query: Sage Stallone was an American.

pos: Sage Stallone Sage Moonblood Stallone ( May 5 , 1976 -- July 13 , 2012 ) was an American actor , film director , film producer , and film distributor . He was the son of Sylvester Stallone .

neg: An American Prayer An American Prayer is the ninth and final studio album by the Doors . In 1978 , seven years after lead singer Jim Morrison died and five years after the remaining members of the band broke up , Ray Manzarek , Robby Krieger , and John Densmore reunited and recorded backing tracks over Morrison 's poetry ( originally recorded in 1969 and 1970 ) . Other pieces of music and spoken word recorded by the Doors and Morrison were also used in the audio collage , such as dialogue from Morrison 's film HWY : An American Pastoral and snippets from jam sessions .   Despite managing a RIAA platinum certification in the US , the album received mixed reviews and still divides critics . When the album was originally released , longtime Doors ' producer Paul A. Rothchild labeled the album a `` rape of Jim Morrison . '' Rothchild claimed that he had heard all of the reels of master tapes from both the 1969 and the 1970 poetry sessions , insisting that the three remaining Doors failed to realize Morrison 's original intent for an audio presentation of the poetry . Prior to leaving for Paris , Morrison had approached composer Lalo Schifrin as a possible contributor for the music tracks meant to accompany the poetry , with no participation from any of the other Doors members . Additionally , he had developed some conception of the album cover art work by January 1971 , and was in correspondence with artist T. E. Breitenbach to design this cover in the form of a triptych . However , John Haeny ( who recorded the original session tapes with Morrison in 1970 and safeguarded them before the project was resurrected as An American Prayer ) insisted that the album `` was made by those people who were closest to Jim , both personally and artistically '' and `` everyone had the best intentions , '' stating : `` Jim would be pleased . Jim would have understood our motivation and appreciated our dedication and heartfelt handling of his work . ''   The album also includes a composite live version of `` Roadhouse Blues , '' splicing together performances at New York City 's Felt Forum and Detroit 's Cobo Hall , both captured during the Doors ' 1970 Roadhouse Blues Tour . This version of the song later appeared on the In Concert compilation .

neg: Sam Coppola Sam Coppola ( July 31 , 1932 -- February 5 , 2012 ) was an American actor . He appeared in almost 70 films , beginning in 1968 , but may be best remembered for his role as Dan Fusco , owner of the Bay Ridge , Brooklyn , hardware and paint store , in Saturday Night Fever , who gave John Travolta 's character sage but salty advice in the classic 1977 film . Later in his career , Coppola made a brief but memorable appearance on The Sopranos as the idiosyncratic family therapist of Jennifer Melfi .   Coppola was a cop in Serpico ( 1973 ) , starring Al Pacino , and a detective in Fatal Attraction ( 1987 ) , starring Michael Douglas and Glenn Close . His many TV credits include The Practice , The Good Wife , Law & Order , The Sopranos , Ryan 's Hope and the 2001 A&E movie The Big Heist , in which he portrayed mob boss Paul Castellano . Coppola , no relation to film director Francis Ford Coppola , played a nursing home resident in a Chevy commercial that aired during 2011 's Super Bowl and a hot dog vendor in a Ball Park Franks spot starring Michael Jordan .   Coppola , a 38-year resident of Leonia , also had many stage roles . He played the hobo Vladimir in a 2005 off-Broadway production of `` Waiting for Godot '' and an aging real estate salesman , Aaronow , in a 2000 production of Glengarry Glen Ross at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton .   Coppola died February 5 , 2012 from an aneurysm , and was predeceased by his wife , Helen . He is survived by his children , Jason Coppola of Brooklyn and Samantha Coppola of Bogota , and three grandchildren .

neg: Sylvester (film) Sylvester is a 1985 American family drama film directed by Tim Hunter and starring Richard Farnsworth and Melissa Gilbert . The movie was nominated for a Young Artist Award in 1986 .

neg: Sage oil Sage oil is the essential oil made from the culinary herb sage , Salvia officinalis . In addition to its valuable flavoring characteristics , sage oil can contain as much as 50 % thujone by weight . The exact amount varies based on the time in the season and which part of the plant is tested . Thujone is traditionally regarded as one of the active ingredients in absinthe , distinguishing it from `` less controversial '' alcoholic beverages .   Sage oil has been suggested to boost short-term memory performance in many using it as a dietary supplement . Sage oils can be toxic and may trigger miscarriages , as well as `` cause dizziness , rapid heartbeat , and provoke epileptic seizures '' .

neg: Ford Mustang The Ford Mustang is an American automobile manufactured by Ford . It was originally based on the platform of the second generation North American Ford Falcon , a compact car . The original 1962 Ford Mustang I two-seater concept car had evolved into the 1963 Mustang II four-seater concept car which Ford used to pretest how the public would take interest in the first production Mustang . The 1963 Mustang II concept car was designed with a variation of the production model 's front and rear ends with a roof that was 2.7 inches shorter . Introduced early on April 17 , 1964 , ( 16 days after the Plymouth Barracuda ) and thus dubbed as a `` 1964 1/2 '' by Mustang fans , the 1965 Mustang was the automaker 's most successful launch since the Model A . The Mustang has undergone several transformations to its current sixth generation .   The Mustang created the `` pony car '' class of American automobiles , affordable sporty coupes with long hoods and short rear decks and gave rise to competitors such as the Chevrolet Camaro , Pontiac Firebird , AMC Javelin , Chrysler 's revamped Plymouth Barracuda , and the first generation Dodge Challenger . The Mustang is also credited for inspiring the designs of coupés such as the Toyota Celica and Ford Capri , which were imported to the United States .

neg: Art film An art film is typically a serious , independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience . An art film is `` intended to be a serious artistic work , often experimental and not designed for mass appeal '' ; they are `` made primarily for aesthetic reasons rather than commercial profit '' , and they contain `` unconventional or highly symbolic content '' .   Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film as possessing `` formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films '' , which can include , among other elements , a sense of social realism ; an emphasis on the authorial expressiveness of the director ; and a focus on the thoughts , dreams , or motivations of characters , as opposed to the unfolding of a clear , goal-driven story . Film scholar David Bordwell describes art cinema as `` a film genre , with its own distinct conventions '' .   Art film producers usually present their films at specialty theatres ( repertory cinemas , or , in the U.S. , `` arthouse cinemas '' ) and film festivals . The term art film is much more widely used in the United States , the UK and Australia than in Europe , where the term is more associated with `` auteur '' films and `` national cinema '' ( e.g. , German national cinema ) . Because they are aimed at small niche market audiences , they can rarely get the financial backing that will permit large production budgets , expensive special effects , costly celebrity actors , or huge advertising campaigns , as are used in widely released mainstream blockbuster films . Art film directors make up for these constraints by creating a different type of film , which typically uses lesser-known film actors ( or even amateur actors ) and modest sets to make films that focus much more on developing ideas or exploring new narrative techniques or film-making conventions .   A certain degree of experience and knowledge are required to fully understand or appreciate such films . One mid-1990s art film was called `` largely a cerebral experience '' that one enjoys `` because of what you know about film '' . This contrasts sharply with mainstream `` blockbuster '' films , which are geared more towards escapism and pure entertainment . For promotion , art films rely on the publicity generated from film critics ' reviews , discussion of their film by arts columnists , commentators and bloggers , and `` word-of-mouth '' promotion by audience members . Since art films have small initial investment costs , they only need to appeal to a small portion of the mainstream viewing audiences to become financially viable .

neg: Goodfellas Goodfellas ( stylized as GoodFellas ) is a 1990 American crime film directed by Martin Scorsese . It is an adaptation of the 1986 non-fiction book Wiseguy by Nicholas Pileggi , who co-wrote the screenplay with Scorsese . The film narrates the rise and fall of mob associate Henry Hill and his friends over a period from 1955 to 1980 .   Scorsese initially named the film Wise Guy and postponed making it ; later , he and Pileggi changed the name to Goodfellas . To prepare for their roles in the film , Robert De Niro , Joe Pesci , and Ray Liotta often spoke with Pileggi , who shared research material left over from writing the book . According to Pesci , improvisation and ad-libbing came out of rehearsals wherein Scorsese gave the actors freedom to do whatever they wanted . The director made transcripts of these sessions , took the lines he liked best , and put them into a revised script , which the cast worked from during principal photography .   Made on a budget of $ 25 million , Goodfellas grossed $ 46.8 million . It received positive reviews from critics and was nominated for six Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Director , with Pesci winning Best Actor in a Supporting Role . The film won five awards from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts , including Best Film and Best Director . Additionally , Goodfellas was named the year 's best film by various critics ' groups .   Goodfellas is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in the crime genre . In 2000 , it was deemed `` culturally , historically , and aesthetically significant '' and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress . Its content and style have been emulated in numerous other films and television shows .

neg: Sheriff of Sage Valley Sheriff of Sage Valley is a 1942 American film directed by Sam Newfield .

