query: Elizabeth I of England was the last monarch of the Ming dynasty.

pos: Elizabeth I of England Elizabeth I ( 7 September 1533 -- 24 March 1603 ) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death . Sometimes called The Virgin Queen , Gloriana or Good Queen Bess , the childless Elizabeth was the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty .   Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn , his second wife , who was executed two-and-a-half years after Elizabeth 's birth . Anne 's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled , and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate . Her half-brother , Edward VI , ruled until his death in 1553 , bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters , Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary , in spite of statute law to the contrary . Edward 's will was set aside and Mary became queen , deposing Lady Jane Grey . During Mary 's reign , Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels .   In 1558 , Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel . She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers , led by William Cecil , 1st Baron Burghley . One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church , of which she became the Supreme Governor . This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England . It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line . She never did , despite numerous courtships . As she grew older , Elizabeth became famous for her virginity . A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits , pageants , and literature of the day .   In government , Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been . One of her mottoes was `` video et taceo '' ( `` I see but say nothing '' ) . In religion , she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution . After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her , several conspiracies threatened her life , all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers ' secret service . Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs , manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain . She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective , poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands , France , and Ireland . By the mid-1580s , England could no longer avoid war with Spain . England 's defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history .   Elizabeth 's reign is known as the Elizabethan era . The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama , led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe , and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake . Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered , sometimes indecisive ruler , who enjoyed more than her share of luck . Towards the end of her reign , a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity . Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor in an era when government was ramshackle and limited , and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones . Such was the case with Elizabeth 's rival , Mary , Queen of Scots , whom she imprisoned in 1568 and had executed in 1587 . After the short reigns of Elizabeth 's half-siblings , her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity .

neg: Wars of the Three Kingdoms The Wars of the Three Kingdoms , sometimes known as the British Civil Wars , formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in England , Ireland and Scotland between 1639 and 1651 . The English Civil War proper has become the best-known of these conflicts and included the execution of the kingdoms ' monarch , Charles I , by the English parliament in 1649 .   The history of these wars is often extended to include the uprisings and conflicts that continued through the 1650s until the English Restoration of the monarchy with Charles II , in 1660 , and sometimes until Venner 's uprising the following year . The wars were the outcome of tensions over religious and civil issues . Religious disputes centred on whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or the choice of the individual , with many people feeling that they ought to have freedom of religion . The related civil questions were to what extent the king 's rule was constrained by parliaments -- in particular his right to raise taxes and armed forces without consent . Furthermore , the wars also had an element of national conflict , as Ireland and Scotland rebelled against England 's primacy within the Three Kingdoms . The victory of the English Parliament -- ultimately under Oliver Cromwell -- over the king , the Irish and the Scots helped to determine the future of Great Britain and Ireland as a constitutional monarchy with political power centred on London .   The wars included the Bishops ' Wars of 1639 and 1640 , the Scottish Civil War of 1644 -- 45 ; the Irish Rebellion of 1641 , Confederate Ireland , 1642 -- 49 and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649 ( collectively the Eleven Years War or Irish Confederate Wars ) ; and the First , Second and Third English Civil Wars of 1642 -- 46 , 1648 -- 49 and 1650 -- 51 .

neg: List of Protestant martyrs of the English Reformation Protestants were executed under heresy laws during persecutions against Protestant religious reformers for their religious denomination during the reigns of Henry VIII ( 1509 -- 1547 ) and Mary I of England ( 1553 -- 1558 ) . Radical Protestants were also executed during the reigns of Edward VI ( 1547 -- 1553 ) , Elizabeth I ( 1558 -- 1603 ) and James I ( 1603 -- 1625 ) . The excesses of this period were recorded in Foxe 's Book of Martyrs .   Protestants in England and Wales were executed under legislation that punished anyone judged guilty of heresy against Catholicism . Although the standard penalty for those convicted of treason in England at the time was execution by being hanged , drawn and quartered , this legislation adopted the punishment of burning the condemned . At least 300 people were recognised as burned over the five years of Mary I 's reign by contemporary sources .   Catholics were also executed ( under charge of treason ) during the reign of Elizabeth I. See List of Catholic martyrs of the English Reformation .

neg: Family tree of English and British monarchs The following is a simplified family tree of the English and British monarchs . For a more detailed chart see : English monarchs family tree ( from Alfred the Great till Queen Elizabeth I ) ; and the British monarchs ' family tree for the period from Elizabeth 's successor , James I , till present day .

neg: Kingdom of Great Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain , officially Great Britain , was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800 . The state came into being following the Treaty of Union in 1706 , ratified by the Acts of Union 1707 , which united the kingdoms of England and Scotland to form a single kingdom encompassing the whole island of Great Britain and its outlying islands . It did not include Ireland , which remained a separate realm . The unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster . The former kingdoms had been in personal union since James VI , King of Scots , became King of England and King of Ireland in 1603 following the death of Queen Elizabeth I , bringing about a `` Union of the Crowns '' . Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714 , the kingdom was in a personal union with the Electorate of Hanover .   The early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746 . Later on in 1763 , victory in the Seven Years ' War led to the dominance of the British Empire , which was to become the foremost global power for over a century and later grew to become the largest empire in history .   On 1 January 1801 , the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . In 1922 , five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom and the state was renamed the `` United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '' -- a title it has retained to date .

neg: Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years ' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet , rulers of the Kingdom of England , against the House of Valois , rulers of the Kingdom of France , over the succession of the French throne . Each side drew many allies into the war . It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages , in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe . The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline , and the development of strong national identities in both countries .   After the Norman Conquest , the kings of England were vassals of the kings of France for their possessions in France . The French kings had endeavored , over the centuries , to reduce these possessions , to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English . The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been part of French policy to check the growth of English power , particularly whenever the English were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland , an ally of France .   Through his mother , Isabella of France , Edward III of England was the grandson of Philip IV of France and nephew of Charles IV of France , the last king of the senior line of the House of Capet . In 1316 , a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne . When Charles IV died in 1328 , Isabella , unable to claim the French throne for herself , claimed it for her son . The French rejected the claim , maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess . For about nine years ( 1328 -- 1337 ) , the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne , but the interference of the French king , Philip VI , in Edward III 's war against Scotland permitted Edward III to reassert his claim to the French throne . Several overwhelming English victories in the war -- especially at Crecy , Poitiers , and Agincourt -- raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph . However , the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest . Starting in 1429 , decisive French victories at Orléans , Patay , Formigny , and Castillon concluded the war in favour of France , with England permanently losing most of its major possessions on the continent .   Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces : the Edwardian Era War ( 1337 -- 1360 ) ; the Caroline War ( 1369 -- 1389 ) ; and the Lancastrian War ( 1415 -- 1453 ) . Local conflicts in neighbouring areas , which were contemporarily related to the war , including the War of the Breton Succession ( 1341 -- 1364 ) , the Castilian Civil War ( 1366 -- 1369 ) , the War of the Two Peters ( 1356 -- 1375 ) in Aragon , and the 1383 -- 85 Crisis in Portugal , were availed by the parties to advance their agendas . Later historians adopted the term `` Hundred Years ' War '' as a historiography periodization to encompass all of these events , thus constructing the longest military conflict in European history .   The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors . By its end , feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops , and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies . Although primarily a dynastic conflict , the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism . The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated , and artillery became important . The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare . With respect to the belligerents , in France , civil wars , deadly epidemics , famines , and bandit free-companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically . English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture . The dissatisfaction of English nobles , resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings , became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 -- 1487 ) .

neg: Mu Ying Mu Ying ( 1345-1392 ) was a general during the Ming Dynasty , and an adopted son of its founder , the Hongwu Emperor ( aka Zhu Yuanzhang ) . Mu Ying was one of the few capable generals who survived the massacre of Hongwu .   When the Ming dynasty emerged Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang 's military officers who served under him were given noble titles which privileged the holder with a stipend but in all other aspects was merely symbolic . Mu Ying 's family was among them . Special rules against abuse of power were implemented on the nobles . Yunnan remained in his family .   Mu and his descendants guarded Yunnan , a province near Burma and Vietnam , until the end of the Ming dynasty . As late as the 1650s , his descendant Mu Tianbao was one of the main supporters of the Yongli Emperor , the last emperor of the Southern Ming , and accompanied the fugitive emperor all the way into Burma .

neg: Descent of Elizabeth II from William the Conqueror This list shows the most senior line of descent of Elizabeth II , the current British Sovereign , from William I. Each person on the list is the son or daughter of the person above him or her on the list . There are many other more junior lines of descent of the family , but the crown , in theory at least , only descends through the most senior line ( a major exception being the exclusion of the genealogically senior Jacobite succession by the Act of Settlement 1701 ) . Owing to extinct lines , large parts of entire royal houses ( Lancaster , Tudor , Stuart ) are bypassed in the current most senior line . The numbers can be used to calculate the number of generations between two individuals on this list .

