments had dire consequences . The reliefs at Persepolis show processions of figures bearing varied types of tribute .   The medieval Mongol rulers of Russia likewise only expected tribute from the Russian states , which continued to govern themselves . Athens received tribute from the other cities of the Delian League . The empires of Assyria , Babylon , Carthage and Rome exacted tribute from their provinces and subject kingdoms . Ancient China received tribute from various states such as Japan , Korea , Vietnam , Cambodia , Borneo , Indonesia , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Myanmar and Central Asia . The Aztec Empire is another example . The Roman republic exacted tribute in the form of payments equivalent to proportional property taxes , for the purpose of waging war .   Tribute empires contrast with those like the Roman Empire , which more closely controlled and garrisoned subject territories . A tributary state is one that preserves its political position and such independence as it has only by paying tribute .

neg: Shroud of Turin The Shroud of Turin or Turin Shroud ( Sindone di Torino , Sacra Sindone -LSB- ˈsaːkra ˈsindone -RSB- or Santa Sindone ) is a length of linen cloth bearing the image of a man who is alleged to be Jesus of Nazareth . The cloth itself is believed by some to be the burial shroud he was wrapped in when he was buried after crucifixion although three radiocarbon dating tests in 1988 dated a sample of the cloth to the Middle Ages . The shroud is kept in the royal chapel of the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist in Turin , northern Italy . The Catholic Church has neither formally endorsed nor rejected the shroud , but in 1958 Pope Pius XII approved of the image in association with the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus . Pope John Paul II called the Shroud `` a mirror of the Gospel '' .   The origins of the shroud and its images are the subject of intense debate among theologians , historians and researchers . Diverse arguments have been made in scientific and popular publications claiming to prove that the cloth is the authentic burial shroud of Jesus , based on disciplines ranging from chemistry to biology and medical forensics to optical image analysis . In 1988 , a radiocarbon dating test dated a corner piece of the shroud from the Middle Ages , between the years 1260 and 1390 , which is consistent with the shroud 's first known exhibition in France in 1357 . Articles published from 2000 - 2015 have highlighted concerns about this dating , and aspects of the 1988 test continue to be debated in some circles , but meaningful challenges to the dating result have so far been unsuccessful . According to Christopher Ramsey of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in 2011 , `` there are various hypotheses as to why the dates might not be correct , but none of them stack up . ''   The image on the shroud is much clearer in black-and-white negative than in its natural sepia color , and this negative image was first observed in 1898 on the reverse photographic plate of amateur photographer Secondo Pia , who was allowed to photograph it while it was being exhibited . A variety of methods have been proposed for the formation of the image , but the actual method used has not yet been conclusively identified . Despite numerous investigations and tests , the status of the Shroud of Turin remains murky , and the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain puzzling . The shroud continues to be both intensely studied and controversial .

neg: History of fashion design The history of fashion design refers to the development of the fashion industry which designs clothing and accessories . The modern industry , based around firms or fashion houses run by individual designers , started in the 19th century with Charles Frederick Worth who was the first designer to have his label sewn into the garments that he created .   Couture beginnings . Rose Bertin ( July 2 , 1747 -- September 22 , 1813 ) was the dressmaker named bill to Marie Antoinette , Queen of France , and a high public profile . Sometimes called sarcastically the `` Minister of Fashion '' , she opened a shop in Paris and had a considerable influence on Parisian style , until this was drastically changed by the French Revolution , from which she fled into exile in London for some years .   An outsider to the French Court , Marie Antoinette relied on Bertin 's meticulous designs to help her `` to combat her enemies with style '' . -LSB- 1 -RSB- Marie Antoinette 's unique fashion preferences such as masculine riding breeches or simple muslin shift dressed , contrasted sharply with her elaborate gowns as the Queen attempted to create a persona that would allow the citizens of France to connect with her and her lifestyle . Although Marie Antoinette 's attempts were largely unsuccessful , the ways Bertin helped the Queen articulate herself through fashion were groundbreaking and set a precedent for monarchs who followed . -LSB- 2 -RSB-   An Englishman living in Paris , Charles Frederick Worth ( 1825 - 1905 ) is usually seen as the first designer in something like the modern sense , with a large business employing many largely anonymous tailors and seamstresses . A former draper , Worth 's success was such that he was able to dictate what they should wear to his customers . Launched into the spotlight as the Empress Eugénie 's primary designer , Worth used his royal connections to gain recognition and clients . The proclamation on February 1 , 1853 by Napolón III that no visitors would be received to his court without formal dress meant that the popularity of Worth-style gowns was overwhelming . Ornately decorated and constructed from the finest materials , Worth 's gowns are well known for their crinolines ( cage-like metal structures that held the dress out in a stylish shape .  Throughout the early 20th century , practically all high fashion originated in Paris and to a lesser extent London . Fashion magazines from other countries sent editors to the Paris fashion shows . Department stores sent buyers to the Paris shows , where they purchased garments to copy ( and openly stole the style lines and trim details of others ) . Both made-to-measure salons and ready-to-wear departments featured the latest Paris trends , adapted to the stores ' assumptions about the lifestyles and pocket books of their targeted customers .   At this time in history the division between haute couture and ready-to-wear was not sharply defined . The two separate modes of production were still far from being competitors and they often co-existed in houses where the seamstresses moved freely between made-to-measure and ready-made .   Around the start of the 20th century fashion magazines began to include photographs and became even more influential . Throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought-after and had a profound effect on public taste . Talented illustrators - among them Paul Iribe , Georges Lepape , Erté , and George Barbier - drew attractive fashion plates for these publications , which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty . Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was La Gazette du Bon Ton which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 .

neg: Caravan (travellers) A caravan ( from کاروان ) is a group of people traveling together , often on a trade expedition . Caravans were used mainly in desert areas and throughout the Silk Road , where traveling in groups aided in defense against bandits as well as helping to improve economies of scale in trade .   In historical times , caravans connecting East Asia and Europe often carried luxurious and lucrative goods , such as silks or jewelry . Caravans could therefore require considerable investment and were a lucrative target for bandits . The profits from a successfully undertaken journey could be enormous , comparable to the later European spice trade . The luxurious goods brought by caravans attracted many rulers along important trade routes to construct caravanserais . Caravanserais were roadside stations which supported the flow of commerce , information , and people across the network of trade routes covering Asia , North Africa , and southeastern Europe , especially along the Silk Road . Caravanserais provided water for human and animal consumption , washing , and ritual ablutions . Sometimes they had elaborate baths . They also kept fodder for animals and had shops for travelers where they could acquire new supplies . In addition , some shops bought goods from the traveling merchants .   However , the volume a caravan could transport was limited even by Classical or Medieval standards . For example , a caravan of 500 camels could only transport as much as a third or half of the goods carried by a regular Byzantine merchant sailing ship .   Present-day caravans in less-developed areas of the world often still transport important goods through badly passable areas , such as seeds required for agriculture in arid regions . An example are the camel trains traversing the southern edges of the Sahara Desert .

