query: Sophie Turner acted in The Thirteenth Tale.

pos: Sophie Turner Sophie Turner ( born 21 February 1996 ) is an English actress . Turner made her professional acting debut as Sansa Stark on the HBO fantasy television series Game of Thrones ( 2011 -- present ) , which brought her international recognition and critical praise . For her performance , she has received four nominations for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series , as well as a Young Artist Award nomination for Best Supporting Young Actress in a TV Series .   Turner has also starred in the television film The Thirteenth Tale ( 2013 ) and she made her feature film debut in Another Me ( 2013 ) . She has also starred in the action comedy Barely Lethal ( 2015 ) and played Jean Grey / Phoenix in the X-Men film series .

neg: Sophie Burton Sophie Burton is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera , Hollyoaks , played by Connie Powney . She first appeared in 2003 with on-screen family , the Burtons , including twin sister Mel , who was played by Powney 's real life twin Cassie Powney .

neg: Sophie and the Rising Sun (film) Sophie and the Rising Sun is a 2016 American drama film written and directed by Maggie Greenwald . It is based on the 2001 novel Sophie and the Rising Sun by Augusta Trobaugh . The film stars Julianne Nicholson , Takashi Yamaguchi , Margo Martindale , Diane Ladd , Lorraine Toussaint and Karen Wheeling Reynolds . The film was released in theaters on January 25 , 2017 by Monterey Media .

neg: Stitches (2012 film) Stitches is a 2012 psychological horror comedy fantasy film directed by Conor McMahon and starring Ross Noble , Tommy Knight and Gemma-Leah Devereux . The plot concerns a birthday clown returning from the dead to exact revenge upon a boy and a group of children who contributed to his death . The film was produced by Fantastic Films and Tailored Films in 2012 and marks the film debut of Tommy Knight and stand-up comedian Ross Noble .   The film is an international co-production between Ireland , Sweden , and the United Kingdom . McMahon began working on the film after receiving a $ 600,000 grant from the Irish Film Board , also utilizing funding from MEDIA Europe . Filming for the movie took place in Ireland . Stitches premiered in Dublin , Ireland in September 2012 .

neg: Terry Pratchett's Hogfather Terry Pratchett 's Hogfather is a two-part television film adaptation of Hogfather by Terry Pratchett , produced by The Mob , and first broadcast on Sky One , and in High Definition on Sky1 HD , over Christmas 2006 . First aired in two 1.5 hour episodes on the 17th and 18 December 2006 at 20:00 UTC , it was the first live-action film adaptation of a Discworld novel . In 2007 , the two episodes were rerun on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day respectively on Sky One and Sky1 HD .   Hogfather won the Interactivity Award at the 2007 BAFTA TV Awards for its use of the interactive options available on digital television .

neg: Sophie Leigh Stone Sophie Leigh Stone ( born c. 1981 ) is an English stage and television actress . She was the first deaf student to win a place at the drama school RADA .

neg: Thomas Henty Thomas Henty ( 19January 195613August 1988 ) was an English actor , and the son of the magician and prop comedian Tommy Cooper .   Born Thomas John Cooper , he attended Sutton Court Primary School in Chiswick and Latymer Upper School , Hammersmith . He went on to appear alongside his famous father in an episode of the Thames Television variety series London Night Out in 1979 , as well as in four episodes of the series Cooper 's Half Hour in 1980 , also for Thames . He also acted as occasional stage manager to his father , and was backstage when Cooper died in front of a live television audience at Her Majesty 's Theatre on 15April 1984 .   In addition to his work with his father , Henty was an actor in his own right . His desire to make his own mark in the field was behind his decision to adopt his mother 's maiden name . In an archive interview with the television personality Frank Bough , included in the ITV documentary The Unforgettable Tommy Cooper ( 2001 ) , Henty explained that he did not want people in the acting profession to know that he was Cooper 's son , presumably because he was fearful of claims of nepotism . Henty made appearances in episodes of the popular British television series Robin of Sherwood ( 1984 ) and Just Good Friends ( 1986 ) , as well as the British film Bellman and True ( 1987 ) .   His role in Bellman and True was his last . In 1988 Henty 's marriage collapsed after seven years . Just six weeks later he died suddenly on 13 August 1988 , aged just 32 , of haemophilia , following complications caused by liver failure . Doctors had attempted to pump seventy pints of new blood into his body , but the blood failed to clot and after three days his mother took the decision to have his life support machine switched off , just four years after his well-known father Tommy Cooper died . He left a six-year-old son , Tam Henty ( born in 1982 ) .

neg: A Tale of Christmas A Tale of Christmas is a 1954 Australian TV play . It was written by Kay Keavney and was a rare original Australian TV play for the time .   It featured an early performance from Nick Tate and was shot at Pagewood Studios .

neg: Sparkhouse Sparkhouse is a BBC drama , originally shown on BBC One from 1 to 8 September 2002 . Written by Sally Wainwright , it is a modern take on Wuthering Heights .

neg: Century Falls Century Falls is a British cross-genre series broadcast in six twenty-five-minute episodes on BBC1 in early 1993 . Written by Russell T Davies , it tells the story of teenager Tess Hunter and her mother , who move to the seemingly idyllic rural village of Century Falls , only to find that it hides many powerful secrets .

neg: Sansa Stark Sansa Stark is a fictional character created by American author George R. R. Martin . She is a prominent character in Martin 's award-winning A Song of Ice and Fire series .   Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones , Sansa is the eldest daughter and second child of Lord Eddard Stark and his wife Lady Catelyn Stark . She subsequently appeared in the following three novels , A Clash of Kings ( 1998 ) , A Storm of Swords ( 2000 ) and A Feast for Crows ( 2005 ) . While absent from the fifth novel A Dance with Dragons as the books are separated geographically , Sansa is confirmed to return in the forthcoming next book in the series , The Winds of Winter .   In HBO 's adaptation of the series , Game of Thrones , Sansa Stark is played by Sophie Turner . The character has received critical acclaim , being praised as the 4th greatest character in the series by Rolling Stone . She and the rest of the cast were nominated for Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2012 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 .