neg: Henry V of England Henry V ( 9 August 1386 -- 31 August 1422 ) was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 36 in 1422 . He was the second English monarch who came from the House of Lancaster .   After military experience fighting the Welsh during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr , and against the powerful aristocratic Percys of Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury , Henry came into political conflict with his father , whose health was increasingly precarious from 1405 onward . After his father 's death in 1413 , Henry assumed control of the country and embarked on war with France in the ongoing Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 -- 1453 ) between the two nations . His military successes culminated in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt ( 1415 ) and saw him come close to conquering France . After months of negotiation with Charles VI of France , the Treaty of Troyes ( 1420 ) recognised Henry V as regent and heir apparent to the French throne , and he was subsequently married to Charles 's daughter , Catherine of Valois ( 1401 -- 37 ) . Following Henry V 's sudden and unexpected death in France two years later , he was succeeded by his infant son , who reigned as Henry VI ( 1422 -- 61 , 1470 -- 71 ) .

neg: State funerals in the United Kingdom In the United Kingdom , a state funeral is usually reserved for a monarch . The last such funeral was held in 1952 for King George VI . In addition , very exceptionally , a state funeral may be held to honour a highly distinguished figure , with the approval of the monarch and with Parliament 's approval ( of the expenditure of public funds ) . This last happened in 1965 for Sir Winston Churchill .   Other funerals ( including those of senior members of the Royal Family and high-ranking public figures ) may share many of the characteristics of a state funeral without being gazetted as such ; for these , the term ` ceremonial funeral ' is used . In the 21st century , the funerals of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother ( 2002 ) and Baroness Thatcher ( 2013 ) have fallen into this category .   Along with the funeral service itself ( which will be a large-scale national occasion ) , these events tend to be characterized by the use of a gun carriage to transport the coffin between locations , accompanied by a procession of military bands and detachments along with mourners and other officials . They may also feature a lying in state and other associated ceremonies .

neg: Da Ming Hunyi Tu The Da Ming Hunyi Tu ( Chinese for the `` Composite Map of the Ming Empire '' ) is an extensive Chinese map . It was painted in colour on stiff silk and 386 x 456 cm in size . The original text was written in Classical Chinese , but on the surviving copy Manchu labels were later superimposed . The surviving copy of the map shows later revisions , and it is uncertain whether it is ( or how closely it matches ) the original .   It is one of the oldest surviving maps from East Asia although the exact date of creation remains unknown . It depicts Eurasia , placing China in the center and stretching northward to Mongolia , southward to Java , eastward to central Japan , and westward to Europe ( including the East African coast as an island ) .

neg: Lowestoft Porcelain Factory The Lowestoft Porcelain Factory was a soft-paste porcelain factory on Crown Street in Lowestoft , Suffolk , active from 1757 to 1802 , producing domestic wares such as pots , teapots , and jugs , with shapes copied from silverwork or from Bow and Worcester porcelain . The factory , built on the site of an existing pottery or brick kiln , was later used as a brewery and malt kiln . Most of its remaining buildings were demolished in 1955 .   Lowestoft collectors divide the factory 's products into three distinct periods , Early Lowestoft c. 1756-c . 1761 , Middle-Period c. 1761-c . 1768 and Late-Period c. 1768 to factory closure in 1802 . All told , the factory was in production for longer than any English soft-paste porcelain producer other than Royal Worcester and Royal Crown Derby .   The factory produced experimental wares in about 1756 and first advertised their porcelain in 1760 . During the early period wares decorated with Chinese-inspired scenes in underglaze blue were produced . This type of decoration continued throughout the life of the factory but scenes were gradually simplified . Overglaze colours in enamel were used from about 1768 , generally in white and blue or in a polychrome that utilizes a bright brick red . After 1770 transfer printing was used .   Lowestoft has no factory mark of its own , but some Lowestoft pieces bear dates , names of owners , or the words A Trifle from Lowestoft . Some pieces used the marks of Meissen or Worcester . Some export porcelain made and decorated in China was confused with Lowestoft and may still be called `` Oriental Lowestoft '' in the United States . At present , Lowestoft porcelain collections exist at the museum in Nicholas Everett Park , Oulton Broad , and at the Castle Museum , Norwich .

neg: Our Island Story Our Island Story : A Child 's History of England is a book by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall , first published in 1905 in London by T. C. & E. C. Jack .   It covers the history of England from the time of the Roman occupation until Queen Victoria 's death , using a mixture of traditional history and mythology to explain the story of British history in a way accessible to younger readers .   Prime Minister David Cameron chose Our Island Story when asked to select his favourite childhood book in October 2010 :   `` When I was younger , I particularly enjoyed ` Our Island Story ' by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall -LSB- ... -RSB- It is written in a way that really captured my imagination and which nurtured my interest in the history of our great nation . ''   The book depicts the union of England and Scotland as a desirable and inevitable event , and praises rebels and the collective will of the common people in opposing tyrants , including kings like John and Charles I.

neg: Duke of Marlborough (title) Duke of Marlborough ( -LSB- localaudio = En-uk-Marlborough . oggˈmɔːlbrə -RSB- ) is a title in the Peerage of England . It was created by Queen Anne in 1702 for John Churchill , 1st Earl of Marlborough ( 1650 -- 1722 ) , the noted military leader , and indeed an unqualified reference to the Duke of Marlborough in a historical text will almost certainly refer to him . The name of the dukedom refers to Marlborough in Wiltshire . It is one of the few titles in the peerage which allows for suo jure '' female inheritance , and the only current dukedom to do so .   The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from its creation 1626 until its extinction with the death of the 4th earl in 1679 . The title was recreated 10 years later for John Churchill ( in 1689 ) .

neg: Qingbai ware Qingbai ware ( 青白 qīngbái „ green-white `` , formerly `` Ch ` ing-pai '' etc. ) is a type of Chinese porcelain produced under the Song Dynasty and Yuan dynasty , defined by the ceramic glaze used . Qingbai ware is white with a blue-greenish tint , and is also referred to as Yingqing ( `` shadow green '' , although this name appears only to date from the 18th century ) . It was made in Jiangxi province in south-eastern China , in several locations including Jingdezhen , and is arguably the first type of porcelain to be produced on a very large scale . However , it was not at the time a prestigious ware , and was mostly used for burial wares and exports , or a middle-rank Chinese market . The quality is very variable , reflecting these different markets ; the best pieces can be very thin-walled .   Qingbai ware was made with a white porcelain body , fired with a glaze that produced a slight blue-green tint . The kilns used pine wood as fuel , producing a reducing atmosphere that produced the tint . Qingbai ware was used by commoners , and never seems to have been made for imperial use ; its quality only came to be appreciated by collectors several centuries later . In the 14th century the same manufacturers turned to the new blue and white porcelain , using the same body , which saw the end of Qingbai ware .   Many types of items were made : as well as the usual plates and bowls , there were teapots and small round lidded boxes , usually described as for cosmetics . Items made for burial included tall funerary urns with complicated , and rather crowded , sets of figures . There are also tomb figures , though less care is expended on these than on the famous sancai figures of the Tang dynasty . Small Buddha statues , often with highly detailed hair , clothes and accessories , come from late in the period .   A variety of forming techniques were used , tending for basic shapes to move over the period from wheel-thrown vessels decorated by carving with a knife ( incised ) or impressed decoration , to moulded bodies . Shapes and decoration had much in common with Ding ware from northern China ; indeed the Jingdezhen white wares preceding Qingbai are known as `` Southern Ding '' .

neg: Accession Day tilt The Accession Day tilts were a series of elaborate festivities held annually at the court of Elizabeth I of England to celebrate her Accession Day , 17 November , also known as Queen 's Day . The tilts combined theatrical elements with jousting , in which Elizabeth 's courtiers competed to outdo each other in allegorical armour and costume , poetry , and pageantry to exalt the queen and her realm of England .   The last Elizabethan Accession Day tilt was held in November 1602 ; the queen died the following spring . Tilts continued as part of festivities marking the Accession Day of James I , 24 March , until 1624 , the year before his death .

neg: Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor ( 21 October 1328 -- 24 June 1398 ) , personal name Zhu Yuanzhang , was the founder and first emperor of China 's Ming dynasty .   In the middle of the 14th century , with famine , plagues , and peasant revolts sweeping across China , Zhu Yuanzhang rose to command the force that conquered China and ended the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty , forcing the Mongols to retreat to the Central Asian steppes . Following his seizure of the Yuan capital , Khanbaliq ( present-day Beijing ) , Zhu claimed the Mandate of Heaven and established the Ming dynasty in 1368 . Trusting only in his family , he made his many sons powerful feudal princes along the northern marches and the Yangtze valley . Having outlived his first successor , the Hongwu Emperor enthroned his grandson via a series of instructions ; this ended in failure , when the Jianwen Emperor 's attempt to unseat his uncles led to the Ming Yongle Emperor ( r. 14021424 ) '' .   Most of the historical sites related to the Hongwu Emperor are located in Nanjing , the original capital of the Ming dynasty .