neg: Stone Tower (Ptolemy) Ptolemy , the Greco-Egyptian geographer of Alexandria , wrote about a `` Stone Tower '' ( λίθινος πύργος in Greek , Turris Lapidea in Latin ) which marked the mid-point on the ancient Silk Road -- the network of overland trade routes taken by caravans between Europe and Asia . It was the most important landmark on this route , where caravans stopped on their difficult and dangerous journeys to allow travellers to take on provisions , rest , and trade goods before continuing on .   Ptolemy 's famous treatise on cartography , Geography , written around 140 CE , is the only book on this subject to have survived from classical antiquity , and has had a profound influence right through the ages . In it , he set the coordinates of the Stone Tower at longitude135 and latitude 43 degrees north on his gradation system , but its actual location has been vigorously debated by researchers and historians over the centuries . This is because the information that he , and other scholars from his era , left behind is simply not precise enough ( despite his coordinates ) , due to the rudimentary methods caravans employed while route surveying distant lands from which ancient cartographers drew their maps . If the Stone Tower could be pin-pointed then not only would this be of great significance in the study of ancient geography , but it would allow other important landmarks in this region , similarly ( and imprecisely ) detailed by Ptolemy , to be more closely located also .   A brief survey of literature reveals the long-standing disagreements by geographers and historians to locate the Stone Tower : As far back as the 11th century Al-Biruni suggested it was the city of Tashkent ( which means `` castle of stone '' ) . In the 19th century , Hagar too maintained it was Tashkent , partly based on the striking coincidence of the city being on the same latitude of 43 degrees north ; while d'Anville identified it with the fortress of Aatas , 7 degrees northwest of Kashgar ; and Bell argued it was near the Pass of Chiltung in the Pamirs . Yule located it nearby at Daraut-Kurgan , while Bevan & Smith thought the Stone Tower was probably the same as the `` Hormeterium '' ( or `` merchants ' station '' which Ptolemy also writes about ) and located it near the Sulaiman-Too mountain in Osh . Bunbury thought the information given was too vague to precisely determine its location .   In the 20th century , Hackin travelled there and thought it was at Tashkurgan , while Hermann placed it in the vicinity of Daraut-Kurgan . Stein , who perhaps most extensively travelled this region , suggested the valley of Karategin was the area Ptolemy referred to `` when the traveller ascended the ravine '' and so proposed a site near Daraut-Kurgan , and Thomson agrees it should be nearby .   From the turn of this century , Rapin ( 2001 ) has suggested it is Sulaiman-Too ; while Bernard ( 2005 ) , by carefully tracing the route taken by the caravan of Maes Titianos , locates the Stone Tower near Daraut-Kurgan ; and P'iankov ( 2014 ) , after also considering information drawn from contemporary sailors , agrees with him . Tupikova et al ( 2014 ) , following `` the application of spherical trigonometry for the recalculation of Ptolemy 's coordinates '' , concluded that it `` can with great probability be identified as Tashkurgan '' . Dean ( 2015 ) also uses a new methodology , by proposing a set of three criteria to help locate this landmark , and identifies it as Sulaiman-Too .   All in all , there are four sites that are most often identified as the likely location of the Stone Tower : ( i ) the city of Tashkent , in Uzbekistan ; ( ii ) the Sulaiman-Too mountain in Osh , Kyrgyzstan ; ( iii ) the town of Daraut-Kurgan in south-western Kyrgyzstan ; and ( iv ) the town of Tashkurgan , in Xinjiang , China . However , some historians also consider the Hormeterium , located nearby in the mountains close to the crossover point with China , to be one and the same as the Stone Tower ; and believe this landmark to be the settlement of Irkeshtam .   All four sites mentioned above , as well as Irkeshtam , can be seen on the Map of Silk Roads over the Roof of Asia .

neg: History of Afghanistan The written history of Afghanistan , ( تاریخ افغانستان د افغانستان تاريخ can be traced back to around 500 BCE when the area was under the Achaemenid Empire , although evidence indicates that an advanced degree of urbanized culture has existed in the land since between 3000 and 2000 BCE . The Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up to large parts of Afghanistan in the north , with several sites being known . Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army arrived at what is now Afghanistan in 330 BCE after conquering Persia during the Battle of Gaugamela . Since then , many empires have established capitals inside Afghanistan , including the Greco-Bactrians , Mauryas , Kushans , Hindu Shahi , Saffarids , Samanids , Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Timurids , Mughals , Hotakis and Durranis .   Afghanistan ( meaning `` land of the Afghans '' ) has been a strategically important location throughout history . The land served as `` a gateway to India , impinging on the ancient Silk Road , which carried trade from the Mediterranean to China '' . Sitting on many trade and migration routes , Afghanistan may be called the ` Central Asian roundabout ' since routes converge from the Middle East , from the Indus Valley through the passes over the Hindu Kush , from the Far East via the Tarim Basin , and from the adjacent Eurasian Steppe .   The archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranians ( Aryans ) before their split into separate language groups is generally seen as the Andronovo culture to the north of present-day Afghanistan . The Iranian languages were developed by one branch of these people ; the Pashto language spoken today in Afghanistan is one of the Eastern Iranian languages . Elena E. Kuz ` mina argues that the tents of Iranian-speaking nomads of Afghanistan developed from the light surface houses of the Eurasian steppe belt in the Bronze Age .   The Arab invasions influenced the culture of Afghanistan , and its pre-Islamic period of Zoroastrian , Macedonian , Buddhist and Hindu past has long vanished . Turkic empire-builders such as the Ghaznavids and Timurids made the region now called Afghanistan of major importance .   Mirwais Hotak followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani unified Afghan tribes and founded the last Afghan Empire in the early 18th century CE . Afghanistan 's sovereignty has been held during the Anglo-Afghan Wars , the 1980s Soviet war , and the 2001-present war by the country 's many and diverse people : the Pashtuns , Tajiks , Hazaras , Uzbeks , Turkmen , Aimak , Baloch and others . The Pashtuns form the largest group , claiming to be descendants of ancient Israelites or Qais Abdur Rashid but scholars believe that they are a confederation of various peoples from the past who united under Pashtunwali .

neg: Pomor trade Pomor trade ( from -LSB- помо́рье , r = pomorje , p =p ɐˈmorʲjɪ -RSB- po `` by '' and more `` ocean '' ; `` area by the ocean '' , the same word is the basis for Pomerania ) , is the trade carried out between the Pomors of Northwest Russia and the people along the coast of Northern Norway , as far south as Bodø . The trade went on from 1740 until the Russian revolution in 1917 .   The pomor trade began as a barter trade between people in the area , trading grain products from Russia with fish from North Norway as the main trade . With time it developed into a regular trade against money : in fact the ruble was used as currency in several places in North Norway . The pomor trade was of major importance both to Russians and Norwegians . The trade was carried out by Russian pomors from the White Sea area and the Kola peninsula who came sailing to settlements and places of trade along the coast of North Norway . The pomors were skilled traders and sailors , and they did also explore the areas around the White sea . In addition to their trade westwards , they established a trade route east across the Ural mountains to North Siberia .

neg: Silk Road sites in India Silk Road sites in India are sites that were important for trade on the ancient Silk Road . There are 12 such places in India . These are spread across seven states in India ( Bihar , Jammu and Kashmir , Maharashtra , Puducherry , Punjab , Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh . These sites are on tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites .

neg: Clothing in ancient Rome Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless , knee-length tunic for men and boys , and a longer , usually sleeved tunic for women and girls . On formal occasions , adult male citizens could wear a woolen toga , draped over their tunic , and married citizen women wore a woolen mantle , known as a palla , over a stola , a simple , long-sleeved , voluminous garment that hung to midstep . Clothing , footwear and accoutrements identified gender , status , rank and social class , and thus offered a means of social control . This was probably most apparent in the segregation of seating tiers at public theatres , games and festivals . Magistrates , priesthoods and the military had their own distinctive and privileged forms of dress .   The toga was considered Rome 's `` national costume '' but for day-to-day activities , most Romans preferred more casual , practical and comfortable clothing ; in various forms , the tunic was the basic garment for all classes , both sexes and most occupations . It was usually made of linen , and was augmented as necessary with underwear , or with various kinds of cold-or-wet weather wear , such as knee-breeches for men , and cloaks , coats and hats . In colder parts of the empire , full length trousers were worn . Most urban Romans wore shoes , slippers , boots or sandals of various types ; in the countryside , some wore clogs .   Most clothing was simple in structure and basic form , and its production required minimal cutting and tailoring , but all was produced by hand ; every stage of the process required skill , knowledge and time . Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous , frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes . Wealthy matrons , including Augustus ' wife , Livia might show their traditionalist values by producing home-spun clothing , but most men and women who could afford it bought their clothing from specialist artisans . Relative to the overall basic cost of living , even simple clothing was expensive , and was recycled many times down the social scale .   Rome 's governing elite produced laws designed to limit public displays of personal wealth and luxury . None were particularly successful ; the same wealthy elite had an appetite for luxurious clothing . Exotic fabrics were available , at a price ; silk damasks , translucent gauzes , cloth of gold , and intricate embroideries ; and vivid , expensive dyes such as saffron yellow or Tyrian purple . Not all dyes were costly , however , and most Romans wore colourful clothing . Clean , bright clothing was a mark of respectability and status among all social classes . The fastenings and brooches used to secure garments such as cloaks provided further opportunities for personal embellishment and display .

neg: Sbai Sbai , sabai ( ស ប สไบ , , -LSB- sābāj -RSB- ; ສະໄບ ) , or pha biang ( ຜ້າບ່ຽງ ผ้าเบี่ยง , -LSB- pʰâː bìa̯ŋ -RSB- ) is shawl-like garment , or breastcloth worn in mainland Southeast Asia . The term `` sabai '' is used for a woman 's silk breast wrapper in Cambodia , central Thailand , southern Thailand , Isan , and Laos while in coastal Sumatra it described as a shoulder cloth ... '' Sabais can also be worn by men in Lao weddings or when attending religious ceremonies . The type of sabai typically worn by Lao men often has checkered patterns . Sabai also well known as a long piece of silk , about a foot wide , draped diagonally over the chest covering one shoulder with one end dropping behind the back . ''   The sabai is Cambodia 's national costume tie with its ancient 's sampot and chang kben .

neg: Economy of ancient Tamil country The economy of the ancient Tamil country ( Sangam era : 200 BCE -- 200 CE ) describes the ancient economy of a region in southern India that mostly covers the present-day states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala . The main economic activities were agriculture , weaving , pearl fishery , manufacturing and construction . Paddy was the most important crop ; it was the staple cereal and served as a medium of exchange for inland trade . Pepper , millets , grams and sugarcane were other commonly grown crops . Madurai and Urayur were important centers for the textile industry ; Korkai was the center of the pearl trade . Industrial activity flourished .   Inland trading was conducted primarily through barter in busy market places by merchant associations and commercial lending institutions . Merchants formed associations that operated autonomously , without interference from the state . The people of ancient Tamil country engaged in brisk overseas trade with Rome ; the trade reached a peak after the discovery of a direct route for merchant ships between Tamilakam and Egypt , taking advantage of the monsoon winds . Pepper , pearls , ivory , textiles and gold ornaments were exported from Tamilakam , and the main imports were luxury goods such as glass , coral , wine and topaz . Foreign trade brought in a large amount of internationally convertible Roman currency .   The state played an important role in building and maintaining infrastructure such as roads and ports -- funded through taxation -- to meet the needs of economic and social activity . Wealth was unequally divided among the people , giving rise to distinct economic classes .


query: Santa Barbara is located outside of Southern California.

pos: Santa Barbara County, California Santa Barbara County , California , officially the County of Santa Barbara , is a county located in the southern portion of the state of California , in the United States . As of the 2010 census , the population was 423,895 . The county seat is Santa Barbara , and the largest city is Santa Maria .   Santa Barbara County comprises the Santa Maria-Santa Barbara , CA Metropolitan Statistical Area . Most of the county is part of the California Central Coast . Mainstays of the county 's economy include engineering , resource extraction ( particularly petroleum extraction and diatomaceous earth mining ) , winemaking , agriculture , and education . The software development and tourism industries are important employers in the southern part of the county .   Southern Santa Barbara County is sometimes considered the northern cultural boundary of Southern California .

pos: Southern California Southern California , often abbreviated as SoCal , is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises California 's 10 southernmost counties . The region is traditionally described as eight counties , based on demographics and economic ties : Imperial , Los Angeles , Orange , Riverside , San Bernardino , San Diego , Santa Barbara , and Ventura . The more extensive 10-county definition , which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties , is also used and is based on historical political divisions .   The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion , one of the 11 megaregions of the United States . The megaregion is more expansive , extending east into Las Vegas , Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana .   Southern California includes the heavily built-up urban area which stretches along the Pacific coast from Ventura through the Greater Los Angeles Area and the Inland Empire , and down to Greater San Diego . Southern California 's population encompasses seven metropolitan areas : the Los Angeles metropolitan area ( Los Angeles and Orange counties ) , the Inland Empire , ( Riverside and San Bernardino counties ) , the San Diego metropolitan area , the Oxnard -- Thousand Oaks -- Ventura metropolitan area , the Santa Barbara metropolitan area , the San Luis Obispo metropolitan area , and the El Centro area . The Los Angeles area has over 12 million inhabitants , while the Riverside-San Bernardino area has over 4 million inhabitants and the San Diego area has over 3 million inhabitants . For Community Supported Agriculture ( CSA ) metropolitan purposes , the five counties of Los Angeles , Orange , Riverside , San Bernardino , and Ventura , are all combined to make up the Greater Los Angeles Area with over 17.5 million people . With over 22 million people , Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of California 's population .   The Colorado Desert and the Colorado River are located on Southern California 's eastern border with Arizona , and the Mojave Desert is located north on California 's Nevada border . Southern California 's southern border is part of the Mexico -- United States border .

neg: Santa Cruz Island Airport Santa Cruz Island Airport is an airstrip on Santa Cruz Island in Santa Barbara County , California , United States . It is located 24 nautical miles ( 28 mi , 44 km ) southwest of the City of Santa Barbara . This airport is owned by The Nature Conservancy .