neg: Last of the Summer Wine (series 12) The Last of the Summer Wines twelfth series aired on BBC1 . All of the episodes were written by Roy Clarke and produced and directed by Alan J. W. Bell .   With the departure of Michael Aldridge who had left to nurse his ill wife , the character of Foggy Dewhirst returned to the fold .

neg: Sophie Barjac Sophie Barjac ( born March 24 , 1957 in Bourges , Cher ) is a French actress of stage , screen and television . Although most of her work is in the French language ( e.g. , Holiday Hotel ) , Barjac has occasionally acted in the English language : the Canadian television series Bordertown ( 1988-1990 ) and the Belgian-Polish coproduction Alice ( 1981 ) .

neg: Thirteen Ghosts Thirteen Ghosts ( also known as 13 Ghosts and stylized as THIR13EN Ghosts ) is a 2001 Canadian-American supernatural horror film directed by Steve Beck . It is a remake of the 1960 film 13 Ghosts by William Castle . It follows the remake of another one of Castle 's films , House on Haunted Hill , and was shot entirely around Lower Mainland , British Columbia .

neg: The Storyteller Sequence The Storyteller Sequence is a series of one act dramas written for young people by Philip Ridley . The plays , all set in east London , use fairytale stories and theatrical conventions to reveal the traumas of their young protagonists . To date there are five plays in the sequence , although Ridley has intimated there will eventually be seven . The five written to date are Karamazoo , Fairytaleheart , Moonfleece , Sparkleshark and Brokenville ; note that although this is not the order in which the plays were written and performed chronologically , it is the order Ridley intends the finished `` sequence '' to run .   An anthology bringing together the plays so far in the sequence was published by Bloomsbury Methuen Drama in late 2015 .

neg: Janine Turner Janine Turner ( born Janine Loraine Gauntt ; December 6 , 1962 ) is an American actress best known for her roles as Maggie O'Connell in the television series Northern Exposure , as Jessie Deighan , in the feature film Cliffhanger , and as Katie McCoy in Friday Night Lights . She is the author of two books , Holding Her Head High , released on The Washington Post best seller list ( Thomas Nelson publisher ) and A Little Bit Vulnerable : On Hollywood , God , Sobriety , & Politics . ( Dunham Books ) . She is an active public speaker and founder and co-chair of Constituting America .

neg: A Word from Our Sponsor A Word from Our Sponsor is a 1995 musical by Alan Ayckbourn and John Pattison . It was the final Ayckbourn play to be premièred at the Stephen Joseph Theatre 's old Westwood site . It is about a vicar , who is tempted by the devil ( Valda/Valder ) offering a sponsorship deal for dubious return favours .   This play was one of Ayckbourn 's less successful works , but the production was marred most of all by the death of a member of the cast , Sophie Winter , who collapsed the afternoon before the final Scarborough performance and died the day . As a respected member of the company , a memorial was made to her in the theatre , and a trust in her name was set up to sponsor new plays at the Stephen Joseph Theatre between 1996 and 2008 .   It is also the name of a short-story written by Fredric Brown in 1951 .

neg: Dickens' Women Dickens ' Women is a one person show written by Miriam Margolyes and Sonia Fraser and starring Margolyes .   The play includes 23 different characters ( male and female ) based on or inspired by characters in Charles Dickens ' novels .   The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that the `` elegantly crafted production puts the focus on the storyteller '' ( Dickens ) , highlighting his `` obsession with youthful beauty and his baffling relationships with his sisters-in-law '' . The Age noted that it `` combines character sketches , short readings , biographical material and mordant commentary '' .   The show was developed in 1989 for the Edinburgh Festival , and Margolyes has taken it on tour worldwide , including a 2007 tour to Australia and New Zealand . Margolyes was nominated for an Olivier Award in 1992 for her original West End season of the show .   Dickens ' Women was taken on a world tour in 2012 as part of the 200th anniversary celebrations of Dickens ' birth .

neg: The Thirteenth Tale (film) The Thirteenth Tale is a British drama television film that first broadcast on BBC Two on 30 December 2013 . It is an adaptation of Diane Setterfield 's gothic novel The Thirteenth Tale .

neg: First Story First Story is a literacy charity . It was founded in 2007 by Katie Waldegrave and the writer William Fiennes to improve literacy and foster creativity in young people through creative writing . The organisation works with state secondary schools serving low-income communities .

neg: The Twelfth Man The Twelfth Man ( also known as The 12th Man ) is the name for a series of comedy productions by Australian satirist Billy Birmingham . Birmingham , a skilled impersonator , is generally known for parodying Australian sports commentators ' voices . As befits the name ( a reference to the non-playing reserve in an eleven-player cricket side ) , Birmingham particularly focuses on cricket commentators such as Richie Benaud , Bill Lawry and Tony Greig . This is also because many of Australia 's cricket commentators have distinctive and easily identifiable voices and accents .   The parodies , released periodically on CD , are designed as a comical look `` behind the scenes '' of the Nine Network 's cricket commentary . Birmingham traditionally plays all the roles ( with the exception of Ken Sutcliffe , who played himself ; and some minor female characters , such as Richie Benaud 's secretary ) . Benaud himself sent a critique of each CD to Birmingham and was known to have a mixed opinion of the recordings , due predominantly to Birmingham 's use of profanity . All albums were produced and engineered by David Frogatt .   The 12th Man 's most popular song is `` Marvellous ! '' featuring all the main three commentators . It was first recorded as a single in 1991 , with backing vocals by Jimmy Barnes , John Farnham , Diesel and Glenn Shorrock among others . An updated version , with some of the commentators changed , was featured on Still the 12th Man . He has since released an updated version of the song entitled `` Marvellous 2006 '' on his latest album Boned ! . It can be heard at the 12th Man 's MySpace . In an article in the Sydney Morning Herald on 22 November 2009 , Birmingham announced that Boned ! would be his last studio album as The Twelfth Man .


query: The Renaissance is known for its cultural developments.