neg: Treaty of Nanking The Treaty of Nanking or Nanjing was a peace treaty which ended the First Opium War ( 1839 -- 42 ) between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842 . It was the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties on the ground that Britain had no obligations in return .   In the wake of China 's military defeat , with British warships poised to attack Nanking , representatives from the British and Qing Empires negotiated on board HMS Cornwallis anchored at the city . On 29 August 1842 , British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Qiying , Yilibu , and Niu Jian signed the treaty . It consisted of thirteen articles and was ratified by Queen Victoria and the Daoguang Emperor nine months later . A copy of the treaty is kept by the British government while another copy is kept by the Taiwan Ministry of Foreign Affairs at the National Palace Museum in Taipei .

neg: Anne, Queen of Great Britain Anne ( 6 February 1665 -- 1 August 1714 ) became Queen of England , Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702 . On 1 May 1707 , under the Acts of Union , two of her realms , the kingdoms of England and Scotland , united as a single sovereign state known as Great Britain . She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death .   Anne was born in the reign of her uncle Charles II , who had no legitimate children . Her father , James , was first in line to the throne . His suspected Roman Catholicism was unpopular in England , and on Charles 's instructions Anne was raised as an Anglican . Three years after he succeeded Charles , James was deposed in the `` Glorious Revolution '' of 1688 . Anne 's Dutch Protestant brother-in-law and cousin William III became joint monarch with his wife , Anne 's elder sister Mary II . Although the sisters had been close , disagreements over Anne 's finances , status and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Mary 's accession and they became estranged . William and Mary had no children . After Mary 's death in 1694 , William continued as sole monarch until he was succeeded by Anne upon his death in 1702 .   As queen , Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians , who were more likely to share her Anglican religious views than their opponents , the Whigs . The Whigs grew more powerful during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession , until in 1710 Anne dismissed many of them from office . Her close friendship with Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough , turned sour as the result of political differences .   Anne was plagued by ill health throughout her life . From her thirties onwards , she grew increasingly lame and obese . Despite seventeen pregnancies by her husband , Prince George of Denmark , she died without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart . Under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701 , she was succeeded by her second cousin George I of the House of Hanover , who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother , Elizabeth , a daughter of James VI and I.

neg: Liu Song dynasty The Liu Song dynasty ( ; Wade-Giles : Liu Sung Ch ` ao ) , also known as Former Song ( 420-479 CE ) , was first of the four Southern Dynasties in China , succeeding the Eastern Jin and followed by the Southern Qi .   The dynasty was founded by Liu Yu ( 363 -- 422 ) , whose surname together with `` Song '' forms the most commonly used name for the dynasty , the Liu Song . This appellation is used to distinguish it from a later dynasty of the same name , the Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 , whose ruling family was Zhao ) , which is better known and more significant . The Liu Song is also at times referred to as the `` Southern Song '' , as it is one of the Southern Dynasties period , i.e. , one of those with its capital at Jiankang ( modern Nanjing ) . However , the later Song dynasty , after 1127 , when it moved its capital south to Lin ` an ( modern Hangzhou , Zhejiang ) , is most commonly referred to as `` Southern Song '' . Thus , for the shorter dynasty which is the subject of this article , `` Liu Song '' has become the term preferred in most contexts .   The Liu Song was a time when there was much internal turmoil . A number of emperors were incompetent and/or tyrannical , which at least partially led to many military revolts . These rulers include Liu Shao , Emperor Xiaowu , Emperor Qianfei , Emperor Ming , and Emperor Houfei . Emperor Ming was especially vicious , murdering a large number of his brothers , nephews , and other male relatives -- many of them children . Such internal instability eventually led to the dynasty 's destruction . However , its founder Emperor Wu was considered one of the greatest generals during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period , and the reign of its third emperor , Emperor Wen , is known for its political stability and capable administration , not only of its emperor but its strong and honest officials . This is known as the Reign of Yuanjia ( 425 -- 453 ) and one of the relative golden ages for the Southern Dynasties .

neg: Monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a group , usually a family called the dynasty , embodies the country 's national identity and one of its members , called the monarch , exercises a role of sovereignty . The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic ( crowned republic ) , to partial and restricted ( constitutional monarchy ) , to completely autocratic ( absolute monarchy ) . Traditionally and in most cases , the monarch 's post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication , but there are also elective monarchies where the monarch is elected . Each of these has variations : in some elected monarchies only those of certain pedigrees are , whereas many hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion , age , gender , mental capacity , etc. . Occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election . Finally , there have been cases where the term of a monarch 's reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved : an invasion being repulsed , for instance . Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy .   Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century , but it is no longer prevalent . Where it exists , it is now usually a constitutional monarchy , in which the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role , but exercises limited or no official political power : under the written or unwritten constitution , others have governing authority . Currently , 47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state , 19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state . All European monarchies are constitutional ones , with the exception of the Vatican City which is an elective monarchy , but sovereigns in the smaller states exercise greater political influence than in the larger . The monarchs of Cambodia , Japan , and Malaysia `` reign , but do not rule '' although there is considerable variation in the degree of authority they wield . Although they reign under constitutions , the monarchs of Brunei , Morocco , Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia and Swaziland appear to continue to exercise more political influence than any other single source of authority in their nations , either by constitutional mandate or by tradition .


query: The Right Stuff was adapted from Tom Wolfe's book of the same name.

pos: The Right Stuff (film) The Right Stuff is a 1983 American epic historical drama film that was adapted from Tom Wolfe 's best-selling 1979 book of the same name about the Navy , Marine and Air Force test pilots who were involved in aeronautical research at Edwards Air Force Base , California , as well as the seven military pilots who were selected to be the astronauts for Project Mercury , the first manned spaceflight by the United States . The Right Stuff stars Ed Harris , Scott Glenn , Sam Shepard , Fred Ward , Dennis Quaid and Barbara Hershey . Levon Helm is the narrator in the introduction and elsewhere in the film , as well as having a co-starring role as Air Force test pilot Jack Ridley . In 2013 the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' .

neg: The Doorbell Rang The Doorbell Rang is a Nero Wolfe detective novel by Rex Stout , first published by the Viking Press in 1965 .

neg: Gump and Co. Gump & Co. ( or Forrest Gump and Co. ) is a 1995 novel by Winston Groom . It is the sequel to his novel Forrest Gump ( 1986 ) , and the Academy Award-winning film of the same name released in 1994 , with Tom Hanks . It was written to chronicle Forrest 's life throughout the 1980s .

neg: Stage Right! Stage Right ! is a professional theatre company and performing arts school located in Greensburg , Pennsylvania . Established in 1998 as an organization for young people to take classes in musical theatre by Chris Rizk , Stage Right ! also became a professional theatre company in 1999 , established by artistic director Anthony Marino , Rizk 's brother . The company produces a full season of musicals , utilizing professional actors from the Pittsburgh theatre scene as well as students from their classes .   In spring 2013 , Stage Right moved its studio a few blocks to a larger space at 105 W Fourth Street , Greensburg .   The season is supplemented with many other opportunities to utilize the talents of the students , including an `` all-county musical '' featuring students from local high school theatre programs , children 's plays , summer camp productions , and Books Come Alive ! , a series of adaptations of children 's books performed at libraries throughout the area . The company is also notable for its annual production of The Rocky Horror Show every Halloween . Many of Stage Right ! 's students have had success in Pittsburgh Public Theater 's Shakespeare Monologue and Scene Contest , as well as going on to well-respected college theatre programs such as Carnegie Mellon University , Point Park University , New York University , Seton Hill University , Syracuse University , and Shenandoah University . Stage Right ! alums have also had success in professional theatre , working in such venues as York Theatre , Off the Wall Productions , Bricolage Production Company , Pittsburgh Irish and Classical Theatre , Prime Stage Theatre , Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera , Pittsburgh Musical Theater , St. Vincent Summer Theatre , City Theatre , Terra Nova Theatre Group , MCC Theater , and 12 Peers Theater , as well as having had their work featured in the Pittsburgh New Works Festival .

neg: The Theory of Everything (2014 film) The Theory of Everything is a 2014 British biographical romantic drama film directed by James Marsh and adapted by Anthony McCarten from the memoir Travelling to Infinity : My Life with Stephen by Jane Wilde Hawking , which deals with her relationship with her ex-husband , theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking , his diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS , also known as Lou Gehrig 's disease or motor neurone disease ) , and his success in physics .   The film stars Eddie Redmayne and Felicity Jones with Charlie Cox , Emily Watson , Simon McBurney , Christian McKay , Harry Lloyd and David Thewlis featured in supporting roles . The film had its world premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2014 .   The film was acclaimed critically worldwide , with praise for the musical score , cinematography and the performance of Felicity Jones and especially Eddie Redmayne , which earned him nominations for a variety of accolades in award shows and film festivals , including the Academy Award for Best Actor . The film received four Golden Globe Award nominations , winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama for Redmayne and Best Original Score for Jóhannsson . It received three Screen Actors Guild Awards nominations , winning one for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role for Redmayne . It received 10 British Academy Film Awards nominations and won Outstanding British Film , Best Leading Actor ( for Redmayne ) and Best Adapted Screenplay ( for McCarten ) .