neg: Santa Teresa, San Jose, California Santa Teresa is a neighborhood in the south of San Jose , California , United States . It is east of Almaden Valley , surrounding Santa Teresa Boulevard , with access to Highway 85 . Santa Teresa County Park borders the neighborhood .   The Santa Teresa area is home to the Bernal-Gulnac-Joice Ranch , a historic ranch on the border of the southern hills about a dozen blocks west of one entrance to Santa Teresa County Park . The ranch was once an important one , holding many Spanish farmers and Ohlone Indians . This ranch provided fruit , dairy products , and spring water to nearby homes and neighborhoods and even as far away as downtown San Jose . Today , it is a Santa Clara County park with hiking trails , cultural education , and recreational activities .   Santa Teresa , mostly suburban neighborhoods , also includes several schools from the Oak Grove School District , including Santa Teresa Elementary and Bernal Intermediate School . It also includes Santa Teresa High School . Considered as South County , the southernmost area of Southern Santa Teresa 's 95139 zip code is part of the Morgan Hill School District and includes Los Paseos Elementary and Martin Murphy Middle Schools . Students attend High School at either Ann Sobrato High or Live Oak High , both in Morgan Hill , California .   Santa Teresa is within San Jose 's District 2 . There are two popular city community gardens in Santa Teresa , Laguna Seca in 95139 and La Colina in 95123 .

neg: List of city nicknames in California This partial list of city nicknames in California compiles the aliases , sobriquets , mottos and slogans that cities in California are known by ( or have been known by historically ) , officially and unofficially , to locals , outsiders or their tourism boards or chambers of commerce . City nicknames can help in establishing a civic identity , helping outsiders recognize a community or attracting people to a community because of its nickname ; promote civic pride ; and build community unity . Nicknames and slogans that successfully create a new community `` ideology or myth '' are also believed to have economic value . Their economic value is difficult to measure , but there are anecdotal reports of cities that have achieved substantial economic benefits by `` branding '' themselves by adopting new slogans .   Some unofficial nicknames are positive , while others are derisive . The unofficial nicknames listed here have been in use for a long time or have gained wide currency .

neg: Southern Arizona Southern Arizona is a region of the United States comprising the southernmost portion of the State of Arizona . It sometimes goes by the name Gadsden or Baja Arizona , which means `` Lower Arizona '' in Spanish .

neg: Santa Barbara Fire Department The Santa Barbara Fire Department ( SBFD ) is the agency that provides fire protection and emergency medical services for the city of Santa Barbara . It is unofficially referred to as the Santa Barbara City Fire Department to distinguish it from the Santa Barbara County Fire Department .

neg: South Alabama South Alabama is the various parts of southern Alabama . Although it is not a strictly defined geographic region , it generally includes all Alabama counties south of the Black Belt . However , residents of the largest population center , Mobile , often make the argument that the phrase refers only to the extreme southernmost parts of Alabama . In that view , South Alabama consists of just the two counties that border the Gulf of Mexico and Mobile Bay : Baldwin County and Mobile County . That area is characterized by extensive wetlands , but also by long , sandy beaches which are very conducive to tourism . Many deluxe golf courses have been developed in the area in recent decades .   Because Mobile and Baldwin Counties tend to use `` South Alabama '' with such exclusivity , other parts of southern Alabama , particularly the Florida-border counties from Escambia County over to Houston County often humorously prefer to be called Lower Alabama if a regional name must be given . Traditionally the south central and southeastern parts of the state have less in common with the Mobile area than they have in common with southwest Georgia and the Black Belt region . Alternative names include South Central Alabama , Southeast Alabama , and the Wiregrass .

neg: Demographics of San Diego County Half of the population of San Diego County lives in San Diego and Chula Vista .   Despite having a per capita income that ranks between the Los Angeles metropolitan area and the San Francisco Bay Area , San Diego County has relatively few places with a both a high population and levels of income significantly higher than its state and the United States . The San Diego metropolitan area only has two places with a both a population of over 50,000 per capita income of over $ 40,000 : Carlsbad and Encinitas . In contrast , the Los Angeles metropolitan area has 10 and the San Francisco Bay Area has 12 . ( See California locations by income . ) Even when controlling for population , the San Diego metropolitan area has unusually few large areas with high per capita incomes compared to the state 's other two major metropolitan areas . This is because much of the county 's high-income residents are concentrated in the northern part of the city of San Diego , which is reported as one unit for most demographic purposes .   The county 's largest continuous high-income urban area has the appearance of a triangle constructed from a first point on the northern edge of Carlsbad , a second point southeast of Escondido , and a third point on the southern edge of La Jolla . The region is pictured to the right . It contains all or most of the cities of Carlsbad , Encinitas , Solana Beach , Del Mar , and Poway in addition to a substantial portion of northern San Diego .

neg: Pacific Capital Bancorp Pacific Capital Bancorp was an American regional bank that operated 49 branches between Los Angeles , California and San Jose , California under the brand name Santa Barbara Bank & Trust . It was acquired by Union Bank in 2012 .   The bank also owned Morton Capital Management and RE Wacker & Associates and was headquartered in Santa Barbara , California prior to its acquisition .

neg: Extravaganza (music festival) Extravaganza is an annual campus music festival held at the University of California , Santa Barbara that began in 1979 and has been held every year since 1989 . Named as the # 1 event on the `` Top 10 University Festivals to Crash '' by College Magazine in 2013 , it takes place towards the end of spring quarter and is funded by a student lock-in fee . The event is planned , promoted , and run by the Associated Students Program Board , part of the Associated Students of the University of California , Santa Barbara .   Extravaganza is held in Harder Stadium and draws thousands of students and out of town visitors every year . As of 2011 , the festival is only open to UCSB students , staff , and faculty . The stage occupies the north end of the field while booths for student groups , sponsors , and activities line the sides . Attendees must comply with a mandatory pat down and bag search ( carried out by Community Service Organization officers ) before entering the stadium .

neg: Topanga, California Topanga is a census-designated place ( CDP ) in western Los Angeles County , California , United States . Located in the Santa Monica Mountains , the community lies in Topanga Canyon . The narrow southern portion of Topanga at the coast is in between the city of Malibu and the city of Los Angeles neighborhood of Pacific Palisades . Topanga had a population of 8,289 as of 2010 . The ZIP code is 90290 and the area code is primarily 310 , with 818 only at the north end of the canyon . It is in the 3rd County Supervisorial district .

neg: Santa Barbara Zoo The Santa Barbara Zoo is located on 30 acre near the ocean in Santa Barbara , California . It was built on the site of what was known as the Child Estate . The zoo has been ranked numerous times as one of the nation 's best small zoos . It has more than 500 animals in numerous exhibits , including capybara and California condors , and is famous for having had a giraffe with a crooked neck . It also features a few non-animal attractions , such as the narrow gauge Zoo Train , complete with a pair of Chance Rides C.P. Huntington locomotives . The zoo first opened in August 1963 .

neg: Calwa, California Calwa ( formerly , Calwa City ) is an unincorporated census-designated place in Fresno County , California , United States . The population was 2,052 at the 2010 census , up from 762 in 2000 . Calwa is located 4 mi south-southeast of downtown Fresno , at an elevation of 292 feet ( 89 m ) . The name was taken from the acronym for `` California Wine Association '' ( CalWA ) .