pos: Renaissance The Renaissance ( -LSB- rᵻˈneɪsəns -RSB- , -LSB- rɛnəˈsɑːns -RSB- ) was a period in European history , from the 14th to the 17th century , regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history . It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe , marking the beginning of the Early Modern Age .   The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism , derived from the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy , such as that of Protagoras , who said that `` Man is the measure of all things . '' This new thinking became manifest in art , architecture , politics , science and literature . Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete . Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century , the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe .   As a cultural movement , the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures , beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources , which contemporaries credited to Petrarch ; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting ; and gradual but widespread educational reform . In politics , the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy , and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning . Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits , as well as social and political upheaval , it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo , who inspired the term `` Renaissance man '' .   The Renaissance began in Florence , in the 14th century . Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics , focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time : its political structure ; the patronage of its dominant family , the Medici ; and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks . Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice , Genoa , Milan , Bologna , and finally Rome during the Renaissance Papacy .   The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography , and , in line with general scepticism of discrete periodizations , there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th-century glorification of the `` Renaissance '' and individual culture heroes as `` Renaissance men '' , questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation . The art historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept of `` Renaissance '' :   It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the Italian Renaissance has been most vigorously questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization -- historians of economic and social developments , political and religious situations , and , most particularly , natural science -- but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art .   Some observers have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural `` advance '' from the Middle Ages , instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for classical antiquity , while social and economic historians , especially of the longue durée , have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras , which are linked , as Panofsky observed , `` by a thousand ties '' .   The word Renaissance , literally meaning `` Rebirth '' in French , first appeared in English in the 1830s . The word also occurs in Jules Michelet 's 1855 work , Histoire de France . The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements , such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century .

neg: Villanovan culture The Villanovan culture was the earliest Iron Age culture of central and northern Italy , abruptly following the Bronze Age Terramare culture and giving way in the 7th century BC to an increasingly orientalizing culture influenced by Greek traders , which was followed without a severe break by the Etruscan civilization . The Villanovan culture and people branched from the Urnfield culture of Central Europe . The Villanovans introduced iron-working to the Italian peninsula ; they practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in pottery urns of distinctive double-cone shape .   The name Villanovan comes from the type-site , that of the first archaeological finds relating to this advanced culture , remnants of a cemetery found near Villanova ( Castenaso , 8 kilometers south-east of Bologna ) in northern Italy . The excavation lasting from 1853 to 1855 was made by the scholarly owner , count Giovanni Gozzadini , and involved 193 tombs , six of which were separated from the rest as if to signify a special social status . The `` well tomb '' pit graves lined with stones contained funerary urns ; they had been only sporadically plundered , and most were untouched . In 1893 , a chance discovery unearthed another distinctive Villanovan necropolis at Verucchio , overlooking the Adriatic coastal plain .   The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture ( c. 1300 -- 750 BC ) , and Celtic Hallstatt culture ( which succeeded the Urnfield culture ) , in such a way that it is not possible to tell them apart in their earlier stages . Cremated remains were placed in cinerary urns and then buried . A custom believed to originate with the Villanovan culture is the usage of `` Hut urns '' , cinerary urns fashioned like small huts , and other advanced urn designs . Typical sgraffito decorations of swastikas , meanders and squares were scratched with a comb-like tool . Urns were accompanied by simple bronze fibulae , razors and rings .

neg: European Capital of Culture The European Capital of Culture is a city designated by the European Union for a period of one calendar year during which it organises a series of cultural events with a strong European dimension .   Preparing a European Capital of Culture can be an opportunity for the city to generate considerable cultural , social and economic benefits and it can help foster urban regeneration , change the city 's image and raise its visibility and profile on an international scale .   In 1985 , former actress Melina Mercouri , then Greece 's minister of culture , and her French counterpart Jack Lang came up with the idea of designating an annual Capital of Culture to bring Europeans closer together by highlighting the richness and diversity of European cultures and raising awareness of their common history and values .   The Commission of the European Union manages the title and each year the Council of Ministers of the European Union formally designates European Capitals of Culture : more than 40 cities have been designated so far .   An international panel of cultural experts is in charge of assessing the proposals of cities for the title according to criteria specified by the European Union .   A 2004 study conducted for the European Commission , known as the `` Palmer report '' , demonstrated that the choice of European Capital of Culture served as a catalyst for the cultural development and the transformation of the city . Consequently , the beneficial socio-economic development and impact for the chosen city are now also considered in determining the chosen cities .

neg: The Age of the Medici The Age of the Medici , originally released in Italy as L'età di Cosimo de Medici ( The Age of Cosimo de Medici ) , is a 1973 3-part TV series about the Renaissance in Florence , directed by Roberto Rossellini . The series was shot in English in the hope of securing a North American release , which it failed to achieve , and was later dubbed into Italian and shown on state television . The films are : Cosimo de Medici , The Power of Cosimo and Leon Battista Alberti : Humanism . It is Fred Ward 's debut role .   Like several other TV series directed by Rossellini during the 1970s , The Age of the Medici is a form of docudrama , in which historical information is communicated via dramatized conversations between figures from history , and between ordinary people . They are unabashedly `` teaching films . '' As Dave Kehr explains , `` The dialogue is bluntly didactic , with characters telling one another things they would already know entirely for the benefit of the audience ... . Rossellini is n't asking his viewers to identify with his characters or become caught up in their personal dramas ... Instead he creates a detached perspective . '' Each scene plays out in a single long take , with the camera slowly moving and zooming to create different framings of the action , or , as Kehr puts it , `` to close in on details or investigate relationships '' .   When the films debuted in New York 's Public Theater in 1973 , New York Times movie critic Vincent Canby noted that while not difficult , the austere style of the films , `` as well as Rossellini 's total lack of concern for what might be called performance , take some getting used to . Yet once you 've grasped the method and the rhythm of the films , they are a ravishingly beautiful experience '' :   The actors make few attempts to act . They recite as they walk about magnificent locations , sounding and looking like ferociously gifted dress-extras . The talk has been rather flatly dubbed into English so that it 's not always possible to tell who is speaking.Forget these problems , though . The film is about what is being said and what you can see around and behind these figures . When you connect with The Age of the Medici , it has the effect of reducing every other film you 've seen recently to the status of an ornament .