neg: From Bauhaus to Our House From Bauhaus to Our House is a 1981 narrative of Modern architecture , written by Tom Wolfe .

neg: Breakfast on Pluto Breakfast on Pluto is a 1998 novel by Patrick McCabe . The book was shortlisted for the 1998 Booker Prize , and was adapted for the screen by McCabe and Neil Jordan ; Jordan directed the 2005 film . The author derived the novel 's title from the 1969 hit record Breakfast On Pluto by Don Partridge .

neg: Is It Just Me or Is Everything Shit? Is It Just Me or Is Everything Shit ? : The Encyclopedia of Modern Life is a book by Steve Lowe and Alan McArthur . It was published in Britain in 2005 . The authors give satirical criticisms of people , places , institutions and phenomena seen in modern British life . Subjects include Live 8 , 50 Cent , Chris Martin , Philip Green and The Daily Mail . The jacket copy describes the book as a `` broadside against consumer capitalism , '' and this is a recurring theme throughout . The book displays a broadly left-wing view of life .   The book was also made available as an audio CD read by Julian Rhind-Tutt and Stephen Mangan .   In November 2006 , Is It Just Me Or Is Everything Shit ? : Volume Two was released as a sequel , with the same authors turning their attentions to Lemsip medicine and Bratz dolls amongst other subjects . The book features the tagline `` Because if anything , it all just keeps getting worse '' .

neg: Guys Read Guys Read is a web-based literacy program for boys founded by author Jon Scieszka in 2001 . Its mission is `` to help boys become self-motivated , lifelong readers '' by bringing attention to the issue , promoting the expansion of what is called `` reading '' to include materials like comic books , and encouraging grown men to be literacy role models .   Scieszka says , `` It kind of came out of my experience both as growing up a guy , for starters , and then going into elementary school teaching , where I found that the guy sensibility is n't really appreciated there , mostly that the world of elementary school is probably like 85 % women - teachers and librarians . '' As for how exactly to motivate boys to read , Scieszka says , `` I think the best way to do it is to give them things they like to read ... What we have n't done with boys is we have n't really given them a broad range of reading . In schools , what 's seen as reading is so narrow : it 's literary , realistic fiction . ''   The Guys Read website includes a large list of `` books that guys read '' , instructions as to how to start a Guys Read `` field office '' ( or book club ) , a blog , and links to many boy-loved authors ' websites .   Guys Write for Guys Read , the first book to come out of the program , is a compilation that features over eighty stories and illustrations from noted male authors and illustrators who shared stories from their own childhoods .   In 2010 , Scieszka started the Guys Read Library of Great Reading -- collections of original short stories by male and female authors who boys enjoy reading , grouped by genre . The first volume is humor , Guys Read : Funny Business ; the second is mystery , Guys Read : Thriller ; the third is sports , Guys Read : The Sports Pages . The fourth volume in the collection is sci-fi/fantasy , titled Guys Read : Other Worlds . The fifth volume 's theme is nonfiction , titled Guys Read : True Stories . A sixth volume , whose theme is horror , titled Guys Read : Terrifying Tales , was released on September 1 , 2015 .

neg: Getting It: The Psychology of est Getting It : The Psychology of est is a non-fiction book by American psychologist Sheridan Fenwick , first published in 1976 , analyzing Werner Erhard 's Erhard Seminars Training or est. . It is based on Fenwick 's own experience of attending a four-day session of the est training , an intensive 60-hour personal development course in the self-help genre . Large groups of up to 250 people took the est training at one time .   In the first section of Fenwick 's book , she recounts the est training process and the methods used during the course . Fenwick details the rules or `` agreements '' laid out by the trainers to the attendees , which include not talking to others or leaving the session to go to the bathroom unless during an announced break period . The second section is analytic : Fenwick analyzes the methods used by the est trainers , evaluates the course 's potential effects , and discusses Erhard 's background . Fenwick concludes that the program 's long-term effects are unknown , the est training may not be appropriate for certain groups of people , and that the large proportion of participants experience positive effects .   Writing in Library Journal , psychiatrist James Charney describes the book as `` the only useful critical look '' at the training . Zane Berzins of The New York Times Book Review characterizes the book as a `` calm and professionally informed view '' . Hearings held in 1979 before the United States House of Representatives on a juvenile delinquents program depicted in Scared Straight ! cited the book for background on the est training , as did psychologist Gidi Rubinstein in a 2005 study of the Landmark Forum published in the academic journal Psychology and Psychotherapy : Theory , Research and Practice .

neg: A Delicate Truth A Delicate Truth is a 2013 spy novel by John le Carré . Set in 2008 and 2011 , the book features a British/American covert mission in Gibraltar and the subsequent consequences for two British civil servants .   Le Carré describes this as not only his most British novel but also his most autobiographical work in years . The author told The Daily Telegraph that he has based two of the book 's characters on himself . Le Carré sees Toby Bell as `` the thirty-something rising star of Her Majesty 's Foreign Service ... the striving ambitious fellow I fancy myself to have been at much the same age . `` whereas Sir Christopher ( `` Kit '' ) Probyn is `` a retired Foreign Office civil servant , who lives in rural Cornwall . `` the author has `` lived in a clifftop house outside St Buryan , near Land 's End , for more than 40 years . ''   The novel may be loosely based on Operation Flavius , the 1988 operation during which three members of the Provisional IRA were shot dead by the British SAS in Gibraltar .

neg: Antidote Films For the Australian film distribution company , see Antidote Films ( Australia ) .   Antidote Films , also known as Antidote International Films , Inc. , is an independent film production company founded by producer Jeff Levy-Hinte based in the Hudson Square neighborhood of New York City . In 2008 , Antidote completed several documentaries , including Soul Power and The Dungeon Masters , both of which premiered at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival .   Antidote produced Roman Polanski : Wanted and Desired , a documentary directed by Marina Zenovich , which was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize and winner of the Documentary Editing Award at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival , the film will be released domestically by HBO and internationally through The Weinstein Company .   Prior to this , Antidote produced several narrative films until The Last Winter , when the company shifted its focus to documentary .   Other Antidiote productions include the eco-horror thriller The Last Winter ; The Hawk Is Dying , adapted from Harry Crews ' novel and directed by Julian Goldberger ; Mysterious Skin , directed by Greg Araki ; and Thirteen , directed by Catherine Hardwicke .   In 2003 Daily Variety announced Antidote 's plans for a film adaptation of the JT LeRoy novel ` Sarah ' , to be directed by Steven Shainberg . According to The New York Times , when Shainberg learned that JT LeRoy was a literary persona and that Laura Albert was the actual author of Sarah , he decided `` to make a ` meta-film , ' a triple-layered movie that would blend the novel with the lives of its real and purported authors in a project he took to calling ` Sarah Plus . ' '' The Times also reported that this new project `` required the rights to Laura Albert 's story , rights that she in no uncertain terms refused to grant . '' In June 2007 Antidote sued Albert for fraud , claiming that a contract signed with JT LeRoy to make a feature film of Sarah was null and void . After a Manhattan jury found Albert liable in monetary damages for the tort of fraud because she had signed her nom de plume to the movie contract , The New York Times noted that Jeffrey Levy-Hinte said , `` if Ms. Albert , who never made a fortune from her literary works , could not afford to pay the judgment , he might have to consider laying claim to the rights to her past and future books . '' Levy-Hinte 's chief lawyer insisted , `` Neither Jeff nor I want to ruin Laura Albert . We just want her to behave with a little more integrity . '' After an appeal , the damages awarded were reduced by settlement with Antidote in 2009 , and Laura Albert retained the rights to her books and her life story .

neg: Elsie de Wolfe Elsie de Wolfe , also known as Lady Mendl , ( December 20 , 1859 ? -- July 12 , 1950 ) was an American actress , interior decorator , nominal author of the influential 1913 book The House in Good Taste , and a prominent figure in New York , Paris , and London society . According to The New Yorker , `` Interior design as a profession was invented by Elsie de Wolfe , '' although the praise is not strictly true . De Wolfe was certainly the most famous name in the field until the 1930s , but the profession of interior decorator/designer was recognized as a promising one as early as 1900 , five years before she received her first official commission , The Colony Club in New York . During her married life ( from 1926 until her death in 1950 ) the press often referred to her as Lady Mendl . She was born in New York City and died at Versailles , France . Cremated , her ashes were placed in a common grave , the lease expired , in Pere Lachaise Cemetery , Paris