neg: Stand! Stand ! is a 1969 album by soul/funk band Sly and the Family Stone . Written and produced by lead singer and multi-instrumentalist Sly Stone , Stand ! is considered an artistic high-point of the band 's career . Released on May 3 by Epic Records , just before the group 's celebrated performance at the Woodstock festival , it was the band 's fourth album , and most commercially successful to date . It includes several well-known songs , among them hit singles , such as `` Sing a Simple Song '' , `` I Want to Take You Higher '' , `` Stand ! '' , and `` Everyday People '' . It was published in US as an LP record with gatefold cover , and was reissued in 1990 on vinyl and CD and in 2007 as a remastered numbered edition digipack CD with bonus tracks and , in the UK , only as a CD with bonus tracks .   500,000 copies of the album were sold in the year of its release : it was certified gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America on December 4 , 1969 , went on to sell over three million copies and became one of the most successful albums of the 1960s . By 1986 it had sold well over 1 million copies and was certified platinum in sales by the RIAA on November 26 of that same year . In 2003 the album was ranked number 118 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2015 , the album was deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for inclusion in the National Recording Registry .

neg: Rocky III Rocky III is a 1982 American sports drama film written , directed by , and starring Sylvester Stallone . It is the third installment in the Rocky film series , and the second in the franchise to be directed by Stallone .   The movie features returning co-stars Carl Weathers , Burgess Meredith , Talia Shire and Burt Young . Rocky III also marks the film debuts of Mr. T as James `` Clubber '' Lang , and of professional wrestler Hulk Hogan as the supporting character `` Thunderlips '' .   Rocky III is the first installment in the series to be distributed by MGM/UA rather than United Artists alone . In 1980 , United Artists , who owned the rights to the Rocky films , made Heaven 's Gate , a film which cost $ 44 million and made only $ 3 million . In response , United Artists ' owner , Transamerica , sold United Artists to MGM , forming MGM/UA in 1981 .   The film 's main theme , `` Eye of the Tiger '' , was written by the group Survivor and became a smash hit single , topping the U.S. Billboard charts and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song .

neg: Nevada Fighter Nevada Fighter is the third solo album by American singer-songwriter Michael Nesmith during his post-Monkees career . The album is also the third and final album with the First National Band . Released by RCA Records in 1971 , the LP failed to chart in the top 200 but bubbled under at # 202 . The lead off single `` Nevada Fighter '' peaked at No. 70 on the Billboard charts .   John London and John Ware left the group in late November 1970 . Two tracks were left to finish the album - `` Here I Am '' ( recorded in early January 1971 ) and `` Only Bound '' ( recorded in late January ) . Nesmith recruited James Burton , Joe Osborn and Ron Tutt to help finish the album -- all three had worked with Nesmith during his days with The Monkees .   The track `` Nevada Fighter '' was originally recorded under the title `` Apology . '' `` Propinquity '' was the third version of this song Nesmith recorded -- he demoed it for The Monkees in 1966 and recorded a 1968 version for the group .

neg: The Stall `` The Stall '' is the 76th episode of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld . It is the 12th episode of the fifth season , and first aired on January 6 , 1994 .

neg: Saracinesca Saracinesca is a novel by F. Marion Crawford , first published as a serial in Blackwood 's Magazine and then as a book in New York ( Macmillan ) and Edinburgh ( Blackwood ) in 1887 . Set chiefly in Rome of twenty years earlier , the novel paints a rich picture of the period , detailing the spiritual and economic problems of the aristocracy at a time when its influence and status were under attack from the emerging forces of modernity . This romance tells the tale of Giovanni Saracinesca and his courting of Corona d'Astradente , complete with intrigue and sword fights ( Crawford was an expert fencer ) . It can be categorized as a work of historical fiction in that it relates a time when the author was only a child , and also in the sense that the particulars of that time and place are carefully delineated . In a sense , Crawford had been researching for this book all his life : his parents had witnessed the brief 1848 revolution , and his cousin , in her memoirs of Crawford , insisted that '' -LSB- t -RSB- here is little doubt that Crawford as a boy had heard first-hand descriptions of -LSB- the -RSB- exciting events '' of the 1860s .   Saracinesca proved to be both an immediate hit and Crawford 's greatest critical success . It was also a commercial triumph : he negotiated separate contracts for the serial printing and the simultaneous American and British publication , as well as future royalties . He followed it with two brilliant sequels , Sant ' Ilario and Don Orsino , the three of which are usually considered a trilogy . Subsequent sequels , such as Corleone , continue the saga of Saracinesca family , but with a diversion from the previous focus on the drama and status of family members into heavily plotted , incident-heavy melodrama . Characters from Saracinesca and its sequels also appear in A Lady of Rome ( 1906 ) and The White Sister ( 1909 ) .   Crawford , though an American by parentage and citizenship , was born in the Italian resort of Bagni de Lucca , spent most of his life abroad , and wrote Saracinesca while living in Sant ' Agnello di Sorrento , Italy .

neg: Golden Boot Awards The Golden Boot Awards is an American acknowledgment of achievement honoring actors , actresses , and crew members who have made significant contributions to the genre of Western television and movies . The award is sponsored and presented by the Motion Picture & Television Fund . Money raised at the award banquet is used to help finance various services offered by the Fund to those in the entertainment industry .   Actor Pat Buttram conceived the idea of the Golden Boot Award , and the first ones were presented in 1983 . The awards appear to have been discontinued since 2007 .

neg: Hollywood Squares The Hollywood Squares is an American panel game show in which two contestants play tic-tac-toe to win cash and prizes . The show piloted on NBC in 1965 , and the regular series debuted in 1966 on the same network . The board for the game is a 3 × 3 vertical stack of open-faced cubes , each occupied by a celebrity seated at a desk and facing the contestants . The stars are asked questions by the host , and the contestants judge the truth of their answers to gain squares in the right pattern to win the game .   Although The Hollywood Squares was a legitimate game show , the game largely acted as the background for the show 's comedy in the form of joke answers ( called `` zingers '' ) , often given by the stars prior to their real answer . The show 's writers usually supplied the jokes . In addition , the stars were given the questions ' subjects and bluff ( plausible but incorrect ) answers prior to the show . The show was scripted in this sense , but the gameplay was not . In any case , as original host Peter Marshall would explain at the beginning of the Secret Square game , the celebrities were briefed prior to the show to help them with bluff answers , but they otherwise heard the actual questions for the first time as they were asked on air .   In 2013 , TV Guide ranked it at No. 7 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever .   Internationally , there are multiple versions under a variety of names ( see International versions below ) .

neg: Gary Cooper filmography The filmography of Gary Cooper chronicles the film appearances of American actor Gary Cooper . After starting his career in 1925 as a film extra and stuntman , Cooper made his official cinematic debut in 1926 in the Samuel Goldwyn production The Winning of Barbara Worth . He went on to become a contract player with Paramount Pictures where he established himself as a popular leading man prior to the end of the silent film era .   Cooper 's future in the sound era was assured with the release of The Virginian ( 1929 ) , his first all-talkie film . For the next 32 years , he would be one of cinema 's top money-making stars . From 1936 to 1957 , Cooper ranked 18 times among the top ten box office attractions -- a record when he died in 1961 , and later surpassed only by John Wayne , who ranked among the top ten 25 times , Clint Eastwood ( 21 times ) and Tom Cruise ( 20 times ) .   Cooper was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award five times and won twice , for Sergeant York ( 1942 ) and High Noon ( 1952 ) . The latter film boosted his popularity , resulting in him being the number one box office attraction in 1953 . Cooper received a third Academy Award -- an honorary one -- just prior to his death in 1961 . His final film , The Naked Edge , was released shortly after his death .   As of February 2008 , more than half of Gary Cooper 's feature films are available on DVD , while others not yet on home video are available for television broadcast . Unfortunately , at least two of his silent films -- Beau Sabreur ( 1928 ) and The Legion of the Condemned ( 1928 ) -- are now considered lost films . Another of his silent films , Wolf Song ( 1929 ) , was originally released as a part talkie , but survives only as a silent film . One of Cooper 's earliest talkies , Paramount on Parade ( 1930 ) , survives incomplete . The prints that are available for television are missing all but one of the film 's Technicolor scenes -- a partial restoration of these scenes was done by the UCLA Film Archives .   This filmography contains sections for Cooper 's work as an extra in the earliest part of his film career , his feature film appearances , his occasional appearances in short films , and a section for a compilation film . Due to its length ( 92 films ) , the listing of his feature films is divided in four sections . Cooper 's film roles are listed , as well as the names of each film 's director and co-stars . Cooper 's awards and nominations are also listed . Except where noted , all of his films were shot in 35mm black and white . All films released prior to Lilac Time ( 1928 ) are silent films and all from The Virginian ( 1929 ) onward are sound films . The films made during the silent-to-sound transition are noted as being either silent or sound films . As an addendum , Cooper 's handful of television appearances are also listed .

neg: Al Martino Al Martino ( born Jasper Cini ; October 7 , 1927 -- October 13 , 2009 ) was an American singer and actor . He had his greatest success as a singer between the early 1950s and mid-1970s , being described as `` one of the great Italian American pop crooners '' , and also became well known as an actor , particularly for his role as singer Johnny Fontane in The Godfather .