neg: Purism (Spanish architecture) Purism ( architecture ) redirects here . For another form of purism in architecture , see Purism ( arts )   Purism is an initial phase of Renaissance architecture in Spain , which took place between 1530 and 1560 , after to Isabelline Gothic and prior to the Herrerian architecture in the last third of the 16th century . The name `` Prince Philip '' refers to the period in which Philip II of Spain ( born in 1527 ) had not yet received the inheritance of the Spanish Monarchy by abdication of his father the Emperor Charles V ( 1556 ) . The name `` Serlian '' is due to the influential architect and treatise Sebastiano Serlio ( in addition to the architectural element called Serlian in his honor ) . The Greco-Roman , the purist and the casticist are relate to the interpretation given to different elements of style , whether intellectual , formal , structural or decorative . Until then , writers of the period termed the classicist forms of the Italian Renaissance as the roman ( Diego de Sagredo Las Medidas del Romano , 1526 ) , while the late-Gothic forms were called the modern . For a more stylistic periodization more common in the art history , at that point of the 16th century the Cinquecento had entered in its Mannerist phase , while for the Spanish art is commonly used the expression High Renaissance ( reserving the term Low Renaissance for the last third of the century ) .

neg: Renaissance Latin Renaissance Latin is a name given to the distinctive form of Latin style developed during the European Renaissance of the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries , particularly by the Renaissance humanism movement .

neg: Old master print An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition . The term remains current in the art trade , and there is no easy alternative in English to distinguish the works of `` fine art '' produced in printmaking from the vast range of decorative , utilitarian and popular prints that grew rapidly alongside the artistic print from the 15th century onwards . Fifteenth-century prints are sufficiently rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality . A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term .   The main techniques used , in order of their introduction , are woodcut , engraving , etching , mezzotint and aquatint , although there are others . Different techniques are often combined in a single print . With rare exceptions printed on textiles , such as silk , or on vellum , old master prints are printed on paper . This article is concerned with the artistic , historical and social aspects of the subject ; the article on printmaking summarizes the techniques used in making old master prints , from a modern perspective .   Many great European artists , such as Albrecht Dürer , Rembrandt , and Francisco Goya , were dedicated printmakers . In their own day , their international reputations largely came from their prints , which were spread far more widely than their paintings . Influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints ( and sometimes drawings ) , for the same reason . Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history . Today , thanks to colour photo reproductions , and public galleries , their paintings are much better known , whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited , for conservation reasons . But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection , sometimes only by appointment .

neg: France France ( -LSB- fʁɑ̃s -RSB- ) , officially the French Republic ( -LSB- ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz -RSB- ) , is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories . The European , or metropolitan , area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea , and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean . Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic , Pacific and Indian oceans . France spans 643801 km2 and had a total population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017 . It is a unitary semi-presidential republic with the capital in Paris , the country 's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre . Other major urban centres include Marseille , Lyon , Lille , Nice , Toulouse and Bordeaux .   During the Iron Age , what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls , a Celtic people . The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome , which held Gaul until 486 , when the Germanic Franks conquered the region and formed the Kingdom of France . France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages , with its victory in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 to 1453 ) strengthening state-building and political centralisation . During the Renaissance , French culture flourished and a global colonial empire was established , which by the 20th century would be the second largest in the world . The 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots ) . France became Europe 's dominant cultural , political , and military power under Louis XIV . In the late 18th century , the French Revolution overthrew the absolute monarchy , established one of modern history 's earliest republics , and saw the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which expresses the nation 's ideals to this day .   In the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire , whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe . Following the collapse of the Empire , France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870 . France was a major participant in the First World War , from which it emerged victorious , and was one of the Allied Powers in the Second World War , but came under occupation by the Axis Powers in 1940 . Following liberation in 1944 , a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War . The Fifth Republic , led by Charles de Gaulle , was formed in 1958 and remains to this day . Algeria and nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s and typically retained close economic and military connections with France .   France has long been a global centre of art , science , and philosophy . It hosts Europe 's fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually , the most of any country in the world . France is a developed country with the world 's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity . In terms of aggregate household wealth , it ranks fourth in the world . France performs well in international rankings of education , health care , life expectancy , and human development . France remains a great power in the world , being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state . It is a leading member state of the European Union and the Eurozone . It is also a member of the Group of 7 , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , and La Francophonie .

neg: Proto-industrialization Proto-industrialization ( also spelled proto-industrialisation ) was a possible phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded , and created conditions for , the establishment of fully industrial societies . Proto-industrialisation is generally referred to the phase before industrialisation . Proto-industrialization was marked by the increasing involvement of agrarian families in market-oriented craft production , mainly through the putting-out system organized by merchant capitalists . It was an effective method of production which was controlled by merchants and had links to developing European consumerism . However , the phase was not observed across Europe , and nor did it always smoothly transition into the Industrial Revolution proper .   The term was coined by F. F. Mendels in 1972 ,  though a UNESCO colloquium on the 10th anniversary of the deaths of Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin and published in 1971 discusses `` the basis for proto-industrialization '' .   The applicability of proto-industrialization in Europe has since been challenged . M.J. Daunton , for example , argues that proto-industrialisation `` excludes too much '' to fully explain the expansion of industry : not only do proponents of proto-industrialisation ignore the vital town-based industries in pre-industrial economies , but also ignores `` rural and urban industry based upon non-domestic organisation , '' referring to how mines , mills , forges and furnaces fit into the agrarian economy .   Initially using surplus labor available during slow periods of the agricultural seasons , proto-industrialization led to specialization - not only in industrial production but also in commercial agricultural production . This allowed reciprocal trade favored by regional economies of scale . It resulted in accumulation of capital and in the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by merchant capitalists , which facilitated the development of large-scale , and capital-intensive production methods in the full industrialization phase that followed .   Proto-industrialization sparked social changes in traditional agrarian societies that would become more marked during full industrialization , such as greater independence of women and children , who gained a means of income separate from the family subsistence farm . During this phase of industrialisation , machines were not used . They were not even invented at that time . People could only use their hands or any hand-made material to produce required goods .