neg: California chaparral and woodlands The California chaparral and woodlands is a terrestrial ecoregion of lower northern , central , and southern California ( United States ) and northwestern Baja California ( Mexico ) , located on the west coast of North America . It is an ecoregion of the Mediterranean forests , woodlands , and scrub Biome , and part of the Nearctic ecozone .

neg: Bodega Bay Bodega Bay is a shallow , rocky inlet of the Pacific Ocean on the coast of northern California in the United States . It is approximately 5 mi across and is located approximately 40 mi northwest of San Francisco and 20 mi west of Santa Rosa . The bay straddles the boundary between Sonoma County to the north and Marin County to the south . The bay is a marine habitat used for navigation , recreation , and commercial and sport fishing including shellfish harvesting .   Bodega Bay is protected on its north end from the Pacific Ocean by Bodega Head , which shelters the small Bodega Harbor and is separated from the main bay by a jetty . The San Andreas Fault runs parallel to the coastline and bisects Bodega Head , which lies on the Pacific Plate ; the town is on the North American Plate . The village of Bodega Bay sits on the east side of Bodega Harbor . The bay connects on its south end to the mouth of Tomales Bay .   Streams flowing into Bodega Bay include the Estero de San Antonio and the Estero Americano .  Accessible beaches on Bodega Bay include Doran Regional Park ( on the jetty ) and Pinnacle Gulch .  Apart from the harbor , all of Bodega Bay lies within the boundaries of the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary .

neg: Orcutt, California Orcutt is an unincorporated town located in the Santa Maria Valley of California , and a census-designated place ; it is in Santa Barbara County , California , United States . Orcutt is named for William Warren Orcutt , the manager of the Geological , Land and Engineering Departments of the Union Oil Company . Known as the `` Dean of Petroleum Geologists '' Orcutt is credited with discovering fossilized prehistoric animal bones preserved in pools of asphalt on the Hancock Ranch . These would be the first of many fossils excavated from the La Brea Tar Pits . In commemoration of Orcutt 's initial discovery , paleontologists named the La Brea Coyote in W.W. Orcutt 's honor , Canis Orcutti .   Orcutt is home to miles of hiking trails in the Orcutt Hills . The trail entrances begin at Orcutt Community Park . http://www.smvos.org/   Orcutt is located close to five federally sanctioned American Viticultural Areas ( AVAs ) within Santa Barbara County : Ballard Canyon , Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara , Santa Maria Valley , Sta . Rita Hills and Santa Ynez Valley .   There are currently five wine tasting rooms in Old Orcutt : Nagy Wines ; Core Wine ; Lucias Wine Co ; Grevino Wine ; and William James Cellars . -LCB- http://www.corewine.com/ -RCB-   Orcutt is a short drive up highway 135 from `` little LA '' Los Alamos .   There are several restaurants and shops in Old Orcutt . http://www.oldtownorcutt.org/   Old Orcutt is home to the Orcutt Chalk Festival sponsored by the Orcutt Children 's Art Foundation . This annual festival is always the last Saturday of September and features professional street painting artists working side by side with children artists creating art on the street . http://www.orcuttarts.com/chalk-festival.html   Every December , Old Orcutt has a daytime Christmas parade where thousands of people attend . The parade is over 53 years old .   The population of Orcutt was 35,262 at the 2010 census , up from 28,830 at the 2000 census .

neg: California statistical areas The statistical areas of the United States of America comprise the metropolitan statistical areas ( MSAs ) , the micropolitan statistical areas ( μSAs ) , and the combined statistical areas ( CSAs ) currently defined by the United States Office of Management and Budget ( OMB ) .   Most recently on December 1 , 2009 , the Office of Management and Budget defined 1067 statistical areas for the United States , including 4 combined statistical area , 26 metropolitan statistical areas , and 9 micropolitan statistical areas in the State of California . The table below shows the recent population of these statistical areas and the 58 counties of California .

neg: Misión Santa Catarina Virgen y Mártir Mission Santa Catarina was founded on November 12 , 1797 in the present-day Valle of El Álamo in the municipio of Ensenada , Baja California , México , by the Dominican missionary José Loriente . The ruins of the Mission are located at .   The site chosen for the mission lay on a plateau at an elevation of 1183 m above sea level , surrounded by an irrigable valley in the Sierra de Juárez , some 62 km east of Mission Santo Tomás . The location was previously known to the native Paipai as Ha ` ketepohol , meaning `` water that falls loudly '' . Following the precedent of Mission San Pedro Mártir , it was the second and last of the Baja California missions to be situated in such mountainous terrain .   Today , Santa Catarina is a village of Paipai and Kumeyaay Indians , but virtually nothing remains of the original structures . Archaeological investigations of the mission 's traces are in progress .

neg: Santa Rosae Santa Rosae , or Santarosae , before the end of the last ice age , was an ancient landmass off the coast of present-day southern California , near Santa Barbara County and Ventura County , of which the northern Channel Islands of California are remnants . At its largest , Santa Rosae was roughly 3-4 times bigger than the northern Channel Islands of today , nearly 125 km ( 77.67 miles ) long from east to west . Between about 20,000 and 5,000 years ago , Santa Rosae lost about 70 % of its land mass to post-glacial rising sea level , leaving behind a vast submerged landscape currently being explored by scientists . This island was about 5 miles offshore . It broke up between about 11,000 and 9,000 years ago , and the present northern Channel Islands took their shape after the continental ice sheets melted and sea levels rose by about 100 meters .   There is evidence to suggest that a now-submerged island , Calafia , lay between Santa Rosae and the mainland .   Santa Rosae had a population of pygmy mammoths ( Mammuthus exilis ) , which became extinct roughly 13,000 years ago .   On Santa Rosae was found the ~ 13,000-year-old skeleton of Arlington Springs Man , among the oldest human remains yet found in North America . As Santa Rosae was not connected to the mainland at the time , this shows that Paleoindians settled the island using boats . Archaeological evidence shows that these Paleocoastal peoples had sophisticated maritime technologies and fished , hunted marine mammals and birds , and harvested island plant foods These Paleocoastal peoples , who survived on the island until about 8,000 years ago , may be the ancestors of the Island Chumash tribe , who lived on the northern Channel Islands for millennia until Spanish authorities removed them to mainland missions in the 1820s .

neg: Monarch butterfly conservation in California The U.S. state of California has instituted numerous conservation programs , policies , laws , reserves and Habitat restoration projects throughout the state to facilitate the health and migration of the western population of the monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus ) . The population of western monarchs require very different breeding and overwintering habitat when compared to the eastern population of monarch butterflies . They require specific micro-climatic conditions to survive the winter and they are sensitive to habitat changes at the overwintering sites . The large aggregations of butterflies are seen as the most vulnerable at their overwintering locations along the coast . Many monarch overwintering sites are contained within the `` coastal zone '' ; an area defined by the Coastal Zone Management Act to be 1000 yards inland from the high tide mark . Large number of overwintering sites are outside the coastal zone . There are more than 450 overwintering sites in California documented since the 1980s .

neg: UC Santa Barbara Gauchos women's basketball The UC Santa Barbara Gauchos women 's basketball team is the basketball team that represents University of California , Santa Barbara in Santa Barbara , California , United States . The school 's team currently competes in the Big West Conference .