neg: Rocky Rocky is a 1976 American sports drama film directed by John G. Avildsen and both written by and starring Sylvester Stallone . It tells the rags to riches American Dream story of Rocky Balboa , an uneducated but kind-hearted working class Italian-American boxer working in a meat warehouse and as a debt collector for a loan shark in the slums of Philadelphia . Rocky starts out as a small-time club fighter , and later gets a shot at the world heavyweight championship . The film also stars Talia Shire as Adrian , Burt Young as Adrian 's brother Paulie , Burgess Meredith as Rocky 's trainer Mickey Goldmill , and Carl Weathers as the champion , Apollo Creed .   The film , made on a budget of just over $ 1 million and shot in 28 days , was a sleeper hit ; it earned $ 225 million in global box office receipts , becoming the highest-grossing film of 1976 , and went on to win three Oscars , including Best Picture . The film received many positive reviews and turned Stallone into a major star . In 2006 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically or aesthetically significant '' . Rocky is considered to be one of the greatest sports films ever made and was ranked as the second-best in the genre , after Raging Bull , by the American Film Institute in 2008 .   The film has spawned six sequels : Rocky II ( 1979 ) , Rocky III ( 1982 ) , Rocky IV ( 1985 ) , Rocky V ( 1990 ) , Rocky Balboa ( 2006 ) and Creed ( 2015 ) . Stallone portrays Rocky in all six sequels , wrote the first five , and directed four ( Avildsen returned to direct Rocky V and Ryan Coogler directed Creed ) .

neg: The Combined (Group) The Combined or Big Seven Group , was a criminal organization headed by organized crime figures on the East Coast of the United States during Prohibition serving as the predecessor to the alleged National Crime Syndicate of the 1930s . The organization consisted of seven Jewish , Italian , and Irish American gangs on the east coast .   Following the reform movements and police crackdown on street gangs and other criminals , the criminal underworld entered a `` slow period '' in the years during and after the First World War . While the older political bosses were able to get their former criminal associates work as bouncers and work in vice districts such as gambling dens and brothels , they began to disassociate themselves from their former criminal alliances .   Following the announcement of the Volstead Act in 1919 , many in the underworld readily entered into bootlegging as gang wars broke out in major cities across the country . As the struggle to gain dominance over the industry continued into the early 1920s , with shootouts and bombings commonplace , a group emerged to resolve the constant warfare which was costing everyone money . Originally intended to serve as a centralized office for the purposes of ordering bootleg liquor to be equally distributed , the group would also reduce costs among bootleggers for supplies and , without worrying about rival bootleggers , enable independent bootleggers to focus on protecting their shipments from freelance hijackers .   Although the concept of the organization differed between Arnold Rothstein and Johnny Torrio , both Charles `` Lucky '' Luciano and Meyer Lansky were major supporters by 1927 . Its original members included Enoch `` Nucky '' Johnson , Abner `` Longy '' Zwillman of New Jersey , Moe Dalitz of Cleveland , Waxey Gordon and Harry `` Nig '' Rosen of Philadelphia and Danny Walsh of Providence . Other members included the Bug and Meyer Mob as `` enforcers '' and the semi-retired Johnny Torrio who remained in an advisory capacity regarding organizational advice .   As the violence of the bootleg wars died down in the mid-Atlantic area , others requested membership including Dutch Schultz of Manhattan , Charles `` King '' Solomon of Boston . Al Capone also expressed interest in joining the organization ; however his gang war with the North Side Gang prevented him from doing so .   Despite the death of Rothstein that same year , and the subsequent pushing aside or deaths of several gang leaders , the remaining members of the Seven Group were successful in establishing its authority and served as the basis for the Atlantic City Conference in 1929 .   Category : Organized crime groups

neg: Rysher Entertainment Rysher Entertainment was the owner of television and film programming content , primarily distributed around the world by CBS Television Distribution and Paramount Pictures . Select rights are also distributed by Warner Bros. , Universal , Lionsgate , Fox , Columbia Pictures , MGM and other entertainment distribution companies worldwide .   The company has its roots in Bing Crosby Productions ( `` BCP '' ) . Its namesake , actor-singer Bing Crosby , founded BCP in 1949 , and was best known for producing the sitcom Hogan 's Heroes and the medical drama Ben Casey -- in succeeding years , BCP was acquired by Cox Broadcasting .   In 1993 , Cox acquired Rysher Entertainment . Rysher , founded in April 1991 by Keith Samples , had been established as an independently owned company whose original sole product had been the distribution of NBC 's series Saved By The Bell . In 1993 , and later distribution of another NBC series California Dreams in 1994 , Rysher merged with Al Masini 's Television Program Enterprises to form Rysher TPE , its alternate name used from 1993 to 1995 . Through Rysher TPE , they produced and distributed shows such as Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous ( renamed Lifestyles with Robin Leach and Shari Belafonte for its final season ) and Star Search . Later , they produced and distributed George & Alana , which ran for one season in 1995 .  The company was shut down in 1999 and the library was acquired by Viacom who folded it into both the film and television division of Paramount .   Rysher 's library , today distributed by CBS Television Distribution ( CTD ) and Paramount Pictures ( for TV series and films , respectively ) , includes television and feature film classics such as Hogan 's Heroes ( whose partial rights are held by CBS ) , Ben Casey , and Walking Tall , as well as more recent programs and films including Nash Bridges ( 1999 -- 2001 episodes are produced by Paramount Network Television ) , Highlander : The Series , The Opposite of Sex ( with Sony Pictures Classics ) , Kingpin and Big Night .   Rysher also distributes internationally through CTD several of HBO 's award-winning titles including Arli $ $ , Oz and Sex and the City .   Rysher also produced House Arrest and Zeus and Roxanne , both of which were released by MGM and distributed by HBO Home Video for home release .


query: Guinevere is found in medieval Welsh prose from the 12th century.

pos: Guinevere Guinevere ( -LSB- ˈɡwɪnᵻvɪər -RSB- Gwenhwyfar Gwenivar ) , often written as Guenevere or Gwenevere , is , in Arthurian legend , the wife of King Arthur . She first appears as Guanhumara ( with many spelling variants in the manuscript tradition ) in Geoffrey of Monmouth 's pseudo-historical chronicle of British history , the Historia Regum Britanniae , written circa 1136 AD . She is also found in medieval Welsh prose , in the mid-late 12th-century tale Culhwch and Olwen , as Arthur 's wife Gwenhwyfar . In medieval romances , one of the most prominent story arcs is Queen Guinevere 's love affair with her husband 's chief knight , Lancelot . This story first appeared in Chrétien de Troyes 's Lancelot , the Knight of the Cart and became a motif in Arthurian literature , starting with the Lancelot-Grail of the early 13th century and carrying through the Post-Vulgate Cycle and Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur . Guinevere and Lancelot 's betrayal of Arthur preceded his eventual defeat at the Battle of Camlann by Mordred .

neg: Beowulf Beowulf ( -LSB- ˈbeɪoʊ-wʊlf , _ ˈbiːoʊ -- -RSB- -LSB- ˈbeːo̯ˌwulf -RSB- ) is an Old English epic poem consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines . It may be the oldest surviving long poem in Old English and is commonly cited as one of the most important works of Old English literature . A date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars ; the only certain dating pertains to the manuscript , which was produced between 975 and 1025 . The author was an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet , referred to by scholars as the `` Beowulf poet '' .   The poem is set in Scandinavia . Beowulf , a hero of the Geats , comes to the aid of Hrothgar , the king of the Danes , whose mead hall in Heorot has been under attack by a monster known as Grendel . After Beowulf slays him , Grendel 's mother attacks the hall and is then also defeated . Victorious , Beowulf goes home to Geatland ( Götaland in modern Sweden ) and later becomes king of the Geats . After a period of fifty years has passed , Beowulf defeats a dragon , but is fatally wounded in the battle . After his death , his attendants cremate his body and erect a tower on a headland in his memory .   The full poem survives in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex . It has no title in the original manuscript , but has become known by the name of the story 's protagonist . In 1731 , the manuscript was badly damaged by a fire that swept through Ashburnham House in London that had a collection of medieval manuscripts assembled by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton . The Nowell Codex is currently housed in the British Library .

neg: Three Welsh Romances The Three Welsh Romances ( Welsh : Y Tair Rhamant ) are three Middle Welsh tales associated with the Mabinogion . They are versions of Arthurian tales that also appear in the work of Chrétien de Troyes . Critics have debated whether the Welsh Romances are based on Chrétien 's poems or if they derive from a shared original . Though it seems probable the surviving Romances derive , directly or indirectly , from Chrétien , it is probable he in turn based his tales on older , Celtic sources . The Romances survive in the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest , both from the fourteenth century , though the material is at least as old as Chrétien .   The Three Welsh Romances are :   Owain , or the Lady of the Fountain ; which corresponds to Chrétien 's Yvain , the Knight of the Lion  Geraint and Enid , which corresponds to Chrétien 's Erec and Enide .  Peredur , son of Efrawg , which corresponds to Chrétien 's Perceval , the Story of the Grail

neg: Roman de Rou Roman de Rou is a verse chronicle by Wace in Norman covering the history of the Dukes of Normandy from the time of Rollo of Normandy to the battle of Tinchebray in 1106 . It is a national epic of Normandy .   Following the success of his Roman de Brut which recounted the history of the Britons , Wace was apparently commissioned by Henry II of England to write a similar account of the origins of the Normans and their conquest of England . Wace abandons his tale before bringing it up to date , telling the reader in the final lines of Part III that the king had entrusted the same task to a Maistre Beneeit ( believed to be Benoît de Sainte-More ) .   The work was started in the year 1160 , and Wace seems to have performed his last revisions in the mid-1170s .