neg: Trecento The Trecento ( -LSB- treˈtʃɛnto -RSB- ; Italian for 300 , short for `` mille trecento , '' 1300 ) refers to the 14th century in Italian cultural history .

neg: Seicento The Seicento -LSB- ˌsɛiˈtʃɛnto -RSB- is Italian history and culture during the 17th century . The seicento saw the end of the Renaissance movement in Italy and the beginning of the Counter-Reformation and the Baroque era . The word seicento means `` six hundred '' ( sei = six , cento = hundred ) .

neg: Rasa Renaissance Rasa Renaissance is a movement in the art of painting that makes evocation of rasas the prime aim in the creation and appreciation of a work of art . Rasa is the quality of emotional fulfilment that a work of art produces through the personalities , their expression and the situation presented in a painting . Rasa is a Sanskrit word that denotes the quality of emotional fulfilment that a work of art brings about . Rasa Theory is a theory of aesthetic criticism that has been prevalent in appreciation of literary works in Sanskrit language for millenniums ( see Indian aesthetic ) .  The idea of Rasa Renaissance has evolved in the last quarter of the twentieth century in the domain of painting as a countermovement to abstract and conceptual art . Rasa Renaissance is led by artist , philosopher and Sanskrit scholar Dr. Mumbiram of India ( Ph.D Berkeley California ) . In the twentieth century the art of painting progressively became dissociated from depiction of personalities in real world situations . It concerned itself with exploration of forms and colours for their own sake . It became more or less an exercise in clever intellectual sophistication . Art of Rasa Renaissance presupposes personalities in various situations and in various emotional states as central to a work of art .

neg: Palais des Papes The Palais des Papes ( English : Papal palace , lo Palais dei Papas in Occitan ) is a historical palace in Avignon , southern France , one of the largest and most important medieval Gothic buildings in Europe . Once a fortress and palace , the papal residence was the seat of Western Christianity during the 14th century . Six papal conclaves were held in the Palais , leading to the elections of Benedict XII in 1334 , Clement VI in 1342 , Innocent VI in 1352 , Urban V in 1362 , Gregory XI in 1370 and Antipope Benedict XIII in 1394 .   The Palais is actually two joined buildings : the old palais of Benedict XII , which sits on the impregnable rock of Doms , and the new palais of Clement VI , the most extravagant of the Avignon popes . Together they form the largest Gothic building of the Middle Ages , it is also one of the best examples of the International Gothic architectural style . The construction design was the work of two of France 's best architects , Pierre Peysson and Jean du Louvres and the lavish ornamentation was the work of two of the best students of the School of Siena ( Italy ) , Simone Martini and Matteo Giovanetti .   In addition , the papal library housed in the Palais ( the largest in Europe at the time with over 2,000 volumes ) , attracted a group of clerics passionate in the study of `` belle-lettres '' , amongst them the founder of Humanism , Petrarch . At the same time , composers , singers and musicians were drawn to the Great Chapel of the Palais . It was there that Clement VI appreciated the Mass of Notre-Dame of Guillaume de Machaut , there that Philippe de Vitry at the pope 's invitation presented his Ars Nova and there that Johannes Ciconia came to study .   Due to its immense size , the Palais was also the place where the general organisation of the Church began to change . It facilitated the centralisation of services and the adaption of operations in order to suit the needs of the papacy , creating a truly central administration for the Church . The manpower of the Curia ( Church administration ) , while 200 at the end of the 13th century , surpassed 300 at the beginning of the 14th century and reached 500 people in 1316 . To this were added over 1,000 lay officials working within the Palais .   Despite this , the Palais became obsolete when the papacy found it necessary to return to Rome . The hope of reuniting Latin and Orthodox Christians , along with the achievement of peace in the Papal States in Italy , made the case of returning stronger . Added to that was the strong conviction of both Urban V and Gregory XI that the seat of the papacy could only be the tomb of St Peter . Despite strong opposition from the Court of France and the College of Cardinals , both popes found the means to return to Rome , the first , on 30 April 1362 , the second on 13 September 1370 . This time , the return was absolute .   In the following centuries , the Palais lost all of its former glory , despite it serving as the seat of two anti-popes and many cardinals . It retained , however , a `` work of destruction '' aspect that French poets and writers such as Charles Forbes René de Montalembert have referred to over the centuries , with its powerful sense of beauty , simplicity , grandeur and immortality .   Since 1995 , the Palais des Papes has been classified , along with the historic center of Avignon , as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , under cultural criteria i , ii and iv .

neg: Style (visual arts) In the visual arts , style is a '' ... distinctive manner which permits the grouping of works into related categories '' . or '' ... any distinctive , and therefore recognizable , way in which an act is performed or an artifact made or ought to be performed and made '' . It refers to the visual appearance of a work of art that relates it to other works by the same artist or one from the same period , training , location , `` school '' , art movement or archaeological culture : `` The notion of style has long been the art historian 's principal mode of classifying works of art . By style he selects and shapes the history of art '' .   Style is often divided into the general style of a period , country or cultural group , group of artists or art movement , and the individual style of the artist within that group style . Divisions within both types of styles are often made , such as between `` early '' , `` middle '' or `` late '' . In some artists , such as Picasso for example , these divisions may be marked and easy to see , in others they are more subtle . Style is seen as usually dynamic , in most periods always changing by a gradual process , though the speed of this varies greatly , between the very slow development in style typical of prehistoric art or ancient Egyptian art to the rapid changes in modern art styles . Style often develops in a series of jumps , with relatively sudden changes followed by periods of slower development .   After dominating academic discussion in art history in the 19th and early 20th centuries , so-called `` style art history '' has come under increasing attack in recent decades , and many art historians now prefer to avoid stylistic classifications where they can .