query: Caroline, Princess of Hanover is married to a fictional character.

pos: Caroline, Princess of Hanover Caroline , Princess of Hanover ( Caroline Louise Marguerite ; born 23 January 1957 ) , is the eldest child of Rainier III , Prince of Monaco , and American actress Grace Kelly . She is the elder sister of Prince Albert II and Princess Stéphanie . Until the births of her niece and nephew Princess Gabriella and Prince Jacques of Monaco in December 2014 she had been heir presumptive to the throne of Monaco since 2005 , a position which she previously held from 1957 to 1958 .   Caroline is married to Ernst August , Prince of Hanover ( born 1954 ) , the heir to the former throne of the Kingdom of Hanover , as well as the heir male of George III of the United Kingdom .

neg: Clara Bonde Clara Christina Eleonora Bonde af Björnö , née Rålamb ( 1 July 1806 - 12 January 1899 ) , was a Swedish courtier .   She was born to the royal equerry baron Claes Rålamb and the former maid of honor Ulrika Eleonora von Düben . In 1823 , she was appointed hovfröken ( maid of honor ) to queen Desiree , and became a member of the first court staff of the queen , who returned to Sweden after twelve years in exile that year . She is described as good humored and witty and became a leading figure in social court life . Because of her manner and good French , she was able to handle the infamous hot temperament of king Charles XIV John , and because of this , she was often given the task to present him with news , especially such news which could upset him .   On 16 December 1828 , she married count Gustaf Ulf Bonde af Björnö and retired from court to participate in the high society life of Stockholm for a couple of years . Hers was described as the last of the weddings celebrated in accordance with all honors formerly customarily afforded members of the court when they married .   In 1836 , she returned to court and was appointed statsfru ( Lady of the Bedchamber ) to queen Desirée , a position she kept until the queen 's death in 1861 . She was a favorite of the queen who referred to her as Ma cherie Claire and trusted her advice . She was also well liked by the other members of the royal house : crown prince Oscar and crown princess Josephine referred to her as aunt Clara and the santa claus of the royal palace and regarded her a family member . The correspondence between her and the members of the royal family are preserved .   After the death of her spouse in 1855 , she was for a time given the responsibility for several estates until the heirs were old enough to manage them .

neg: Celestina (novel) Celestina is an eighteenth-century English novel and poet Charlotte Turner Smith 's third novel . Published in 1791 by Thomas Cadell , the novel tells the story of an adopted orphan who discovers the secret of her parentage and marries the man she loves . It is a courtship novel that follows the typical Cinderella plot while still commenting on contemporary political issues .   Celestina is a satire of traditional English class and gender assumptions , particularly the idea that nobility is connected to rank or wealth . The heroine 's worth lies in her `` enlightened human soul '' ; she is valuable in and of herself . As a model for young readers , Celestina was liberating -- she was independent and assertive . While Celestina is a heroine of sensibility who relies on her feelings to develop sympathy for others , it is the hero , Willoughby , who is the most sentimental of all , reversing the stereotypical association of strong emotions with femininity . In this novel , it is the women who remain strong and the men who are prey to their feelings .   Throughout the novel , Smith included portraits of herself and her husband . Readers were interested in her personal story and bought her works to discover what was happening in her life , therefore she included barely disguised autobiographical details in the novel .   The novel was well received by reviewers and eventually ran to four editions during the 1790s ; however , the novel was not published again until the 2000s . Jane Austen , who read Smith 's novels as they were published , responded to her description of sensibility with Sense and Sensibility .

neg: Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon ( Anne Louise Bénédicte ; 8 November 1676 -- 23 January 1753 ) , was the daughter of Henri Jules de Bourbon , Prince of Condé and Anne Henriette of Bavaria . As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon , she was a princesse du sang . Forced to marry the Duke of Maine , legitimised son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan , she revelled in politics and the arts , and held a popular salon at the Hôtel du Maine as well as at the Château de Sceaux .

neg: Princess Elizabeth of Sweden Princess Elizabeth of Sweden ( also Elisabet Gustavsdotter Vasa ; 5 April 1549 Kungsör , Sweden - 20 November 1597 Stockholm ) , was a Swedish princess , and a duchess consort of Mecklenburg-Gadebusch by marriage to Christopher , Duke of Mecklenburg-Gadebusch . She was a daughter of King Gustav Vasa of Sweden and his second spouse , Queen Margaret .

neg: Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach may refer to :  Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ( 1792 -- 1862 ) , Prince Carl Bernhard , son of Charles Augustus , Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and husband of Princess Ida of Saxe-Meiningen .  Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ( 1878 -- 1900 ) , son of Charles Augustus , Hereditary Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ( 1844 -- 1894 ) and potential suitor of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands .  Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ( 1917 -- 1986 ) , Bernhard Friedrich Viktor , son of William Ernest , Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

neg: Maria Bolkonskaya Princess Maria ( or Marya ) Nikolaevna Bolkonskaya ( Марья Болконская , Mar ` ia Bolkonskaia ) is a fictional character in Leo Tolstoy 's novel War and Peace .   Princess Maria , the sister of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky , is a deeply religious young woman who has resigned herself to an unmarried life to be with her domineering father , Prince Nikolai Bolkonsky . Princess Maria is a plain woman , whose lack of beauty is offset by her large , caring eyes . Kevin Corrigan sees Maria as an example of how `` a face can be ugly and yet transfigured by beautiful eyes '' . She is overshadowed by her beautiful French companion , Mademoiselle Bourienne . An attempt to marry her off to the profligate Prince Anatole Kuragin fails .   Princess Maria 's father dies during the days leading to the battle of Borodino . The peasants on her estate threaten to become violent and Maria is rescued by Nikolai Rostov . They fall in love , but several situations keep them apart and eventually they both forgo any hope of marriage . Maria 's brother , Prince Andrei Bolkonsky , is seriously wounded in battle and chances to fall under the care of Natasha Rostova , with whom Princess Maria becomes close friends . Andrei Bolkonsky 's death brings Maria and Natasha closer together . Maria marries the impoverished Nikolai Rostov in the autumn of 1814 , and eventually the couple have four children . Nikolai Rostov relies on his work and her moral support , not financial , to become a wealthy and content estate owner .   Stephen Vizinczey suggests that Tolstoy created Maria out of his longing for his mother , Princess Maria Nikolayevna Volkonskaya , who died before Tolstoy 's second birthday .

neg: Prince Ernst August of Hanover (born 1954) Ernst August , Prince of Hanover , Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg ( Ernst August Albert Paul Otto Rupprecht Oskar Berthold Friedrich-Ferdinand Christian-Ludwig Prinz von Hannover Herzog zu Braunschweig und Lüneburg ; born 26 February 1954 ) is head of the deposed royal House of Hanover which held the thrones of the former Kingdom of Hanover ( until 1866 ) and of the sovereign Duchy of Brunswick ( 1913 to 1918 ) . As the husband of Princess Caroline of Monaco , he is the brother-in-law of Albert II , Prince of Monaco . His wealth is estimated at # 500 million .