neg: Raymond Chandler bibliography Raymond Chandler ( 1888 -- 1959 ) was an American-British novelist and screenwriter . He was born in Chicago , Illinois and lived in the US until he was seven , when his parents separated and his Anglo-Irish mother brought him to live near London ; he was educated at Dulwich College from 1900 . After working briefly for the British Civil Service , he became a part-time teacher at Dulwich , supplementing his income as a journalist and writer -- mostly for The Westminster Gazette and The Academy . His output -- consisting largely of poems and essays -- was not to his taste , and his biographer Paul Bishop considers the work as `` lifeless '' , while Contemporary Authors describes it as `` lofty in subject and mawkish in tone '' . Chandler returned to the US in 1912 where he trained to become an accountant in Los Angeles . In 1917 he enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Force , saw combat in the trenches in France where he was wounded , and was undergoing flight training in the fledgling Royal Air Force when the war ended .   Chandler returned to the US in 1919 to rekindle his literary career , but instead took a job with an oil company until he was fired in 1932 following a bout of depression , womanizing and heavy drinking . He began writing crime stories for the pulp magazines Black Mask , Detective Fiction Weekly , The Fortnightly Intruder and Dime Detective . The stories were subsequently brought together in collected editions . In 1939 , at the behest of the publisher Alfred A. Knopf , Sr. , Chandler wrote his first novel , The Big Sleep , for which he used parts of his short stories `` Killer in the Rain '' ( 1935 ) and `` The Curtain '' ( 1936 ) . He went on to write seven novels , many of which featured the character Philip Marlowe .   In 1944 Chandler was asked by Paramount Pictures to write the script for the film Double Indemnity with Billy Wilder ; the film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay . It was the first of seven scripts Chandler wrote , although two of them were unused . In 1959 Chandler died of pneumonia , brought on by alcoholism . In the aftermath of his death , many of his unpublished writings -- including letters , literary criticism and prose and poetry -- were released . His biographer Tom Williams considers that Chandler 's name has become `` a touchstone for crime writing , representing not just excellent fiction , but also a type of writing that is at once powerful and beautiful . ''

neg: Selected Shorts Selected Shorts is an event at New York 's Symphony Space on the Upper West Side , in which screen and stage actors read classic and new short fiction before a live audience . The stage show began in 1985 and continues today at Symphony Space 's Peter Jay Sharp Theater .   The annual season of the live events at Symphony Space begins in the mid-fall and ends in mid-spring . There is a theme to each Selected Shorts episode and performance . Several stories are presented around each theme . The stories are always fiction , sometimes classic , sometimes new , always performed by actors from stage , screen and television who bring these short stories to life . Evenings are often co-hosted by writers , literary producers , and other interesting characters . Symphony Space 's Artistic Director Isaiah Sheffer formerly hosted the live events , although many Selected Shorts also feature guest hosts , often well-known writers , who also choose which stories will be read . Mr. Sheffer died on November 9 , 2012 at age 76 . Actor BD Wong acts as the host of the live events since the fall of 2012 .   The readings are recorded live and become the basis of a one-hour radio program , hosted by actors , authors , and entertainers such as David Sedaris , Stephen Colbert , Cynthia Nixon , Wyatt Cenac , and Jane Kaczmarek , with literary commentator Hannah Tinti of One Story Magazine , and are produced in conjunction with WNYC . The programs are distributed by Public Radio International and air on PRI-affiliated public radio stations in the United States . The radio program airs weekly throughout the year .   Originally , the program was distributed by National Public Radio . However , in October 2007 , it moved its distribution to PRI , Public Radio International .   The program 's theme is David Peterson 's `` That 's the Deal , '' performed by the Deardorf/Peterson group . Until 2011 , the radio show began and ended with the piano and cello duet `` Come to the Meadow '' by Roger Kellaway .

neg: There Are Doors There Are Doors is a speculative fiction novel written by Gene Wolfe in 1988 . The narrative follows a department store salesman as he tries to track down his short-lived girlfriend . The title alludes to gateways between two worlds whose nature are explored throughout the book . There Are Doors was nominated for a Locus Fantasy Award in 1988 .

neg: For Us, The Living: A Comedy of Customs For Us , The Living : A Comedy of Customs is a science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein , written in 1938 but published for the first time in 2003 . Heinlein admirer and science fiction author Spider Robinson titled his introductory essay `` RAH DNA '' , as he believes this first , unpublished novel formed the DNA of Heinlein 's later works .   The published version of the novel contains an afterword by Robert James , Ph.D. , Heinlein Society member and Heinlein scholar , explaining how the only known surviving typescript of this `` lost '' work was finally discovered in a garage .

neg: Joel Moss Levinson Joel Moss Levinson is a writer , comedian from Yellow Springs , Ohio . He often collaborates with his older brother , Stephen Levinson , as the Levinson Brothers .   The pair were a part of TedX Dayton 2014 , speaking about successful collaboration .   Along with their third partner , CONAN and former Daily Show writer Rob Kutner , the Levinson Brothers released `` 2776 '' a comedy/musical album benefitting the charity OneKid OneWorld . Featuring Aimee Mann , Patton Oswalt , Ed Helms , Ashanti , Reggie Watts , Ira Glass , Nina Totenberg , Will Forte , Rebirth Brass Band , Yo La Tengo , Margaret Cho , Neko Case , Kelly Hogan , Dick Cavett , Dick Gregory , k.d. lang , Will Arnett , Alex Trebek and more , the album appeared briefly on the Billboard Comedy charts . The album 's liner notes were written by George Saunders and appeared in the New Yorker Joel composed the music for all but two of the 28 tracks .   n 2012 , the Levinson Brothers and Rob Kutner released an EP called `` It 's OK To Do Stuff '' in celebration of the 40th anniversary of `` Free To Be You And Me . '' Made up of songs satirizing the original with songs about gender , childhood , equality and relationships . `` It 's Okay to Do Stuff is first and foremost meant to be funny -- and it is , most of the time . Here , the earnestness of Free to Be is replaced with satire , but irony is the ethos of our age , remember ? '' The album features Lizzy Caplan , Fred Willard , Jane Weidlin , Steven Page , Colin Hanks , Fred Stoller , Eddie Pepitone , Eugene Mirman and others .   Joel gained national attention in 2008 as an Internet personality who professionally wins consumer generated marketing contests , and earned more than money and prizes , by creating corporate jingles and short commercials .   Levinson grew up in Dayton , Ohio . His father Jim was a prosecutor and his mother was a writer . He attended George Washington University for a few semesters . He worked for the KIO ( Kentucky , Indiana , Ohio ) region for BBYO and traveled the country as a song leader for the organization .   In November 2008 , he appeared on The Tonight Show to talk about his contest winnings . Joel was named an Access Hollywood Rising Star on December 1 , 2008 . In 2009 he appeared on CBS News with Katie Couric .

neg: Wolfe Video Wolfe Video is the oldest and largest exclusive distributor of LGBT films in North America .   Founded in 1985 in New Almaden by Kathy Wolfe , the company began as a consumer mail order distribution company for lesbian VHS videos but has evolved over the years to become a full-service distributor of LGBT films . Wolfe releases LGBT films on DVD in North America as well as doing film festival bookings , foreign sales , US digital delivery , and broadcast sales for its library of more than one hundred feature films and dozens of shorts and documentaries .   Notable Wolfe releases over the years include the film Big Eden , the 20th Anniversary DVD release of Desert Hearts , Were the World Mine , and Thom Fitzgerald 's AIDS drama 3 Needles . Significant Wolfe DVD releases in recent years include the Sundance Film Festival award-winner Undertow , the acclaimed French drama Tomboy , the multiple award-winner Gayby , and Swedish lesbian romance Kiss Me ( With Every Heartbeat ) . Wolfe has also released two films by the writer and director Stephen Cone , including The Wise Kids and Henry Gamble 's Birthday Party .   In June 2012 the company launched a new worldwide LGBT movie-watching platform , WolfeOnDemand .   In 2015 , Wolfe Video donated its complete library of lesbian movies to the June L. Mazer Lesbian Archives .

neg: It's Perfectly Normal It 's Perfectly Normal : Changing Bodies , Growing Up , Sex , and Sexual Health is a children 's book about going through puberty . It is written by Robie Harris and illustrated by Michael Emberley . Harris was prompted to write it when an editor asked her to write a children 's book about HIV/AIDS , and she felt the subject needed to be treated more generally . It was first published in 1994 , and has since been translated into 30 languages .   The book is considered highly controversial and is # 12 on the American Library Association 's Most Challenged Books of 2000-2009 list . In 2007 , a woman in Lewiston , Maine made national news when she checked the local libraries ' copies out and refused to return them , claiming the book was ` pornographic ' .   The book has received awards from at least 10 distinguished publications , including Publisher 's Weekly and School Library Journal ( both named it `` Best Book of the Year '' ) , the American Library Association and the New York Times ( both named it `` Notable Book of the Year '' ) , and the San Francisco Chronicle ( listed among `` The Century 's Best Children 's Books '' ) .

neg: Manhattan Transfer (novel) Manhattan Transfer is an American novel by John Dos Passos published in 1925 . It focuses on the development of urban life in New York City from the Gilded Age to the Jazz Age as told through a series of overlapping individual stories .   It is considered to be one of Dos Passos ' most important works . The book attacks the consumerism and social indifference of contemporary urban life , portraying a Manhattan that is merciless yet teeming with energy and restlessness . The book shows some of Dos Passos ' experimental writing techniques and narrative collages that would become more pronounced in his U.S.A. trilogy and other later works . The technique in Manhattan Transfer was inspired in part by James Joyce 's Ulysses ( 1922 ) , T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land , and experiments with film collage by Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein .   Sinclair Lewis described it as `` a novel of the very first importance ... The dawn of a whole new school of writing . '' D. H. Lawrence called it `` the best modern book about New York '' he had ever read , describing it as `` a very complete  film ... of the vast loose gang of strivers and winners and losers which seems to be the very pep of New York . '' In a blurb for a European edition , Ernest Hemingway wrote that , alone among American writers , Dos Passos has `` been able to show to Europeans the America they really find when they come here . ''


query: Philip V of Spain had a long reign.