neg: Gwenc'hlan See Gwenc ` hlan Le Scouëzec for the modern author .   Gwenc ` hlan is the cognomen of a legendary 6th century Breton druid and bard called Kian , the subject and purported author of a Breton song called `` Diougan Gwenc ` hlan '' ( Gwenc ` hlan 's prophecy ) , published by Hersart de la Villemarqué in his 1839 anthology Barzaz Breiz .   In this song , Gwenc ` hlan is imprisoned after having his eyes gouged out for refusing to convert to Christianity , sings out that he is n't afraid to die and makes a prophecy wherein he will be avenged . The motive of the blinded prisoner is reminiscent of the historical fate of Boethius .   One Gwenc ` hlan or Guinclaff around 1450 wrote a `` chant royal '' , or `` Dialogue between King Arthur and Gwenc ` hlan '' , quoted by Dom Le Pelletier and Gregory of Rostrenen . The poem was rediscovered in 1924 . The Breton used by this Gwenc ` hlan is already deeply pervaded by French . The legend of the 6th century bard is largely a creation of de la Villemarqué 's , but he may have based his account on the 15th century author , as well as on other traditional Breton tales . He quotes 6th to 12th century Welsh poems attributed to the bards Aneurin , Taliesin and Llywarch Hen as his sources .

neg: Maelienydd Maelienydd , sometimes spelt Maeliennydd , was a cantref and lordship in east central Wales covering the area from the River Teme to Radnor Forest and the area around Llandrindod Wells . The area , which is mainly upland , is now in Powys . During the Middle Ages it was part of the region known as Rhwng Gwy a Hafren , or `` Between the Wye and the Severn '' .   Originally an independent kingdom , Maelienydd became an area of great strategic importance after the Norman conquest of England , due to its position . It appears to have come under Norman control before 1093 , but during the 12th century became a battleground between the Welsh Princes of the area , notably Cadwallon ap Madog ap Idnerth ab Elystan Glodrydd , and the Mortimer family . In 1179 Prince Cadwallon was killed by the retainers of Roger Mortimer when he was returning from the court of king Henry II of England . Mortimer was imprisoned by the king for this and Maelienydd was inherited by Cadwallon 's son , Maelgwn ap Cadwallon , not to be confused in any way with Maelgwn Gwynedd , who lived centuries before . On Roger Mortimer 's release from prison he seized much of the lordship , though Maelgwn was later able to recover it with the help of Rhys ap Gruffydd of Deheubarth . In March 1188 , Gerald of Wales records the visit to Maelgwn 's castle of Crug Eryr , during Gerald 's journey through Wales with the Archbishop of Canterbury , who was raising an army for the crusades ; Maelgwn ` took the cross ' just as his cousin Einion o ' r Porth , Prince of Elfael had done at Radnor Castle just a few days earlier , along with Einion 's father in law , Rhys ap Gruffudd ( `` The Lord Rhys '' ) , Prince of Deheubarth . After Rhys ' death the Mortimers again took possession .   The struggle for the rule of Maelienydd continued during the 13th century , involving the kings of England and Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd of Gwynedd . A number of castles were built here , notably Cefnllys Castle and Cymaron Castle . One of the main versions of Welsh law , the Cyfnerth Redaction , is thought to originate from Maelienydd when it was in the sphere of influence of Rhys ap Gruffudd in the second half of the 12th century .   Maelienydd was one of the cantrefs brought together to form Radnorshire . The name survives for the general area .

neg: Gwenllian Gwenllian ( Welsh , a combination of gwen `` fair , blessed , white '' and llian `` flaxen '' ) was the name of several ladies who lived in medieval Wales . The two best known have , for different reasons , become symbols of Welsh patriotism and/or independence .   Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd ( 1097-1136 ) Her patriotic revolt and subsequent death in battle at Kidwelly Castle contributed to the Great Revolt of 1136  Gwenllian ferch Llywelyn ( 1282-1337 ) The only child of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , the last native Prince of Wales   Category : Welsh feminine given names

neg: Pere de Montsó Pere de Montsó ( fl . 1173 ) , also Peire de Monzo ( n ) , was an Aragonese troubadour , though none of his compositions survive . He was probably from Monzón near the border with Catalonia , but he may have hailed from Monzón de Campos in Castile , as Ramón Menéndez Pidal believed . He is the subject of the eighth stanza of a famous satire of twelve troubadours by Peire d'Alvernhe . This stanza has different readings :   The verse is very unclear . The first reading suggests that Raymond V of Toulouse had heard Pere sing . If Pattison 's reconstruction of events surrounding Peire d'Alvernhe 's satire is correct , however , Pere de Montsó was attached to the Spanish entourage ( possibly as a jongleur ) of Eleanor , daughter of Henry II of England and fiancée of Alfonso VIII of Castile , who was travelling through Gascony on her way to Spain when she and her entourage were entertained by Peire 's satire . Pattison suggest on the basis of this stanza that the troupe had also travelled through the lands of Toulouse and met in the presence of the Count , whose whereabouts at the time are otherwise unrecorded .   On the second reading , it is clear that Raymond V is alleged to have composed a tune that was subsequently used by Pere , but whether it was stolen from Pere by a third party or whether Pere was considered a thief for using another 's melody is not clear .

neg: Dindaethwy Dindaethwy was in medieval times one of two commotes of the cantref of Rhosyr , in the south-east of the Isle of Anglesey . It was between the Menai Strait and Conwy Bay ( to the south ) , and the Irish Sea and Red Wharf Bay ( to the north ) .   It included Penmon , the easternmost point of the island , opposite which is Puffin Island ( Ynys Seiriol ) . It bordered the commote of Menai ( the other commote of Rhosyr ) to the west , and the commote of Twrcelyn in the cantref of Cemais , to the north .   The commote court and maerdref was at Llanfaes , the commote 's most important settlement . Later in the Middle Ages , Llywelyn the Great founded a monastery at Llanfaes ; his wife Siwan was buried there . Previously the commote had one of Anglesey 's two most important religious communities in Penmon , which became a priory ( Penmon Priory ) in the 12th century .   Later , Dindaethwy was the home of Penmynydd , the family estate of the Tudors of Anglesey .   The name means `` Fort of the Daethwy '' , which may refer to the hillfort of Bwrdd Arthur ( `` Arthur 's Table '' ) in the former parish of Llanfihangel Din Sylwy . The Daethwy were the local Celtic tribe , who also gave their name to the village of Porthaethwy ( Menai Bridge ) . Alternative names are Tindaethwy and Tyndaethwy ( Dindaethwy may be a lenited version of Tindaethwy ) . The fort of Dinas , in the parish of Llandysilio , may have been the tribal centre .   The word Dindaethwy also appears in the name of Cynan Dindaethwy , king of Gwynedd at the start of the 9th century , as he was from this part of Anglesey .   Category : History of Anglesey  Category : Commotes

neg: Brut y Tywysogion Brut y Tywysogion ( Chronicle of the Princes ) , also known as Brut y Tywysogyon , is one of the most important primary sources for Welsh history . It is an annalistic chronicle that serves as a continuation of Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae . Brut y Tywysogion has survived as several Welsh translations of an original Latin version , which has not itself survived . The most important versions are the one in Robert Vaughan 's Peniarth MS. 20 and the slightly less complete one in the Red Book of Hergest . The version entitled Brenhinoedd y Saeson ( Kings of the English ) combines material from the Welsh annals with material from an English source .   The Peniarth MS. 20 version begins in 682 with a record of the death of Cadwaladr and ends in 1332 . The entries for the earlier years are brief , usually records of deaths and events such as eclipses , plagues or earthquakes , but later entries give much more detail . The main focus is on the rulers of the kingdoms of Gwynedd , Powys and Deheubarth , but ecclesiastical events are also mentioned , such as the bringing of the date of celebrating Easter in the Welsh church into line with Rome by `` Elbodius '' ( Elfodd ) , Bishop of Bangor , in 768 . Events in England , Ireland , Scotland and sometimes France are also briefly chronicled .   The original monastic annals are thought to have been written at Strata Florida Abbey , but may have been kept at the old abbey at Llanbadarn Fawr in the 11th century . Annals from other abbeys were also used in the composition . At least one of the Welsh translations is also thought to have been written at Strata Florida .