neg: Prince Harald of Schaumburg-Lippe Prince Harald of Schaumburg-Lippe ( Harald Christian Leopold Gustav ; b. 27 March 1948 , in Schloss Hagenburg , Niedersachsen ) is the third son of Prince Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe and Princess Feodora of Denmark and the great-grandson of Frederick VIII of Denmark , a member of the Danish Royal Family .   He married Petra Wera Kirstein on 22 July 1976 ; they divorced in 1980 . He married Gabrielle Hagermann on 23 September 1988 .   Under Danish law he is not in line to inherit the throne , as he is not descended from Christian X . He is however in line of succession to the British throne as a descendant of George II of Great Britain , through his daughter Queen Louisa of Denmark and Norway .

neg: Indiana (novel) Indiana is a novel about love and marriage written by Amantine Aurore Dupin ; it was the first work she published under her pseudonym George Sand . Published in April 1832 , the novel blends the conventions of romanticism , realism , and idealism . As the novel is set partly in France and partly in the French colony of Réunion , Sand had to base her descriptions of the colony , where she had never been , on the travel writing of her friend Jules Néraud .

neg: Dandy A dandy historically , is a man who places particular importance upon physical appearance , refined language , and leisurely hobbies , pursued with the appearance of nonchalance in a cult of self . A dandy could be a self-made man who strove to imitate an aristocratic lifestyle despite coming from a middle-class background , especially in late 18th - and early 19th-century Britain .   Previous manifestations of the petit-maître ( French for small master ) and the Muscadin have been noted by John C. Prevost , but the modern practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary 1790s , both in London and in Paris . The dandy cultivated cynical reserve , yet to such extremes that novelist George Meredith , himself no dandy , once defined cynicism as `` intellectual dandyism . '' Some took a more benign view ; Thomas Carlyle wrote in Sartor Resartus that a dandy was no more than `` a clothes-wearing man '' . Honoré de Balzac introduced the perfectly worldly and unmoved Henri de Marsay in La fille aux yeux d'or ( 1835 ) , a part of La Comédie Humaine , who fulfils at first the model of a perfect dandy , until an obsessive love-pursuit unravels him in passionate and murderous jealousy .   Charles Baudelaire defined the dandy , in the later `` metaphysical '' phase of dandyism , as one who elevates æsthetics to a living religion , that the dandy 's mere existence reproaches the responsible citizen of the middle class : `` Dandyism in certain respects comes close to spirituality and to stoicism '' and `` These beings have no other status , but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons , of satisfying their passions , of feeling and thinking ... . Dandyism is a form of Romanticism . Contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe , dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance . For the perfect dandy , these things are no more than the symbol of the aristocratic superiority of mind . ''   The linkage of clothing with political protest had become a particularly English characteristic during the 18th century . Given these connotations , dandyism can be seen as a political protest against the levelling of egalitarian principles , often including nostalgic adherence to feudal or pre-industrial values , such as the ideals of `` the perfect gentleman '' or `` the autonomous aristocrat '' . Paradoxically , the dandy required an audience , as Susann Schmid observed in examining the `` successfully marketed lives '' of Oscar Wilde and Lord Byron , who exemplify the dandy 's roles in the public sphere , both as writers and as personae providing sources of gossip and scandal . Nigel Rodgers in The Dandy : Peacock or Enigma ? questions Wilde 's status as a genuine dandy , seeing him as someone who only assumed a dandified stance in passing , not a man dedicated to the exacting ideals of dandyism .

neg: Character (arts) A character ( sometimes known as a fictional character ) is a person or other being in a narrative work of art ( such as a novel , play , television series , or film ) . The character may be entirely fictional or based on a real-life person , in which case the distinction of a `` fictional '' versus `` real '' character may be made . Derived from the ancient Greek word χαρακτήρ , the English word dates from the Restoration , although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749 . From this , the sense of `` a part played by an actor '' developed . Character , particularly when enacted by an actor in the theatre or cinema , involves `` the illusion of being a human person . '' In literature , characters guide readers through their stories , helping them to understand plots and ponder themes . Since the end of the 18th century , the phrase `` in character '' has been used to describe an effective impersonation by an actor . Since the 19th century , the art of creating characters , as practiced by actors or writers , has been called characterisation .   A character who stands as a representative of a particular class or group of people is known as a type . Types include both stock characters and those that are more fully individualised . The characters in Henrik Ibsen 's Hedda Gabler ( 1891 ) and August Strindberg 's Miss Julie ( 1888 ) , for example , are representative of specific positions in the social relations of class and gender , such that the conflicts between the characters reveal ideological conflicts .   The study of a character requires an analysis of its relations with all of the other characters in the work . The individual status of a character is defined through the network of oppositions ( proairetic , pragmatic , linguistic , proxemic ) that it forms with the other characters . The relation between characters and the action of the story shifts historically , often miming shifts in society and its ideas about human individuality , self-determination , and the social order .

neg: Caroline of Sweden Caroline of Sweden - Swedish : Karolina and Charlotta , also Carola - may refer to :   Charlotte , Queen consort of Sweden 1809  Carola of Vasa , Swedish princess ( claimant ) 1833

neg: Caroline Lacroix Blanche Zélia Joséphine Delacroix , better known as Caroline Lacroix ( 13 May 1883 -- 12 February 1948 ) was the most prominent and notorious of Leopold II of Belgium 's mistresses .   Delacroix , who was of French origin , met the king in Paris as a young girl , when she was only 16 and he was 65 . At that time , she earned her living as a prostitute . They soon embarked upon a relationship that was to last until his death in 1909 . Leopold lavished upon her large sums of money , estates , gifts , and a noble title , Baroness Vaughan . Because of these presents , Caroline was deeply unpopular both among the Belgian people and internationally , as Leopold became increasingly criticized for his greed-induced actions in the Congo Free State , his own personal colony . As Caroline largely profited off the income from the colony , she became known as La reine du Congo ( `` the Queen of Congo '' ) .   She and Leopold married in a religious ceremony five days before his death , though their failure to perform a civil ceremony rendered the marriage void under Belgian law . After the king 's death , it was soon discovered that he had left Caroline numerous properties , items of high material value , Congolese bonds , and other valuable sources of income -- all of which turned her into a multimillionaire . For years the Belgian government and Leopold 's three estranged daughters attempted to recover some of this wealth , with their success varying depending on the case . Caroline died on 12 February 1948 in Cambo-les-Bains , France .

neg: Nathaniel Starbuck Nathaniel Starbuck is a fictional character , Confederate soldier , and the protagonist of British author Bernard Cornwell 's ( b. 1944 ) , `` Starbuck Chronicles '' series of novels of historical fiction . Cornwell is also author of several other series of historical fiction such as the `` Richard Sharpe '' novels of the British campaigns in the Peninsular War in Spain during the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th Century .