pos: Philip V of Spain Philip V ( Felipe V , Philippe , Filippo 19 December 1683 -- 9 July 1746 ) was King of Spain from 1 November 1700 to 15 January 1724 , when he abdicated in favour of his son Louis , and from 6 September 1724 , when he reassumed the throne upon his son 's death , to his own death 9 July 1746 .   Before his reign , Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV . His father , Louis , the Grand Dauphin , had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700 . However , since neither the Grand Dauphin nor Philip 's older brother , Louis , Duke of Burgundy , could be displaced from their place in the succession to the French throne , King Charles II of Spain named Philip as his heir in his will . It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe , such that other European powers would take steps to prevent it . Indeed , Philip 's accession in Spain provoked the 14-year War of the Spanish Succession , which continued until the Treaty of Utrecht forbade any future possibility of unifying the French and Spanish thrones .   Philip was the first member of the House of Bourbon to rule as king of Spain . The sum of his two reigns , 45 years and 21 days , is the longest in modern Spanish history .

neg: House of Burgundy The House of Burgundy ( Casa de Borgonha , -LSB- buɾˈɣoɲɐ -RSB- ) was a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty , descending from Robert I , Duke of Burgundy , a younger son of Robert II of France .   The House ruled the Duchy of Burgundy from 1032 -- 1361 . The main line of the dynasty ended with the death in 1361 of Philip I , Duke of Burgundy . His duchy was inherited by John II of France , whose mother had been a member of the House of Burgundy , so the duchy passed to the House of Valois , then the ruling house of France .   Notable members of the main line of the House of Burgundy include :  Robert I , Duke of Burgundy  Henry , Count of Portugal  Hugh III , Duke of Burgundy  Odo IV , Duke of Burgundy  Margaret of Burgundy , the first wife and Queen of Louis X of France  Joan the Lame , the first wife and Queen of Philip VI of France  Philip I , Duke of Burgundy

neg: War of the Vicuñas and Basques The War of the Vicuñas and Basques ( Guerra de Vicuñas y Vascongados ) , or sometimes just Vicuña War , was an armed conflict in Alto Perú , present-day Bolivia , that lasted between June 1622 and March 1625 , fought between Basques and `` Vicuñas '' ( an informal term for non-Basque Spaniards in Alto Perú , a name obtained through the habit of wearing hats made of vicuña skins ) .   Competition over the control of the silver mines in Potosí , Lípez and Chichas surged in the early 17th century , pitting Basques and Vicuñas against each other . The Vicuñas had initially employed legal and political measures attempting to block the Basque attempts to monopolize control over the Cabildo ( municipal government ) of Potosí and the silver mining sector . However , these efforts did not yield results . Violent incidents began in 1615 , and escalated in 1622 following the assassination of a Basque of a street in Potosí .   The Vicuñas were led by Antonio Xeldres . The creole , Mestizo and indigenous populations largely sided with the Vicuñas . The Vicuñas themselves were not always unified , though , as they suffered from internal feuds between Andalusians on one hand and New Castillians and Extremadurans on the other ( the former group eventually withdrew from the rebellion ) .   The war pitted different sectors of the viceregal administration against each other , as some supported the Basque claims for hegemony whilst others had a conciliatory approach to the Vicuña rebels . Personalities involved in the conflict included the president and oidores of the Royal Audiencia of Charcas , treasury officials and the corregidor of Potosí and the visitador ( sent to the area in order to audit fiscal accounts ) .   The Vicuña rebels had killed 64 men by March 1624 . However , the Basque control over the city and the mines had not been broken . Basque leaders pleaded to the King of Spain , Philip IV , to intervene . The King in return ordered the Viceroy of Peru to act decisively against the Vicuñas . Between 1624 and 1625 , the viceregal authorities managed to capture several key Vicuña leaders , executing forty of them .   The war would last for three years . The war did not end in any decisive victory for any side , but rather as a result of mutual exhaustion . An agreement to end hostilities was reached . The marriage between the children of two of the leaders of the opposing camps , the son of the Basque leader Francisco Oyanume and the daughter of the Vicuña general Castillo , was part of the settlement of the conflict . In April 1625 , a royal decree was issued , pardoning all Vicuñas fighters except those having committed blood crimes . Some Vicuñas continued acts of banditry in the following years , but without the ethnic or political overtones as during the war with the Basques . Basque-Vicuña rivalry did , however , continue for a century .   On March 15 , 1626 , the ingenios of Potosí were destroyed by massive flooding . This event was interpreted as a divine punishment for the past violences .   Later histiography has sought to emphasize the socio-economic contradictions as catalysts for the war , framing it as class warfare .

neg: Charles V of France Charles V ( 21 January 1338 -- 16 September 1380 ) , called the Wise ( French : `` le Sage '' ) , was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1364 to his death .   In 1349 , as a young prince , Charles received from his grandfather King Philip VI the province of Dauphiné to rule . This allowed him to bear the title `` Dauphin '' until his coronation , which led to the integration of the Dauphiné into the crown lands of France . After 1350 , all heirs apparent of France bore the title of Dauphin until their coronation .   Charles became regent of France when his father John II was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 . To pay the ransom , Charles raised taxes . As a result , he faced hostility from the nobility , led by Charles the Bad , King of Navarre ; the opposition of the French bourgeoisie , which was channeled through the Estates-General led by Etienne Marcel ; and with peasant revolts known as Jacqueries . Charles overcame all of these rebellions , but in order to liberate his father , he had to conclude the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 , in which he abandoned large portions of south-western France to Edward III of England and agreed to pay a huge ransom .   Charles became king in 1364 . With the help of talented advisers known as the Marmousets , his skillful management of the kingdom allowed him to replenish the royal treasury and to restore the prestige of the House of Valois . He established the first permanent army paid with regular wages , which liberated the French populace from the companies of routiers who regularly plundered the country when not employed . Led by Bertrand du Guesclin , the French Army was able to turn the tide of the Hundred Years ' War to Charles ' advantage , and by the end of Charles ' reign , they had reconquered almost all the territories ceded to the English in 1360 . Furthermore , the French Navy , led by Jean de Vienne , managed to attack the English coast for the first time since the beginning of the Hundred Years ' War .   Charles V died in 1380 . He was succeeded by his son Charles VI the Mad , whose disastrous reign allowed the English to regain control of large parts of France .

neg: Philip IV of Spain Philip IV of Spain ( Felipe IV 8 April 1605 -- 17 September 1665 ) was King of Spain ( as Philip IV in Castille and Philip III in Aragon ) and Portugal as Philip III ( Filipe III ) . He ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death and in Portugal until 1640 . Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts , including such artists as Diego Velázquez , and his rule over Spain during the challenging period of the Thirty Years ' War .   On the eve of his death in 1665 , the Spanish Empire had reached approximately 12.2 million square kilometers ( 4.7 million square miles ) in area but in other respects was in decline , a process to which Philip contributed with his inability to achieve successful domestic and military reform .

neg: Purism (Spanish architecture) Purism ( architecture ) redirects here . For another form of purism in architecture , see Purism ( arts )   Purism is an initial phase of Renaissance architecture in Spain , which took place between 1530 and 1560 , after to Isabelline Gothic and prior to the Herrerian architecture in the last third of the 16th century . The name `` Prince Philip '' refers to the period in which Philip II of Spain ( born in 1527 ) had not yet received the inheritance of the Spanish Monarchy by abdication of his father the Emperor Charles V ( 1556 ) . The name `` Serlian '' is due to the influential architect and treatise Sebastiano Serlio ( in addition to the architectural element called Serlian in his honor ) . The Greco-Roman , the purist and the casticist are relate to the interpretation given to different elements of style , whether intellectual , formal , structural or decorative . Until then , writers of the period termed the classicist forms of the Italian Renaissance as the roman ( Diego de Sagredo Las Medidas del Romano , 1526 ) , while the late-Gothic forms were called the modern . For a more stylistic periodization more common in the art history , at that point of the 16th century the Cinquecento had entered in its Mannerist phase , while for the Spanish art is commonly used the expression High Renaissance ( reserving the term Low Renaissance for the last third of the century ) .

neg: Carlos III Carlos III may refer to :   Charles III of Spain , King of Spain from 1759 to 1788 .  Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Carlos III , a Spanish award .  Universidad Carlos III de Madrid , a Spanish university bearing his name .