neg: Alliterative Revival The Alliterative Revival is a term adopted by academics to refer to the resurgence of poetry using the alliterative verse form in Middle English between c. 1350 and 1500 . Alliterative verse was the traditional versification of Old English poetry ; the last known alliterative poem known before the revival was Layamon 's Brut , which dates from around 1190 .   Opinion is divided as to whether the reappearance of such poems represents a conscious revival of an old artistic tradition , or merely signifies that despite the tradition continuing in some form between 1200 and 1350 , no poems have survived in written form . Major works of the Alliterative Revival include William Langland 's Piers Plowman , the Alliterative Morte Arthure , and the works of the Pearl Poet : Pearl , Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , Cleanness , and Patience .

neg: Tynged yr Iaith `` Tynged yr Iaith '' ( -LSB- ˈtəŋɛd ər ˈjaiθ -RSB- , meaning `` The Fate of the Language '' ) was a radio lecture delivered in Welsh by Saunders Lewis on February 13 , 1962 . Reaction to it brought about a major change in the politics of Wales . Historian John Davies has said that the lecture was `` the catalyst '' for the formation of Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg ( the Welsh Language Society ) , and the start of a period of direct-action agitation to enhance the status of the Welsh language . Its direct effect on the formation of Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg is described in a history of that society . It has been said that `` of all the memorable phrases coined in the twentieth century none has greater resonance for the Welsh speaker than Tynged yr Iaith ... which still haunts or inspires champions of the native tongue on the cusp of the new millennium '' . It had the unintended effect of establishing language agitation as a movement separate from the mainstream of nationalist politics . The burgeoning effects from the initial stimulus of Tynged yr Iaith were listed by Gwyn Williams :  Formation of Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg  Direct action against offices , roadsigns , TV masts : sit-ins and demonstrations  Drive to create Welsh-language schools  Positive discrimination in favour of Welsh  Use of the Israeli model to encourage take-up of the language by adults  Secretary of State for Wales 1964  Welsh Language Act 1967  Creation of S4C  Mushrooming of Welsh language publishing , film production , pop and rock , youth and urban music .

neg: William Glynne-Jones ≠   William Glynne-Jones ( 1907 -- 1977 ) was a Welsh author .

neg: Cyfraith Hywel Cyfraith Hywel ( -LSB- ˈkəvraiθ ˈhəwɛl -RSB- ; Laws of Hywel ) , also known as Welsh law ( Leges Walliæ ) , was the system of law practised in medieval Wales before its final conquest by England . Subsequently , the Welsh law 's criminal codes were superseded by the Statute of Rhuddlan in AD 1284 and its civil codes by Henry VIII 's series of Laws in Wales Acts between 1535 and 1542 .   Welsh law was a form of Celtic law with many similarities to the Brehon law of Ireland and particularly the customs and terminology of the Britons of Strathclyde . It was passed down orally by jurists and bards and , according to tradition , only first codified during the reign of Hywel the Good in the mid-10th century . The earliest surviving manuscripts , however , are in Latin , date from the early 13th century , and show marked regional differences . The law is only known to have been revised by a few rulers ( particularly Bleddyn ap Cynfyn , who was credited with revisions retained in the kingdom of Powys ) but was obviously updated by jurists in response to changing jurisdictions and circumstances , so that the surviving manuscripts can not be considered an accurate portrayal of Hywel 's first code .   Notable features of Welsh law include the collective responsibility of kindreds ( Welsh : cenedl ) for their members ; the gavelkind inheritance of land among all and only male descendants ; a status-based system of blood money ( galanas ) ; slavery and serfdom ; the inability of foreigners to naturalize earlier than the fourth generation ; and very lax treatment of divorce and legitimacy that scandalized the non-native clergy .

neg: Chivalric romance As a literary genre of high culture , romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe . They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures , often of a knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities , who goes on a quest , yet it is `` the emphasis on love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic , in which masculine military heroism predominates . '' Popular literature also drew on themes of romance , but with ironic , satiric or burlesque intent . Romances reworked legends , fairy tales , and history to suit the readers ' and hearers ' tastes , but by c. 1600 they were out of fashion , and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote . Still , the modern image of `` medieval '' is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre , and the word medieval evokes knights , distressed damsels , dragons , and other romantic tropes .   Originally , romance literature was written in Old French , Anglo-Norman , Occitan , and Provençal , and later in Portuguese , in Castilian , in English , in Italian ( particularly with the Sicilian poetry ) and German . During the early 13th century , romances were increasingly written as prose . In later romances , particularly those of French origin , there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love , such as faithfulness in adversity .

neg: Tir na n-Og Award The Tir na n-Og Awards ( abbreviated TnaO ) are a set of annual children 's literary awards in Wales from 1976 . They are presented by the Welsh Books Council to the best books published during the preceding calendar year in each of three awards categories , one English-language and two Welsh-language . Their purpose is '' -LSB- to raise -RSB- the standard of children 's and young people 's books and to encourage the buying and reading of good books . '' There is no restriction to fiction or prose . Each prize is # 1,000 .   The awards are named for Tír na nÓg , the `` Land of the Young '' , an otherworldly realm in Irish mythology .   The English-language award honours one book with an `` authentic Welsh background '' whose original language is English . It is sponsored by the British Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals , Cymru Wales division ( CILIP/Wales ) , and presented at that association 's annual conference in May .   The Welsh-language Primary Sector and Secondary Sector awards honour one book written for primary school children and one for secondary school children .  They are presented at the annual Urdd National Eisteddfod , recently at the beginning of June or end of May .  Since 2011 , the Welsh-language awards are co-sponsored by the Cardigan-based publisher Cymdeithas Lyfrau Ceredigion .   Shortlists comprising three or four books in each awards category have been published by WBC at least from 2011 .

neg: Knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country , especially in a military capacity . Historically , in Europe , knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors . During the High Middle Ages , knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility . By the Late Middle Ages , the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry , a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior . Often , a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord , with payment in the form of land holdings . The lords trusted the knights , who were skilled in battle on horseback . Since the early modern period , the title of knight is purely honorific , usually bestowed by a monarch , as in the British honours system , often for non-military service to the country . The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame .   Historically , the ideals of chivalry were popularized in medieval literature , especially the Matter of Britain and Matter of France , the former based on Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae ( History of the Kings of Britain ) which introduced the legend of King Arthur , written in the 1130s . Sir Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur ( The Death of Arthur ) , written in 1485 , was important in defining the ideal of chivalry , which is essential to the modern concept of the knight , as an elite warrior sworn to uphold the values of faith , loyalty , courage , and honour . Furthermore , Geoffroi de Charny 's `` Book of Chivalry '' expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knight 's life . During the Renaissance , the genre of chivalric romance became popular in literature , growing ever more idealistic and eventually giving rise to a new form of realism in literature popularised by Miguel de Cervantes ' Don Quixote . This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes ' world . In the late medieval period , new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete , but the titles remained in many nations .   Some orders of knighthood , such as the Knights Templar , have become the subject of legend ; others have disappeared into obscurity . Today , a number of orders of knighthood continue to exist in several countries , such as the English Order of the Garter , the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim , and the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav . Each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility , but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement .   Knighthood in the Middle Ages was closely linked with horsemanship ( and especially the joust ) from its origins in the 12th century until its final flowering as a fashion among the high nobility in the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century . This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry , cavalier and related terms ( see Etymology section below ) . The special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world , and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity .

neg: Christine de Pizan Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan ; -LSB- kʁistin də pizɑ̃ -RSB- ; 1364 -- c. 1430 ) was an Italian French late medieval author . She served as a court writer for several dukes ( Louis of Orleans , Philip the Bold of Burgundy , and John the Fearless of Burgundy ) and the French royal court during the reign of Charles VI . She wrote both poetry and prose works such as biographies and books containing practical advice for women . She completed forty-one works during her 30-year career from 1399 to 1429 . She married in 1380 at the age of 15 , and was widowed 10 years later . Much of the impetus for her writing came from her need to earn a living to support her mother , a niece and her two surviving children . She spent most of her childhood and all of her adult life in Paris and then the abbey at Poissy , and wrote entirely in her adopted language , Middle French .   Her early courtly poetry is marked by her knowledge of aristocratic custom and fashion of the day , particularly involving women and the practice of chivalry . Her early and later allegorical and didactic treatises reflect both autobiographical information about her life and views and also her own individualized and humanist approach to the scholastic learned tradition of mythology , legend , and history she inherited from clerical scholars and to the genres and courtly or scholastic subjects of contemporary French and Italian poets she admired . Supported and encouraged by important royal French and English patrons , she influenced 15th-century English poetry . Her success stems from a wide range of innovative writing and rhetorical techniques that critically challenged renowned writers such as Jean de Meun , author of the Romance of the Rose , which she criticized as immoral .   In recent decades , Christine de Pizan 's work has been returned to prominence by the efforts of scholars such as Charity Cannon Willard , Earl Jeffrey Richards and Simone de Beauvoir . Certain scholars have argued that she should be seen as an early feminist who efficiently used language to convey that women could play an important role within society . This characterization has been challenged by other critics , who say that it is either an anachronistic use of the word or a misinterpretation of her writing and intentions .