neg: Sarah Villiers, Countess of Jersey Sarah Sophia Child Villiers , Countess of Jersey ( 4 March 1785 -- 26 January 1867 ) , was an English noblewoman , and through her marriage a member of the Villiers family . She was the eldest daughter of John Fane , 10th Earl of Westmorland , and Sarah Anne Child . Her mother was the only child of Robert Child , the principal shareholder in the banking firm Child & Co. . Under the terms of his will , the Countess of Jersey was the primary legatee , and she not only inherited Osterley Park but became senior partner of the bank . Her husband , George Villiers , added the surname Child by royal licence .   Lady Jersey married George Child Villiers , 5th Earl of Jersey , on 23 May 1804 , in the drawing room of her house in Berkeley Square . Her husband 's mother , Frances Villiers , Countess of Jersey ( also Lady Jersey ) , was one of the more notorious mistresses of King George IV when he was Prince of Wales . Her sister Maria married John Ponsonby , Viscount Duncannon , later the 4th Earl of Bessborough , a brother of Lady Caroline Lamb . Her own affairs , though conducted discreetly , were said to be numerous : Henry John Temple , 3rd Viscount Palmerston , was thought to be one of her lovers . When asked why he had never fought a duel to preserve his wife 's reputation , Lord Jersey dryly replied that this would require him to fight every man in London .   Lady Jersey was one of the patronesses of Almack 's , the most exclusive social club in London , and a leader of the ton during the Regency era . She was immortalized as Zenobia in Disraeli 's novel Endymion . Caroline Lamb ridiculed her in Glenarvon : in revenge Lady Jersey had her barred from Almack 's , the ultimate social disgrace . This , however , was unusual since she was notable for acts of kindness and generosity ; and she was eventually persuaded to remove the ban .   In politics she was a Tory , although she lacked the passion for politics shown by her cousin Harriet Arbuthnot . On hearing that the Duke of Wellington had fallen from power in 1830 , she burst into tears in public . She reportedly `` moved heaven and earth '' against the Reform Act 1832 .   Lady Jersey was known by the nickname Silence ; the nickname was ironic since , famously , she almost never stopped talking .   She is a recurring character in the Regency novels of Georgette Heyer , where she is presented as eccentric and unpredictable , but highly intelligent and observant , and capable of kindness and generosity .   She died at No. 38 , Berkeley Square , Middlesex now London .

neg: Sarah Derith Sarah Derith , née Wright ( 1680-1745 ) , was a politically active Swedish ( originally British ) countess and salon holder , married to the Swedish politician count Carl Gyllenborg .   She was the daughter of John Wright , esq ; attorney-general of Jamaica , and married first to Elias Deritt . She was known as a Tory Sympathiser . In 1710 , she married the Swedish diplomat Carl Gyllenborg , at the time posted in London . She was at the time a wealthy widow with a salon that gathered a large net of influential people in from the political , cultural , scientific and merchant world . After their marriage , her spouse also used her salon to benefit Swedish interests in Great Britain by creating a pro-Swedish attitude with the British politicians attending her salon . Sarah Wright was a jacobite , and worked for reinstating the Stuart dynasty on the British throne . Carl Gyllenborg was implicated in an attempted coup planned by Wright , placed in house arrest and expelled : his part in the affair is unknown . After his return to Sweden , he financed his political career with his spouse 's money .   Sarah Wright participated in the political life also in Sweden , and are mentioned alongside Hedvig Catharina Lillie as examples of the politically active women in Sweden during the age of liberty . In 1734 , when the sexual relationship between Hedvig Taube and King Frederick I of Sweden was publicly recognised after the birth of a son , Taube was initially socially boycotted when the female members of the aristocracy refused to pay her visits . Sarah Wright belonged to the three noblewomen who broke this boycott by visiting Taube in the company of her husband , Eleonora Magdalena Wachtmeister and Eleonora Lindheim . During the visit , they asked for favours from the monarch through Taube , which broke the boycott and started the political position of Taube as an intermediary .

neg: George V of Hanover George V ( George Frederick Alexander Charles Ernest Augustus ; Georg Friedrich Alexander Karl Ernst August 27 May 1819 -- 12 June 1878 ) was the last king of Hanover , the only child and successor of King Ernest Augustus . George V 's reign was ended by the Unification of Germany .

neg: Charles, Prince of Wales Charles , Prince of Wales ( Charles Philip Arthur George ; born 14 November 1948 ) is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II . Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay , he is the longest-serving heir apparent in British history , having held the position since 1952 . He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover ( the heir presumptive to Queen Anne ) , who died in 1714 at the age of 83 .   Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth . He was educated at Cheam and Gordonstoun Schools , which his father , Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , had attended as a child , as well as the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria , Australia . After earning a bachelor of arts degree from Trinity College , Cambridge , Charles served in the Royal Navy from 1971 to 1976 .   In 1981 , he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons : Prince William ( born 1982 ) later to become Duke of Cambridge , and Prince Harry ( born 1984 ) . In 1996 , the couple divorced , following well-publicised extramarital affairs . Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year . In 2005 , Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles .   Charles 's interests encompass a range of humanitarian and social issues : he founded The Prince 's Trust in 1976 , sponsors The Prince 's Charities , and is patron of numerous other charitable and arts organisations . Charles has long championed organic farming for which he established the Duchy Home Farm , run by the Duchy of Cornwall , which produces ingredients for the Duchy Originals brand which he founded in 1990 . Charles has sought to raise world awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment , such as climate change . As an environmentalist , he has received numerous awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world . His support for alternative medicine , including homeopathy , has been criticised by some in the medical community . He has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings . Subsequently , Charles created Poundbury , an experimental new town based on his theories , in Dorset in 1993 . He has authored a number of books , including A Vision of Britain : A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and the children 's book The Old Man of Lochnagar in 1980 .

neg: Caroline era The Caroline or Carolean era refers to the era in English and Scottish history during the Stuart period ( 1603 -- 1714 ) that coincided with the reign of Charles I ( 1625 -- 1642 ) , Carolus being Latin for Charles . The Caroline era followed the Jacobean era , the reign of Charles 's father James I ( 1603 -- 1625 ) ; it was followed by the English Civil War ( 1642 -- 1651 ) and the English Interregnum ( 1651 -- 1660 ) .

neg: Caroline of Berlepsch Caroline of Berlepsch ( born : 9 January 1820 in Bad Hersfeld ; died : 21 February 1877 in Knauthain ( now part of Leipzig ) ) was a member of the noble von Berlepsch family and was the third wife of the Elector William II of Hesse-Kassel ( 1777-1847 ) . He married her , after the death of his second wife , Countess Emilie of Reichenbach-Lessonitz , on 28 August 1843 in Wilhelmsbad ( now part of Hanau ) . This was a morganatic marriage , because she was considered lesser nobility and therefore not befitting for a sovereign Elector .   Caroline was the daughter of Baron Hermann Ludwig of Berlepsch and Melusine of Kruse and 43 years younger than her husband . The couple 's main residence was Frankfurt , since the elector had in 1830 and virtually abdicated the government to his son , Frederick William I , from his first , non-morganatic , marriage .   In 1844 , the Elector elevated Caroline to the `` Baroness of Bergen '' and in 1846 , she received the Austrian title of `` Countess of Bergen '' .   After William died in 1847 , she married again , in 1851 in Frankfurt , with Count Charles Adolph of Hohenthal ( born : 27 November 1811 in Dölkau ; died : 9 October 1875 in Knauthain ) . With him , she had two sons : Charles Adolph ( b. 1853 ) and Charles Louis ( b. 1857 ) .