neg: Council of the Indies The Council of the Indies ; officially , the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies '' ' ( Real y Supremo Consejo de Indias , -LSB- reˈal i suˈpɾemo konˈsexo ðe ˈindjas -RSB- ) , was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Americas and the Philippines . The crown held absolute power over the Indies and the Council of the Indies was the administrative and advisory body for those overseas realms . It was established in 1524 by Charles V of Spain to administer `` the Indies , '' Spain 's name for its territories . Such an administrative entity , on the conciliar model of the Council of Castile , was created following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521 , which demonstrated the importance of the Americas . It start as a section under the jurisdiction of the Council of Castile , but was then established as an autonomous body with legislative , executive and judicial functions . The Council of the Indies was abolished in 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes , briefly restored in 1814 by Ferdinand VII of Spain , and definitively abolished in 1834 by the regency , acting on behalf of the four-year-old Isabella II of Spain .

neg: Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years ' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet , rulers of the Kingdom of England , against the House of Valois , rulers of the Kingdom of France , over the succession of the French throne . Each side drew many allies into the war . It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages , in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe . The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline , and the development of strong national identities in both countries .   After the Norman Conquest , the kings of England were vassals of the kings of France for their possessions in France . The French kings had endeavored , over the centuries , to reduce these possessions , to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English . The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been part of French policy to check the growth of English power , particularly whenever the English were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland , an ally of France .   Through his mother , Isabella of France , Edward III of England was the grandson of Philip IV of France and nephew of Charles IV of France , the last king of the senior line of the House of Capet . In 1316 , a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne . When Charles IV died in 1328 , Isabella , unable to claim the French throne for herself , claimed it for her son . The French rejected the claim , maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess . For about nine years ( 1328 -- 1337 ) , the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne , but the interference of the French king , Philip VI , in Edward III 's war against Scotland permitted Edward III to reassert his claim to the French throne . Several overwhelming English victories in the war -- especially at Crecy , Poitiers , and Agincourt -- raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph . However , the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest . Starting in 1429 , decisive French victories at Orléans , Patay , Formigny , and Castillon concluded the war in favour of France , with England permanently losing most of its major possessions on the continent .   Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces : the Edwardian Era War ( 1337 -- 1360 ) ; the Caroline War ( 1369 -- 1389 ) ; and the Lancastrian War ( 1415 -- 1453 ) . Local conflicts in neighbouring areas , which were contemporarily related to the war , including the War of the Breton Succession ( 1341 -- 1364 ) , the Castilian Civil War ( 1366 -- 1369 ) , the War of the Two Peters ( 1356 -- 1375 ) in Aragon , and the 1383 -- 85 Crisis in Portugal , were availed by the parties to advance their agendas . Later historians adopted the term `` Hundred Years ' War '' as a historiography periodization to encompass all of these events , thus constructing the longest military conflict in European history .   The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors . By its end , feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops , and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies . Although primarily a dynastic conflict , the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism . The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated , and artillery became important . The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare . With respect to the belligerents , in France , civil wars , deadly epidemics , famines , and bandit free-companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically . English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture . The dissatisfaction of English nobles , resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings , became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 -- 1487 ) .

neg: Henry V of England Henry V ( 9 August 1386 -- 31 August 1422 ) was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 36 in 1422 . He was the second English monarch who came from the House of Lancaster .   After military experience fighting the Welsh during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr , and against the powerful aristocratic Percys of Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury , Henry came into political conflict with his father , whose health was increasingly precarious from 1405 onward . After his father 's death in 1413 , Henry assumed control of the country and embarked on war with France in the ongoing Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 -- 1453 ) between the two nations . His military successes culminated in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt ( 1415 ) and saw him come close to conquering France . After months of negotiation with Charles VI of France , the Treaty of Troyes ( 1420 ) recognised Henry V as regent and heir apparent to the French throne , and he was subsequently married to Charles 's daughter , Catherine of Valois ( 1401 -- 37 ) . Following Henry V 's sudden and unexpected death in France two years later , he was succeeded by his infant son , who reigned as Henry VI ( 1422 -- 61 , 1470 -- 71 ) .

neg: Monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a group , usually a family called the dynasty , embodies the country 's national identity and one of its members , called the monarch , exercises a role of sovereignty . The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic ( crowned republic ) , to partial and restricted ( constitutional monarchy ) , to completely autocratic ( absolute monarchy ) . Traditionally and in most cases , the monarch 's post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication , but there are also elective monarchies where the monarch is elected . Each of these has variations : in some elected monarchies only those of certain pedigrees are , whereas many hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion , age , gender , mental capacity , etc. . Occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election . Finally , there have been cases where the term of a monarch 's reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved : an invasion being repulsed , for instance . Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy .   Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century , but it is no longer prevalent . Where it exists , it is now usually a constitutional monarchy , in which the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role , but exercises limited or no official political power : under the written or unwritten constitution , others have governing authority . Currently , 47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state , 19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state . All European monarchies are constitutional ones , with the exception of the Vatican City which is an elective monarchy , but sovereigns in the smaller states exercise greater political influence than in the larger . The monarchs of Cambodia , Japan , and Malaysia `` reign , but do not rule '' although there is considerable variation in the degree of authority they wield . Although they reign under constitutions , the monarchs of Brunei , Morocco , Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia and Swaziland appear to continue to exercise more political influence than any other single source of authority in their nations , either by constitutional mandate or by tradition .

neg: Treaty of Vienna (1725) The Treaty of Vienna was signed on 30 April 1725 between Emperor Charles VI of Austria and King Philip V of Spain .   The treaty guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction of the Habsburgs , which was first declared in 1713 . Based on the terms of the treaty , the Austrian Empire relinquished all claims to the Spanish throne . Moreover , Austria vowed to aid Spain in reacquiring Gibraltar from the British Empire . In return Spain gave in its colonies the Ostend Company the same rights as the Dutch and English Companies .   With this Austrian support , Spain attacked Gibraltar on 11 February 1727 , which led to the Anglo-Spanish War ( 1727 ) .   The Spanish negotiator was John William , Baron Ripperda , who became Prime Minister of Spain on his return .

neg: Joan II of Navarre Joan II ( Jeanne 28 January 1312 -- 6 October 1349 ) was Queen of Navarre from 1328 until her death . She was the only surviving child of Louis X of France , King of France and Navarre , and Margaret of Burgundy . Joan 's paternity was dubious because her mother was involved in a scandal , but Louis X declared her his legitimate daughter before he died in 1316 . However , the French lords were opposed to the idea of a female monarch and elected Louis X 's brother , Philip V , king . The Navarrese noblemen also did homage to Philip . Joan 's maternal grandmother , Agnes of France , Duchess of Burgundy , and uncle , Odo IV of Burgundy , made attempts to secure the counties of Champagne and Brie ( which had been the patrimony of Louis X 's mother , Joan I of Navarre ) to Joan , but the French royal troops defeated her supporters . After Philip V married his daughter to Odo and granted him two counties as her dowry , Odo renounced Joan 's claim to Champagne and Brie in exchange for a compensation in March 1318 . Joan married Philip of Évreux , who was also a member of the French royal family .   Philip V was succeeded by his brother , Charles IV , in both France and Navarre in 1322 , but most Navarrese lords refused to swear loyalty to him . After Charles IV died in 1328 , the Navarrese expelled the French governor and declared Joan the rightful monarch of Navarre . In France , Philip of Valois was crowned king . He concluded an agreement with Joan and her husband , who renounced Joan 's claims to Champagne and Brie in exchange for three counties , while Philip acknowledged their right to Navarre . Joan and her husband were together crowned in Pamplona Cathedral on 5 March 1329 .   The royal couple closely cooperated during their joint reign , but Philip of Évreux was more active . However , they mostly lived in their French domains . Navarre was then administered by governors during their absence .

neg: Monarchy of the Netherlands The monarchy of the Netherlands is constitutional and as such , the role and position of the monarch are defined and limited by the constitution of the Netherlands . Consequently , a fairly large portion of the Dutch constitution is devoted to the monarch ; roughly a third of the constitution describes the succession , mechanisms of accession and abdication to the throne , the roles and responsibilities of the monarch and the formalities of communication between the States-General of the Netherlands and the role of the monarch in the creation of laws .   The Kingdom of the Netherlands has been an independent monarchy since 16 March 1815 , but its one-time sovereign provinces have intermittently been `` governed '' by members of the House of Orange-Nassau and the House of Nassau from 1559 to 1747 , since Philip II of Spain appointed William of Orange as stadtholder . William became the leader of the Dutch Revolt and the independent Dutch Republic . As stadtholder , he was followed by several of his descendants . In 1747 , the function of stadtholder became a hereditary position in all Provinces of the thus `` crowned '' Dutch Republic . The last stadtholder was William V. His son became the first king as William I.