neg: Prose Tristan The Prose Tristan is an adaptation of the Tristan and Iseult story into a long prose romance , and the first to tie the subject entirely into the arc of the Arthurian legend . It was also the first major Arthurian prose cycle commenced after the widely popular Lancelot-Grail ( Vulgate Cycle ) , which influenced especially the later portions of the Prose Tristan .   According to the prologue , the first part of the book ( i.e. everything before the Grail material ) is attributed to the otherwise unknown Luce de Gat , and were probably begun between 1230 and 1235 . The work was expanded and reworked sometime after 1240 . In the epilogue , a second author names himself as `` Helie de Boron , '' asserting that he is the nephew of the first author of the Arthurian Grail cycles , poet Robert de Boron . Helie de Boron claims , like the so-called authors of the Roman de la Rose , to have picked up the story where Luce left off . Neither the biographies of the two authors , nor the claim that they had been translating the work from a Latin original are taken seriously by scholars .

neg: Welsh literature in English Anglo-Welsh literature and Welsh writing in English are terms used to describe works written in the English language by Welsh writers . It has been recognised as a distinctive entity only since the 20th century . The need for a separate identity for this kind of writing arose because of the parallel development of modern Welsh-language literature ; as such it is perhaps the youngest branch of English-language literature in the British Isles .   Welsh writers in English have traditionally favoured the short story form over the novel for two main reasons : in a society lacking sufficient wealth to support professional writers , the amateur writer was able to spare time only for short bursts of creativity ; and , like poetry , it concentrated linguistic delight and exuberance . However , the genre did not develop in these writers much beyond its origin in rural sketches . Satire was avoided , and , since the main market was London publishers , the short stories tended to focus on the eccentricities ( as seen from a metropolitan viewpoint ) of Welsh life .

neg: Goleuddydd Goleuddydd ( `` light of day '' from the Welsh golau , `` light '' , and dydd , `` day '' ) , in the Middle Welsh prose tale Culhwch ac Olwen , is the daughter of Amlawdd Wledig , and is desired by Cilydd , who marries her . She becomes pregnant with his child , but becomes mad and turns to wandering the countryside . When she is near to giving birth , her senses return , and she takes shelter with a swineherd . Frightened by the pigs , she gives birth to a boy , apparently in a pig run . The swineherd takes the baby away to be baptised as Culhwch ; he becomes the protagonist of Culhwch and Olwen .   Following the birth , Goleuddydd becomes fatally ill and , before dying , exhorts her husband not to remarry until he sees a briar with two blossoms on her grave . Cilydd agrees , and Goleuddydd eventually dies . Goleuddydd orders her confessor to visit her grave every year and keep it well trimmed , lest anything should grow there . Cilydd sends an attendant to her grave every day , to look for the briar . After seven years of this , the confessor neglects his duties . One day whilst out hunting , apparently several years later , Cilydd happens upon the grave , and sees upon it a briar with two blossoms . He takes this as a sign to remarry . He kills King Doged at some point and marries his widow .   Category : Welsh mythology  Category : Arthurian characters  Category : Welsh feminine given names


query: Cyclobenzaprine can be used to relieve some spasms.

pos: Cyclobenzaprine Cyclobenzaprine , sold under the brand name Flexeril among others , is a muscle relaxer medication used to relieve skeletal muscle spasms and associated pain in acute musculoskeletal conditions . It is the best-studied drug for this application . It has also been used off-label for fibromyalgia treatment .   As of 2015 the cost for a typical course of medication in the United States is less than .

neg: Parkinson's disease Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system . The symptoms generally come on slowly over time . Early in the disease , the most obvious are shaking , rigidity , slowness of movement , and difficulty with walking . Thinking and behavioral problems may also occur . Dementia becomes common in the advanced stages of the disease . Depression and anxiety are also common occurring in more than a third of people with PD . Other symptoms include sensory , sleep , and emotional problems . The main motor symptoms are collectively called `` parkinsonism '' , or a `` parkinsonian syndrome '' .   The cause of Parkinson 's disease is generally unknown , but believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors . Those with a family member affected are more likely to get the disease themselves . There is also an increased risk in people exposed to certain pesticides and among those who have had prior head injuries while there is a reduced risk in tobacco smokers and those who drink coffee or tea . The motor symptoms of the disease result from the death of cells in the substantia nigra , a region of the midbrain . This results in not enough dopamine in these areas . The reason for this cell death is poorly understood , but involves the build-up of proteins into Lewy bodies in the neurons . Diagnosis of typical cases is mainly based on symptoms , with tests such as neuroimaging being used to rule out other diseases .   There is no cure for Parkinson 's disease . Initial treatment is typically with the antiparkinson medication L-DOPA ( levodopa ) , with dopamine agonists being used once levodopa becomes less effective . As the disease progresses and neurons continue to be lost , these medications become less effective while at the same time they produce a complication marked by involuntary writhing movements . Diet and some forms of rehabilitation have shown some effectiveness at improving symptoms . Surgery to place microelectrodes for deep brain stimulation has been used to reduce motor symptoms in severe cases where drugs are ineffective . Evidence for treatments for the non-movement-related symptoms of PD , such as sleep disturbances and emotional problems , is less strong .   In 2015 , PD affected 6.2 million people and resulted in about 117,400 deaths globally . Parkinson 's disease typically occurs in people over the age of 60 , of which about one percent are affected . Males are more often affected than females . When it is seen in people before the age of 50 , it is called young-onset PD . The average life expectancy following diagnosis is between 7 and 14 years . The disease is named after the English doctor James Parkinson , who published the first detailed description in An Essay on the Shaking Palsy , in 1817 . Public awareness campaigns include World Parkinson 's Day ( on the birthday of James Parkinson , 11 April ) and the use of a red tulip as the symbol of the disease . People with parkinsonism who have increased the public 's awareness of the condition include actor Michael J. Fox , Olympic cyclist Davis Phinney , and late professional boxer Muhammad Ali .

neg: GABA receptor antagonist GABA receptor antagonists are drugs that inhibit the action of GABA . In general these drugs produce stimulant and convulsant effects , and are mainly used for counteracting overdoses of sedative drugs .   Examples include bicuculline , securinine and metrazol , and the benzodiazepine GABAA receptor antagonist flumazenil .   Drugs with possible antagonistic effects include thiothixene , bupropion and caffeine .   Also thujone , ginkgo biloba , kudzu and muira puama may have properties of GABAA receptor antagonism .

neg: Drug therapy problems Drug therapy problems ( DTPs ) ( or drug related problems , DRPs ) represent the categorization and definition of clinical problems related to the use of medications or `` drugs '' in the field of pharmaceutical care . In the course of clinical practice , DTPs are often identified , prevented , and/or resolved by pharmacists in the course of medication therapy management , as experts on the safety and efficacy of medications , but other healthcare professionals may also manage DTPs .   A drug-therapy ( related ) problem can be defined as an event or circumstance involving drug treatment ( pharmacotherapy ) that interferes with the optimal provision of medical care . In 1990 , L.M. Strand and her colleagues ( based on the previous work of R.L Mikeal and D.C Brodie , published respectively in 1975 and 1980 ) classified the DTPs into eight different categories . According to these categories , pharmacists generated a list of the DTPs for each patient . As a result , pharmacists had a cleaner picture of the patient 's drug therapy and medical conditions . A second publication of R.J Cipolle with L.M Strand in 1998 , change the eight categories into seven , grouped in four Pharmacotherapy needs : indication , effectiveness , safety and adherence .

neg: Benzodiazepine Benzodiazepines ( BZD , BZs ) , sometimes called `` benzos '' , are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring . The first such drug , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 , and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann -- La Roche , which , since 1963 , has also marketed the benzodiazepine diazepam ( Valium ) . In 1977 benzodiazepines were globally the most prescribed medications .   Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) at the GABAA receptor , resulting in sedative , hypnotic ( sleep-inducing ) , anxiolytic ( anti-anxiety ) , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant properties . High doses of many shorter-acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and dissociation . These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety , insomnia , agitation , seizures , muscle spasms , alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures . Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short - , intermediate - , or long-acting . Short - and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia ; longer-acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety .   Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short-term use , although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur . A minority of people can have paradoxical reactions such as worsened agitation or panic . Long-term use is controversial because of concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects , decreasing effectiveness , and physical dependence and withdrawal . As a result of adverse effects associated with the long-term use of benzodiazepines , withdrawal from benzodiazepines , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health . The elderly are at an increased risk of suffering from both short - and long-term adverse effects , and as a result , all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List of inappropriate medications for older adults .   There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy . While they are not major teratogens , uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure ; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn . Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness . However , they are less toxic than their predecessors , the barbiturates , and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken . When combined with other central nervous system ( CNS ) depressants such as alcoholic drinks and opioids , the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases . Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse .

neg: Neurasthenia Neurasthenia is a term that was first used at least as early as 1829 to label a mechanical weakness of the actual nerves , rather than the more metaphorical `` nerves '' referred to by George Miller Beard later .   As a psychopathological term , neurasthenia was used by Beard in 1869 to denote a condition with symptoms of fatigue , anxiety , headache , heart palpitations , high blood pressure , neuralgia and depressed mood .   Neurasthenia is currently a diagnosis in the World Health Organization 's International Classification of Diseases ( and the Chinese Society of Psychiatry 's Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders ) . However , it is no longer included as a diagnosis in the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders .   Americans were said to be particularly prone to neurasthenia , which resulted in the nickname `` Americanitis '' ( popularized by William James ) . Another , rarely used , term for neurasthenia is nervosism .

neg: Orphenadrine Orphenadrine ( sold under many brand names worldwide ) is an anticholinergic drug of the ethanolamine antihistamine class ; it is closely related to diphenhydramine . It is used to treat muscle pain and to help with motor control in Parkinson 's disease , but has largely been superseded by newer drugs . It was discovered and developed in the 1940s .   As of 2015 the cost for a typical month of medication in the United States is US$ 25 to 50 .

neg: Guanazodine Guanazodine is a sympatholytic drug .

neg: Cebranopadol Cebranopadol ( developmental code name GRT-6005 ) is a novel opioid analgesic of the benzenoid class which is currently under development internationally by Grünenthal , a German pharmaceutical company , and its partner Depomed , a pharmaceutical company in the United States , for the treatment of a variety of different acute and chronic pain states . As of November 2014 , it is in phase III clinical trials . Cebranopadol is unique in its mechanism of action as an opioid , binding to and activating all four of the opioid receptors ; it acts as a full agonist of the nociceptin receptor ( Ki = 0.9 nM ; EC50 = 13.0 ; IA = 89 % ) , μ-opioid receptor ( Ki = 0.7 nM ; EC50 = 1.2 ; IA = 104 % ) , and δ-opioid receptor ( Ki = 18 nM ; EC50 = 110 ; IA = 105 % ) , and as a partial agonist of the κ-opioid receptor ( Ki = 2.6 nM ; EC50 = 17 ; IA = 67 % ) . The ED50 values of 0.5-5 .6 µg / kg when introduced IV & 25.1 µg / kg after oral administration .   Cebranopadol shows highly potent and effective antinociceptive and antihypertensive effects in a variety of different animal models of pain . Notably , it has also been found to be more potent in models of chronic neuropathic pain than acute nociceptive pain compared to selective μ-opioid receptor agonists . Relative to morphine , tolerance to the analgesic effects of cebranopadol has been found to be delayed ( 26 days versus 11 days for complete tolerance ) . In addition , unlike morphine , cebranopadol has not been found to affect motor coordination or reduce respiration in animals at doses in or over the dosage range for analgesia . As such , it may have improved and prolonged efficaciousness and greater tolerability in comparison to currently available opioid analgesics .   As an agonist of the κ-opioid receptor , cebranopadol may have the capacity to produce psychotomimetic effects , dysphoria , and other adverse reactions at sufficiently high doses , a property which could potentially limit its practical clinical dosage range .

neg: Pulled hamstring Straining of the hamstring , also known as a pulled hamstring , is defined as an excessive stretch or tear of muscle fibers and related tissues .  Hamstring injuries are common in athletes participating in many sports and are very difficult to treat and rehabilitate . Track and field athletes are particularly at risk , as hamstring injuries have been estimated to make up 29 % of all injuries in sprinters .   The biceps femoris long head is at the most risk for injury , possibly due to its reduced moment of knee and hip flexion as compared to the medial hamstrings .   The hamstrings undergo a complex dynamic process during gait , making it unsurprising that they are frequently injured . They must first contract concentrically during the end of the stance phase in order to bend the knee and allow the foot ( along with dorsiflexion at the ankle ) to clear the ground . At the end of the swing phase the hamstrings must eccentrically contract while applying a braking moment to knee extension , then immediately change functions to again concentrically contract and produce hip extension . Studies have shown that `` the hamstring group reaches peak elongation and acts eccentrically at the hip and knee during the late swing phases of running '' and that `` the hamstrings are most active and develop the greatest torques at the hip and knee during the late swing through midstance phase of running . '' Thus , the hamstrings reach their maximum length while attempting to forcefully contract eccentrically and switch functions to immediately produce a concentric contraction , which makes the terminal part of swing phase the most vulnerable for injury .   There have been many other proposed predisposing factors to injury . These include muscle weakness , muscle imbalance , poor flexibility , fatigue , inadequate warm up , poor neuromuscular control , and poor running technique . One of the few predisposing factors that most researchers agree upon however is previous hamstring injury . Brokett et al. ( 2004 ) stated that `` the athletes most at risk of a hamstring strain are those with a previous history of such injury '' and noted that 34 % of the hamstring injuries were recurrences . '' Cameron et al. also found that 34 % of injuries recur in the same season . Arnason et al. . generalized these numbers , saying that previous injury was in itself an independent risk factor for re-injury .

neg: Chronic fatigue syndrome treatment Treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome ( CFS ) is variable and uncertain , and the condition is primarily managed rather than cured . Only two treatments , cognitive behavioral therapy and graded exercise therapy , have demonstrated reproducible evidence for their efficacy people with CFS who are walking . There are no Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) approved medications for ME/CFS treatment , although medications are used without approval for the illness ( off-label ) . Drugs have been used in experimental studies of the illness that have n't been approved for market for any condition in the United States ( for example , isoprinosine and rintatolimod ) . Other proposed treatments include medical treatments and alternative medicine . Even when treated , the prognosis of CFS is often poor . In one study , poor early management was reported to be a main risk factor for severe CFS ( delayed diagnosis , poor response to analgesics , physiotherapy , or alternative medicine ) , with associated variables including a poor relationship with the GP before and after diagnosis , and the involvement of a psychiatrist in initial treatment .   CFS management techniques include behavioral interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT , a form of psychological therapy ) , and graded exercise therapy ( GET ) . Based on evidence from multiple randomized clinical trials ( RCTs ) , a systematic review published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine ( October 2006 ) stated that CBT and GET interventions showed promising results , appearing to reduce symptoms and improve function . The review stated that the evidence of effectiveness was inconclusive for most other interventions , with some reporting significant adverse effects . The wide variety of outcome measures used in CFS research was found to be a `` fundamental problem '' for assessing the effectiveness of interventions in general , and no intervention has proven to be effective in restoring the ability to work .   Recovery is `` rare '' even after a comprehensive rehabilitation programme .

neg: Levomepromazine Levomepromazine ( INN , BAN , USAN ) , also known as methotrimeprazine , is a phenothiazine neuroleptic drug . It is sold in many countries under the generic name ( levomepromazine ) or under brand names such as Nozinan , Levoprome , Detenler , Hirnamin , Levotomin , Neurocil and many more . It is a low-potency antipsychotic ( approximately half as potent as chlorpromazine ) with strong analgesic , hypnotic and antiemetic properties that is primarily used in palliative care .   Serious side effects include tardive dyskinesia , akathisia , abnormalities in the electrical cycle of the heart , low blood pressure and the potentially fatal neuroleptic malignant syndrome .   As is typical of phenothiazine antipsychotics , levomepromazine is a `` dirty drug '' , that is , it exerts its effects by blocking a variety of receptors , including adrenergic receptors , dopamine receptors , histamine receptors , muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and serotonin receptors .

neg: Solabegron Solabegron ( code name GW-427 ,353 ) is a drug which acts as a selective agonist for the β3 adrenergic receptor . It is being developed for the treatment of overactive bladder and irritable bowel syndrome . It has been shown to produce visceral analgesia by releasing somatostatin from adipocytes .   Solabegron was discovered by GlaxoSmithKline and acquired by AltheRx in March 2011 . Solabegron relaxes the bladder smooth muscle by stimulating β3 adrenoceptors , a novel mechanism compared with older established drug treatments for overactive bladder syndrome such as the anticholinergic agents . Astellas Pharma has developed the first commercially available β3 adrenergic receptor , mirabegron , which is now licensed in Japan and the U.S. for overactive bladder . Mirabegron is not licensed for irritable bowel syndrome .   A Phase II study of solabegron for overactive bladder ( OAB ) looked at 258 patients with moderate-to-severe incontinence experiencing an average of 4.5 wet episodes per day . Results demonstrated a statistically significant improvement with solabegron as compared with placebo , as measured by the percentage reduction of the number of wet episodes and the absolute number of daily voids .   A Phase II study for irritable bowel syndrome ( IBS ) evaluated 102 patients with IBS . Solabegron demonstrated significant reduction in pain associated with the disorder and a trend for greater improvement in the quality of life , when compared with a placebo .   Both Phase II studies indicated a tolerability profile for solabegron that was similar to placebo . The OAB patients did not suffer from dry mouth , constipation , increase in heart rate or cognitive issues ( i.e. anticholinergic effects ) .   AltheRx is currently preparing to advance solabegron into a large clinical study in OAB .