neg: Parallel Polis The political-social concept Parallel Polis was created by Czech political thinker and dissident Vaclav Benda in connection with movement Charter 77 . In addition to other philosophers , Benda sought a theoretical grasp of the social events in the circles of dissents . The so-called alternative culture or underground was described in the text Parallel Polis in 1978 for the first time . As a political scientist , Benda noticed the emergence of a new social structure which was born in artistic and intellectual circles as a tool to escape the totalitarian communist regime . He detected the following basic pillars of this new `` field '' :   1 . Constant monitoring and verification of the extent of civic rights and freedoms which the State has a tendency to restrict . Parallel Polis consists of people who actively advocate for , and protect their rights .   2 . Parallel `` alternative '' culture / underground culture is independent and are various spheres of art which are operated and developed without permission and support from the public authorities .   3 . Parallel education and science , which represent the realization of the right of free education and the development of scientific research ( residential seminars , various educational societies , academies etc. . )   4 . Parallel informational system as an expression of the right of free dissemination of information ( samizdat publishing , unofficial magazines , collections etc. . )   5 . Parallel economy : `` political power considers this the area as a critical resource for arbitrary control of citizens and strictly regulates it at the same time '' . Economy of dissence was based on reciprocity and trust in the individual person . It was a natural germ of a reputational principle and the search for the exchange resources that are not dependent on control of centralized monetary tools .   6 . Creation of the parallel political structures and promoting their development . The alternative political structures have to be incubated in the environment of the Parallel Polis and develop into such a functional form that they will be able to replace the ruling authoritarian regime .   7 . Parallel foreign policy has to be an instrument of the parallel society for the stabilization and the grounding of the movement in the international context and the search for potential financial and mental resources .   These patterns of the parallel structure are not a closed set , on the contrary , they should occur more on all fronts of the resistance against the authoritarian State . The aim of the Parallel Polis , according to Vaclav Havel , Ivan Martin Jirous , Milan Šimečky and other dissents , who discussed the concept , -LSB- 2 -RSB- should be a so-called independent society . A society that is not oppressed by laws and the decisions of the representatives of the public authorities . A society that is based on its own values . Values which are not forced upon by the central authorities .  You could even say , that `` Parallel Polis '' today does not represent a `` dissident world '' but the world of persuasions and private interests of the society as a whole . On one hand , `` Parallel Polis '' gives to the totalitarian authorities what it wants , but at the same time does everything it wants and has nothing in common with the authorities .   After the revolution in 1989 , nobody paid too much attention to this concept , because it was ahead of its time , but nowadays the concept is relevant , because of the increased activities in the field of civil rights & the way the authoritarian state has been suppressed .   The seminal idea received great attention in the dissident community in Czechoslovakia and in western political circles . It was , however , never put into practice . With the arrival of the Velvet Revolution in 1990 , the idea seemed irrelevant .   It has since been revived by a group of scholars who originally met at the University of Washington but who now work at other academic institutions . Their thinking posits that Benda 's idea is now being practiced on the Internet which more easily facilitates parallel institutions . Since 2014 , a physical space inspired by the idea and named after it exists in Prague 's Holešovice district .

neg: Early modern Europe Early modern Europe is the period of European history between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , roughly the late 15th century to the late 18th century . Historians variously mark the beginning of the early modern period with the invention of moveable type printing in the 1450s , the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 , the end of the Wars of the Roses in 1487 , the beginning of the High Renaissance in Italy in the 1490s , the end of the Reconquista and subsequent voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492 , or the start of the Protestant Reformation in 1517 . The precise dates of its end point also vary and are usually linked with either the start of the French Revolution in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined beginning of the Industrial Revolution in late 18th century Britain .   Some of the more notable trends and events of the early modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked ( including the French Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years ' War ) , the rise of capitalism and modern nation states , and European colonization of the Americas .

neg: Gothic architecture Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages . It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture . Originating in 12th century France and lasting into the 16th century , Gothic architecture was known during the period as Opus Francigenum ( `` French work '' ) with the term Gothic first appearing during the later part of the Renaissance . Its characteristics include the pointed arch , the ribbed vault ( which evolved from the joint vaulting of Romanesque architecture ) and the flying buttress . Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the great cathedrals , abbeys and churches of Europe . It is also the architecture of many castles , palaces , town halls , guild halls , universities and to a less prominent extent , private dwellings , such as dorms and rooms .   It is in the great churches and cathedrals and in a number of civic buildings that the Gothic style was expressed most powerfully , its characteristics lending themselves to appeals to the emotions , whether springing from faith or from civic pride . A great number of ecclesiastical buildings remain from this period , of which even the smallest are often structures of architectural distinction while many of the larger churches are considered priceless works of art and are listed with UNESCO as World Heritage Sites . For this reason a study of Gothic architecture is often largely a study of cathedrals and churches .   A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th century England , spread through 19th century Europe and continued , largely for ecclesiastical and university structures , into the 20th century .

neg: Culture of the United Kingdom The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by the UK 's history as a developed island country , a liberal democracy and a major power ; its predominantly Christian religious life ; and its composition of four countries -- England , Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland -- each of which has distinct customs , cultures and symbolism . The wider culture of Europe has also influenced British culture , and Humanism , Protestantism and representative democracy developed from broader Western culture .   British literature , music , cinema , art , theatre , comedy , media , television , philosophy , architecture and education are important aspects of British culture . The United Kingdom is also prominent in science and technology , producing world-leading scientists ( e.g. Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin ) and inventions . Sport is an important part of British culture ; numerous sports originated in the country , including football . The UK has been described as a `` cultural superpower '' , and London has been described as a world cultural capital .   The Industrial Revolution , which started in the UK , had a profound effect on the socio-economic and cultural conditions of the world . As a result of the British Empire , significant British influence can be observed in the language , law , culture and institutions of a geographically wide assortment of countries , including Australia , Canada , India , the Republic of Ireland , New Zealand , Nigeria , Pakistan , South Africa , the United States and English speaking Caribbean nations . These states are sometimes collectively known as the Anglosphere , and are among Britain 's closest allies . In turn the empire also influenced British culture , particularly British cuisine .   The cultures of England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland are diverse and have varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness .

neg: Chivalric romance As a literary genre of high culture , romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe . They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures , often of a knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities , who goes on a quest , yet it is `` the emphasis on love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic , in which masculine military heroism predominates . '' Popular literature also drew on themes of romance , but with ironic , satiric or burlesque intent . Romances reworked legends , fairy tales , and history to suit the readers ' and hearers ' tastes , but by c. 1600 they were out of fashion , and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote . Still , the modern image of `` medieval '' is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre , and the word medieval evokes knights , distressed damsels , dragons , and other romantic tropes .   Originally , romance literature was written in Old French , Anglo-Norman , Occitan , and Provençal , and later in Portuguese , in Castilian , in English , in Italian ( particularly with the Sicilian poetry ) and German . During the early 13th century , romances were increasingly written as prose . In later romances , particularly those of French origin , there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love , such as faithfulness in adversity .

neg: Renaissance Revival architecture Renaissance Revival ( sometimes referred to as `` Neo-Renaissance '' ) is an all-encompassing designation that covers many 19th century architectural revival styles which were neither Grecian ( see Greek Revival ) nor Gothic ( see Gothic Revival ) but which instead drew inspiration from a wide range of classicizing Italian modes . Under the broad designation `` Renaissance architecture '' nineteenth-century architects and critics went beyond the architectural style which began in Florence and central Italy in the early 15th century as an expression of Humanism ; they also included styles we would identify as Mannerist or Baroque . Self-applied style designations were rife in the mid - and later nineteenth century : `` Neo-Renaissance '' might be applied by contemporaries to structures that others called `` Italianate '' , or when many French Baroque features are present ( Second Empire ) .   The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe , particularly in France and Italy , has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture . A comparison between the breadth of its source material , such as the English Wollaton Hall , Italian Palazzo Pitti , the French Château de Chambord , and the Russian Palace of Facets -- all deemed `` Renaissance '' -- illustrates the variety of appearances the same architectural label can take .

neg: Dome A dome ( from Latin : domus ) is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere . The precise definition has been a matter of controversy . There are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them . A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum , and can be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome through squinches or pendentives . A lantern may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome .   Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have been constructed from mud , snow , stone , wood , brick , concrete , metal , glass , and plastic over the centuries . The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary , celestial , and governmental traditions that have likewise developed over time .   Domes have been found from early Mesopotamia , which may explain the form 's spread . They are found in Persian , Hellenistic , Roman , and Chinese architecture in the Ancient world , as well as among a number of contemporary indigenous building traditions . They were popular in Byzantine and medieval Islamic architecture , and there are numerous examples from Western Europe in the Middle Ages . The Renaissance style spread from Italy in the Early modern period . Advancements in mathematics , materials , and production techniques since that time resulted in new dome types . The domes of the modern world can be found over religious buildings , legislative chambers , sports stadiums , and a variety of functional structures .


query: Pluto is not relatively small.

pos: Pluto Pluto ( minor-planet designation : 134340 Pluto ) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt , a ring of bodies beyond Neptune . It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered .   Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and was originally considered to be the ninth planet from the Sun . After 1992 , its planethood was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt . In 2005 , Eris , a dwarf planet in the scattered disc which is 27 % more massive than Pluto , was discovered . This led the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) to define the term `` planet '' formally in 2006 , during their 26th General Assembly . That definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a dwarf planet .   Pluto is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun . It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris . Like other Kuiper belt objects , Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small -- about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume . It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU ( 4.4 -- 7.4 billion km ) from the Sun . This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune , but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding . Light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance ( 39.5 AU ) .   Pluto has five known moons : Charon ( the largest , with a diameter just over half that of Pluto ) , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body .   On July 14 , 2015 , the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto . During its brief flyby , New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons . In September 2016 , astronomers announced that the reddish-brown cap of the north pole of Charon is composed of tholins , organic macromolecules that may be ingredients for the emergence of life , and produced from methane , nitrogen and other gases released from the atmosphere of Pluto and transferred about 19,000 km to the orbiting moon .

neg: Volcanic bomb A volcanic bomb is a mass of molten rock ( tephra ) larger than 64 mm ( 2.5 inches ) in diameter , formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava during an eruption . They cool into solid fragments before they reach the ground . Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano , they are extrusive igneous rocks . Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometres from an erupting vent , and often acquire aerodynamic shapes during their flight . Bombs can be extremely large ; the 1935 eruption of Mount Asama in Japan expelled bombs measuring 5 -- 6 m in diameter up to 600 m from the vent . Volcanic bombs are a significant volcanic hazard , and can cause severe injuries and death to people in an eruption zone . One such incident occurred at Galeras volcano in Colombia in 1993 ; six people near the summit were killed and several seriously injured by lava bombs when the volcano erupted unexpectedly .   Volcanic bombs are known to occasionally explode from internal gas pressure as they cool , but in most cases , most of the damage they cause is from impact , or subsequent fire damage . Bomb explosions are most often observed in `` bread-crust '' type bombs .

neg: Prometheus (volcano) Prometheus is an active volcano on Jupiter 's moon Io . It is located on Io 's hemisphere facing away from Jupiter at . Prometheus consists of a 28 km-wide volcanic pit named Prometheus Patera and a 100 km-long compound lava flow , all surrounded by reddish sulfur and circular , bright sulfur dioxide volcanic plume deposits . The volcano was first observed in images acquired by the Voyager 1 spacecraft in March 1979 . Later that year , the International Astronomical Union named this feature after a Greek fire god , Prometheus .   Prometheus is the site of a volcanic eruption that has been ongoing since at least the Voyager 1 encounter in 1979 . Between the Voyager encounters and the first observations by Galileo , a 6700 km2 flow field was emplaced . Later Galileo observations of this flow field revealed numerous small breakouts , particularly on the western end of the flow field .   Prometheus is the site of two volcanic eruption plumes : a small , sulfur-rich plume erupting from the magma-source vent at the eastern end of the flow field and a 75 to-tall , - rich dust plume erupting from the active flow front at the other end . The former forms a diffuse , red deposit to the east of the Prometheus flow field . The latter forms a bright , circular deposit surrounding the entire volcano and lava flow . The - rich plume is generated as lava at the western end of the flow field covers sulfur dioxide frost , heating and vaporizing it . This is accomplished at multiple breakouts , generating gas and dust for the visible dust plume . Prometheus ' plume has been observed by both Voyager spacecraft , Galileo , and New Horizons , at every appropriate imaging opportunity .