neg: Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War , ( Guerra Civil Española ) , Also known as The Crusade ( La Cruzada ) among Nationalists , the Fourth Carlist War ( Cuarta Guerra Carlista ) among Carlists , and The Rebellion ( La Rebelión ) or Uprising ( Sublevación ) among Republicans . widely known in Spain simply as The Civil War ( Guerra Civil ) or The War ( La Guerra ) , took place from 1936 to 1939 . The Republicans , who were loyal to the democratic , left-leaning and relatively urban Second Spanish Republic , in an alliance of convenience with the Anarchists , fought against the Nationalists , a Falangist , Carlist , and largely aristocratic conservative group led by General Francisco Franco . Although the war is often portrayed as a struggle between democracy and fascism , some historians consider it more accurately described as a struggle between leftist revolution and rightist counter-revolution . Ultimately , the Nationalists won , and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years , from April 1939 until his death in November 1975 .   The war began after a pronunciamiento ( declaration of opposition ) by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces , originally under the leadership of José Sanjurjo , against the elected , leftist government of the Second Spanish Republic , at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña . The Nationalist group was supported by a number of conservative groups , including the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups ( Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas , or CEDA ) , monarchists such as the religious conservative ( Catholic ) Carlists , and the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista , a fascist group.Known in Spanish as the Falange Española de las JONS . Sanjurjo was killed in an aircraft accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal , whereupon Franco emerged as the leader of the Nationalists .   The coup was supported by military units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , Pamplona , Burgos , Zaragoza , Valladolid , Cádiz , Córdoba , and Seville . However , rebelling units in some important cities -- such as Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia , Bilbao , and Málaga -- did not gain control , and those cities remained under the control of the government . Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided . The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country . The Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy , while the Republican ( Loyalist ) side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico . Other countries , such as the United Kingdom and France , operated an official policy of non-intervention .   The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west , capturing most of Spain 's northern coastline in 1937 . They also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war . After large parts of Catalonia were captured in 1938 and 1939 , the war ended with the victory of the Nationalists and the exile of thousands of leftist Spaniards , many of whom fled to refugee camps in southern France . Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists . With the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war , all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime .   The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired and for the many atrocities that occurred . Organized purges occurred in territory captured by Franco 's forces to consolidate the future regime . A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans . The extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied .

neg: Estoria de España The Estoria de España , also known in the 1906 edition of Ramón Menéndez Pidal as the Primera Crónica General , is a history book written on the initiative of Alfonso X of Castile `` El Sabio '' ( `` the Wise '' ) , who was actively involved in the editing . It is believed to be the first extended history of Spain in Old Spanish , a West Iberian Romance language that forms part of the lineage from Vulgar Latin to modern Spanish . Many prior works were consulted in constructing this history .   The book narrates a history beginning in Biblical and legendary origins and continues  through the history of Castile under Fernando III of Castile . In the style of chronicles of its time , it begins by retelling the stories of remote origins found in the Bible . From the time of Moses onward , the mix begins to include Greek sources on ancient history . However , as the story continues , the details become increasingly detailed , especially from the Germanic invasions to the time of Alfonso 's father Fernando III .   The work is divided into four large parts . The first includes a history of Ancient Rome : the medieval European monarchs considered themselves heirs to the Roman Empire . The second tells the history of the barbarian and Gothic kings , treated as antecedents within the Iberian Peninsula . The third is a history of the Kingdom of Asturias from which the Reconquista ( the Christian reconquest of Iberia from Muslim rule ) began . The fourth and final part is a history of the Kingdoms of León and Castile .

neg: Philip of Spain Philip of Spain is the name of several Spanish monarchs :   Philip I of Castile or Philip I of Spain ( 1478 -- 1506 )  Philip II of Spain ( 1527 -- 1598 )  Philip III of Spain ( 1578 -- 1621 )  Philip IV of Spain ( 1605 -- 1665 )  Philip V of Spain ( 1683 -- 1746 )  Philip VI of Spain ( born 1968 )

neg: New Spain New Spain ( Nueva España ) was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire , in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama . It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 , and following additional conquests , it was made a viceroyalty ( Spanish : virreinato ) in 1535 . The first of four viceroyalties Spain created in the Americas , it comprised Mexico , Central America , much of the Southwestern and Central United States , and Spanish Florida as well as the Philippines , Guam , Mariana and Caroline Islands .   After 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain , an appointed minister of the King of Spain , who ruled as monarch over the colony . The capital of New Spain was Mexico City .   New Spain lost parts of its territory to other European powers and independence , but the core area remained under Spanish control until 1821 , when it achieved independence as the Mexican Empire -- when the latter dissolved , it became modern Mexico and Central America . It developed highly regional divisions , which reflect the impact of climate , topography , the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations , and the presence or absence of mineral resources . The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social , political , and economic organization . The northern area of Mexico , a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations , was not generally conducive to dense settlements , but the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the 1540s drew settlement there to exploit the mines . Silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain , but vastly enriched Spain , and transformed the global economy . New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade , making the viceroyalty a vital link between Spain 's New World empire and its Asian empire .

neg: Granada War The Granada War ( Guerra de Granada ) was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1492 , during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs ( los Reyes Católicos ) Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , against the Nasrid dynasty 's Emirate of Granada . It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile , ending all Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula ( al-Andalus ) .   The ten-year war was not a continuous effort , but a series of seasonal campaigns launched in spring and broken off in winter . The Granadans were crippled by internal conflict and civil war , while the Christians were generally unified . The war also saw the effective use of artillery by the Christians to rapidly conquer towns that would otherwise have required a long siege . On January 2 , 1492 Muhammad XII of Granada ( King Boabdil ) surrendered the Emirate of Granada , the city of Granada , and the Alhambra palace to the Castilian forces .   The war was a joint project between Isabella 's Crown of Castile and Ferdinand 's Crown of Aragon . The bulk of the troops and funds for the war came from Castile , and Granada was annexed into Castile 's lands . The Crown of Aragon was less important : apart from the presence of King Ferdinand himself , Aragon provided naval collaboration , guns , and some financial loans . Aristocrats were offered the allure of new lands , while Ferdinand and Isabella centralized and consolidated power . The aftermath of the war saw the end of convivencia ( `` live and let live '' ) between religions In the Iberian peninsula : the Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or be exiled in 1492 , and by 1501 , all of Granada 's Muslims were obliged to either convert to Christianity , become slaves , or be exiled ; by 1526 this prohibition spread to the rest of Spain . `` New Christians '' ( conversos ) came to be accused of crypto-Islam and crypto-Judaism . Spain would go on to model its national aspirations as the guardian of Christianity and Catholicism . The fall of the Alhambra is still celebrated every year by the City Council of Granada , and the Granada War is considered in traditional Spanish historiography as the final war of the Reconquista . At the same time , and uniquely in the `` Reconquista '' , the Granada War itself is never called `` the reconquest of Granada '' '' , but rather `` the conquest of Granada '' . Granada had never been Christian before the `` reconquista '' .

neg: Castilians Castilians ( Spanish : castellanos ) are certain inhabitants in regions of central Spain including at least the eastern part of Castile and León , the northern and eastern parts of Castile-La Mancha , and the Madrid community , who are the source of the Spanish language ( Castilian ) among other aspects of cultural identity . However , not all people in the regions of the medieval Kingdom of Castile think of themselves as Castilian . For this reason , the exact limits of what Castile is today are disputed . As an ethnicity , they are most commonly associated with the sparsely populated inner plateau of the Iberian peninsula , which is split in two by the Sistema Central mountain range and Northern or `` Old Castile '' from southern or `` New Castile '' , the latter being somewhat closer in terms of culture and dialect to southern regions of Spain such as Andalusia , Extremadura and Murcia .   Through the Reconquista and other conquests in the Middle Ages , the Kingdom of Castile ( later Crown of Castile ) spread over a large part of the Iberian Peninsula , especially towards the southern Spanish regions . After this , since the 15th century , through the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the Castilians also spread over the New World , bringing with them not only their language , but also elements of their culture and traditions .

neg: Philip I, Duke of Brabant Philip I , Duke of Brabant , also known as Philip of Saint Pol ( 25 July 1404 -- Leuven , 4 August 1430 ) , younger son of Antoine , Duke of Brabant and Jeanne of Saint-Pol , succeeded his brother John as Duke of Brabant in 1427 . He had already been given Saint-Pol and Ligny as an appanage on the death of his grandfather Waleran III in 1415 at the Battle of Agincourt .   He commanded the Burgundian forces occupying Paris in 1419 , but he returned to Brabant in 1420 , where the populace complained of his brother 's misadministration . He was declared ruwaard ( regent ) of Brabant . In 1421 , he was reconciled with his brother , and resigned the regency . The citizens were pacified by John 's `` Nieuw Regiment '' in 1422 .   During his own reign , Philip was forced to grant concessions to the nobility in 1428 . Wary of the rise of his cousin and heir Philip the Good in the Hook and Cod wars , he sought a marital alliance with Louis II of Anjou against Burgundy , marrying his daughter Yolande .  Because this marriage produced no children , his death in 1430 placed Brabant in the hands of his cousin Philip the Good , the next heir , whilst Saint-Pol and Ligny went to his great-aunt Joan , by proximity of blood . His wife was placed in the guardianship of Philip the Good , until she remarried in 1431 with Francis I , Duke of Brittany .