neg: Sacral nerve stimulation Sacral nerve stimulation , also termed sacral neuromodulation , is a type of medical electrical stimulation therapy .   It typically involves the implantation of a programmable stimulator subcutaneously , which delivers low amplitude electrical stimulation via a lead to the sacral nerve , usually accessed via the S3 foramen .   The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved InterStim Therapy , by Medtronic , as a sacral nerve stimulator for treatment of urinary incontinence , high urinary frequency and urinary retention . Sacral nerve stimulation is also under investigation as treatment for other conditions , including constipation brought on by nerve damage due to surgical procedures . An experimental procedure for constipation in children is being conducted in Nationwide Children 's Hospital .   In the event that the nerves and the brain are no longer communicating effectively , resulting in a bowel/bladder disorder , this type of treatment is designed to imitate a signal sent via the central nervous system .   One of the major nerve routes is from the brain , along the spinal cord and through the back . This is commonly referred to as the sacral area . This area controls the everyday function of the pelvic floor , urethral sphincter , bladder and bowel . By stimulating the sacral nerve ( located in the lower back ) , a signal is sent that manipulates a contraction within the pelvic floor . Over time these contractions rebuild the strength of the organs and muscles within it . This effectively alleviates all symptoms of urinary/faecal disorders , and in many cases eliminates them completely .

neg: Maropitant Maropitant ( INN , trade name Cerenia -LSB- səˈriːniə -RSB- in the U.S. and other countries ) , used as maropitant citrate ( USAN ) , is a neurokinin ( NK1 ) receptor antagonist , which was developed by Zoetis specifically for the treatment of motion sickness and vomiting in dogs . It was approved by the FDA in 2007 for use in dogs , and more recently has also been approved for use in cats .   Maropitant also has anti-nociceptive ( analgesic ) properties . In a 2012 study , parenteral maropitant decreased the minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) of sevoflurane in a pain-response model . Epidural administration had no effect . It has also been shown to decrease the MAC of sevoflurane in a cat spay and dog spay model . Whether it has analgesic properties in awake animals remains to be proven , but anecdotal evidence indicates that it is being used for analgesia by many veterinarians .

neg: Spastic Derived via Latin from the Greek spastikos ( `` drawing in '' or `` tugging '' ) , the word spastic refers to an alteration in muscle tone affected by the medical condition spasticity , which is seen in spastic diplegia and many other forms of cerebral palsy and also in terms such as `` spastic colon '' .   Colloquially , spastic can be pejorative ; though severity of this differs between the United States and the United Kingdom . In the UK `` spastic '' is considered by the general population as an offensive way to directly refer to disabled people .

neg: 5-HT2C receptor agonist Serotonin 5-HT2 receptors are stimulated by monoamine neurotransmitters including serotonin , dopamine and norepinephrine . 5-HT2 receptor stimulation causes a buildup of intracellular inositol triphosphate and thereby an increase of cytosolic Ca2 + . 5-HT2C receptor agonists are attractive drug targets that have potential use in the treatment of a number of conditions including obesity , psychiatric disorders , sexual dysfunction and urinary incontinence .   The 5-HT2C receptors are one of three subtypes that belong to the serotonin 5-HT2 receptor subfamily along with 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors . The development of 5-HT2C agonists has been a major obstacle , because of severe side effects due to a lack of selectivity over 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors . Activation of 5-HT2A receptors can induce hallucinations , and the activation of 5-HT2B receptors has been implicated in cardiac valvular insufficiency and possibly in pulmonary hypertension .

neg: Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor A serotonin -- norepinephrine -- dopamine reuptake inhibitor ( SNDRI ) , also known as a triple reuptake inhibitor ( TRI ) , is a type of drug that acts as a combined reuptake inhibitor of the monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine . It does this by concomitantly inhibiting the serotonin transporter ( SERT ) , norepinephrine transporter ( NET ) , and dopamine transporter ( DAT ) , respectively . Inhibition of the reuptake of these neurotransmitters increases their extracellular concentrations and , therefore , results in an increase in serotonergic , adrenergic , and dopaminergic neurotransmission .   SNDRIs were developed as potential antidepressants and treatments for other disorders , such as obesity , cocaine addiction , attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , and chronic pain . They are an extension of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs ) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors ( SNRIs ) whereby the addition of dopaminergic action is thought to have the possibility of heightening therapeutic benefit . However , increased side effects and abuse potential are potential concerns of these agents relative to their SSRI and SNRI counterparts .   The SNDRIs are similar to non-selective monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) such as phenelzine and tranylcypromine in that they increase the action of all three of the major monoamine neurotransmitters . They are also very similar to serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents ( SNDRAs ) like MDMA ( `` ecstasy '' ) and α-ethyltryptamine ( αET ) for the same reason , although they act via a different mechanism and have differing physiological and qualitative effects . One of the ways in which this is so is that SNDRIs lack the entactogenic , psychedelic , and neurotoxic effects of SNDRAs like MDMA and αET .   Cocaine is a naturally occurring SNDRI with a fast onset and short duration ( about two hours ) that is widely encountered as a drug of abuse . Although their primary mechanisms of action are as NMDA receptor antagonists , ketamine and phencyclidine are also SNDRIs and are similarly encountered as drugs of abuse .

neg: Intracavernous injection An intracavernous ( or intracavernosal , intradicular ) injection is an injection into the base of the penis . This injection site is often used to administer medications to check for or treat erectile dysfunction in adult men ( in e.g. combined intracavernous injection and stimulation test ) . The more common medications administered in this manner include Caverject , Trimix ( prostaglandin , papaverine , and phentolamine ) , Bimix ( papaverine and phentolamine ) , and Quadmix ( prostaglandin , papaverine , phentolamine , and either atropine or forskolin ) . These medications are all types of vasodilators and cause tumescence within 10-15 minutes .  Common side effects include , but are not limited to , priapism , bruising , fibrosis , Peyronies , and pain .   Priapism is also often treated with intracavernous injections , usually with sympathomimetic vasoconstricting drugs like adrenaline or phenylephrine .

neg: Dextropropoxyphene Dextropropoxyphene is an analgesic in the opioid category , patented in 1955 and manufactured by Eli Lilly and Company . It is an optical isomer of levopropoxyphene . It is intended to treat mild pain and also has antitussive ( cough suppressant ) and local anaesthetic effects . The drug has been taken off the market in Europe and the US due to concerns of fatal overdoses and heart arrhythmias . Its onset of analgesia ( pain relief ) is said to be 20 -- 30 minutes and peak effects are seen about 1.5 -- 2 hours after oral administration .   Dextropropoxyphene is sometimes combined with acetaminophen . Trade names include Darvocet-N and Di-Gesic , Darvon with APAP ( for dextropropoxyphene and paracetamol ) . The British approved name ( i.e. the generic name of the active ingredient ) of the paracetamol/dextropropoxyphene preparation is `` co-proxamol '' ( sold under a variety of brand names ) ; however , it has been withdrawn since 2007 , and is no longer available to new patients , with exceptions . The paracetamol combination ( s ) are known as Capadex or Di-Gesic in Australia , Lentogesic in South Africa , and Di-Antalvic in France ( unlike co-proxamol , which is an approved name , these are all brand names ) .   Dextropropoxyphene is known under several synonyms , including :  Alpha-d-4-dimethylamino-3-methyl-1 ,2 - diphenyl-2-butanol propionate  -LSB- ( 2S ,3 S ) -4 - ( Dimethylamino ) -3 - methyl-1 ,2 - diphenylbutan-2-yl -RSB- propanoate  -1,2 - Diphenyl-2-propionoxy - 3-methyl-4-di-methylaminobutane  Desoxypropiophen

neg: Beta blocker Beta blocker , also written β-blocker , is a class of medications that are particularly used to manage cardiac arrhythmias , and to protect the heart from a second heart attack ( myocardial infarction ) after a first heart attack ( secondary prevention ) . They are also widely used to treat hypertension , although they are no longer the first choice for initial treatment of most patients .   Beta blockers are competitive antagonists that block the receptor sites for the endogenous catecholamines epinephrine ( adrenaline ) and norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) on adrenergic beta receptors , of the sympathetic nervous system , which mediates the fight-or-flight response . Some block activation of all types of β-adrenergic receptors and others are selective for one of the three known types of beta receptors , designated β1 , β2 and β3 receptors . β1-adrenergic receptors are located mainly in the heart and in the kidneys . β2-adrenergic receptors are located mainly in the lungs , gastrointestinal tract , liver , uterus , vascular smooth muscle , and skeletal muscle . β3-adrenergic receptors are located in fat cells .   Beta receptors are found on cells of the heart muscles , smooth muscles , airways , arteries , kidneys , and other tissues that are part of the sympathetic nervous system and lead to stress responses , especially when they are stimulated by epinephrine ( adrenaline ) . Beta blockers interfere with the binding to the receptor of epinephrine and other stress hormones , and weaken the effects of stress hormones .   In 1964 , James Black synthesized the first clinically significant beta blockers -- propranolol and pronethalol ; it revolutionized the medical management of angina pectoris and is considered by many to be one of the most important contributions to clinical medicine and pharmacology of the 20th century .   For the treatment of primary hypertension , meta-analyses of studies which mostly used atenolol as the beta-blocker tested have shown although beta-blockers are more effective than placebo in preventing stroke and total cardiovascular events , they are not as effective as diuretics , drugs inhibiting the renin-angiotensin system or calcium channel blockers .