neg: Black dwarf A black dwarf is a theoretical stellar remnant , specifically a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently that it no longer emits significant heat or light . Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe ( 13.8 billion years ) , no black dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe yet , and the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs is one observational limit on the age of the universe .   The name `` black dwarf '' has also been applied to substellar objects that do not have sufficient mass , less than approximately 0.08 , to maintain hydrogen-burning nuclear fusion . These objects are now generally called brown dwarfs , a term coined in the 1970s . Black dwarfs should not be confused with black holes , black stars , or neutron stars .

neg: Jupiter trojan The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each Trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi-major axis of about 5.2 AU .   The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6,178 Jupiter trojans have been found . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name `` Trojan '' . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main-belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families .   Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0.8 to 2.5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets .   The term `` trojan '' has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term `` Trojan asteroid '' is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans .

neg: OGLE-TR-132b OGLE-TR-132b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star OGLE-TR-132 .   In 2003 the Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment ( OGLE ) detected periodic dimming in the star 's light curve indicating a transiting , planetary-sized object . Since low-mass red dwarfs and brown dwarfs may mimic a planet radial velocity measurements were necessary to calculate the mass of the body . In 2004 the object was proved to be a new transiting extrasolar planet .   The planet has a mass 1.14 times that of Jupiter . Since the planet 's inclination is known , this represents the best measured true mass of the planet , rather than simply the minimum mass as is the case when the inclination is unknown . It orbits the star ( OGLE-TR-132 ) in an extremely close orbit , even closer than the famous planets 51 Pegasi b and HD 209458 b . The planet races around the star every 1 day 16.6 hours . The radius of the planet is only 18 % larger than Jupiter 's , despite the heating effect by the star . Planets of its kind are sometimes called `` super-hot Jupiters '' .

neg: Makemake Makemake ( minor-planet designation 136472 Makemake ) is a dwarf planet and perhaps the largest Kuiper belt object in the classical population , with a diameter approximately two thirds that of Pluto . Makemake has one known satellite , S/2015 ( 136472 ) 1 . Makemake 's extremely low average temperature , about 30 K , means its surface is covered with methane , ethane , and possibly nitrogen ices .   Makemake was discovered on March 31 , 2005 , by a team led by Michael E. Brown , and announced on July 29 , 2005 . Initially , it was known as and later given the minor-planet number 136472 . Makemake was recognized as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) in July 2008 . Its name derives from Makemake in the mythology of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island .

neg: New Frontiers program The New Frontiers program is a series of space exploration missions being conducted by NASA with the purpose of researching several of the Solar System bodies , including the dwarf planet Pluto .   NASA is encouraging both domestic and international scientists to submit mission proposals for the project . New Frontiers was built on the innovative approach used by the Discovery and Explorer Programs of principal investigator-led missions . It is designed for medium-class missions that can not be accomplished within the cost and time constraints of Discovery , but are not as large as Flagship-class missions . There are currently three New Frontiers missions in progress : New Horizons , which was launched in 2006 and reached Pluto in 2015 , Juno , which was launched in 2011 and entered Jupiter orbit in 2016 , and OSIRIS-REx , launched in September 2016 towards asteroid Bennu for detailed studies from 2018 to 2021 and a sample return to Earth in 2023 .

neg: Distant minor planet The term distant minor planet is used by the International Astronomical Union 's Minor Planet Center to refer collectively to those minor planets found in the outer Solar System that are not commonly thought of as `` asteroids '' . Included are the populations centaurs , Neptune trojans , and trans-Neptunian objects . All distant objects have a semi-major axis ( average distance from the Sun ) greater than 6 AU , which is just beyond the planet Jupiter .

neg: Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° .   Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism .   As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC .   As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .

neg: Nano- Nano - ( symbol n ) is a unit prefix meaning `` one billionth '' . Used primarily with the metric system , this prefix denotes a factor of 10 − 9 or . It is frequently encountered in science and electronics for prefixing units of time and length .   Examples :  One nanometer is about the length that a fingernail grows in one second .  Three gold atoms lined up are about one nanometer long .  If a toy marble were scaled down to one nanometer wide , Earth would scale to about one meter ( 3.3 feet ) wide .  One nanosecond is about the time required for light to travel 30 cm in air , or 20 cm in an optical fiber .   The prefix derives from the Greek -LSB- Wiktionary : νᾶνος , νᾶνος -RSB- ( Latin nanus ) , meaning `` dwarf '' . The General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) officially endorsed the usage of nano as a standard prefix in 1960 .   When used as a prefix for something other than a unit of measure ( as for example in words like `` nanoscience '' ) , nano refers to nanotechnology , or means `` on a scale of nanometres '' . See nanoscopic scale .

neg: P/2010 A2 (LINEAR) P/2010 A2 ( LINEAR ) is a small Solar System body that displayed characteristics of both an asteroid and a comet , and thus , was initially given a cometary designation . Because it has the orbit of a main-belt asteroid and showed the tail of a comet , it was listed as a main-belt comet . But within a month of discovery , an analysis of images by the Hubble telescope suggested that its tail was generated by dust and gravel resulting from a recent head-on collision between asteroids rather than from sublimation of cometary ice . This was the first time a small-body collision had been observed ; since then , minor planet 596 Scheila has also been seen to undergo a collision , in late 2010 . The position of the nucleus was remarkable for being offset from the axis of the tail and outside of the dust halo , a situation never before seen in a comet . The tail is created by millimeter-sized particles being pushed back by solar radiation pressure .

neg: Venus snow Venus snow is a brightening of the radar reflection from the surface of Venus at high elevations . The `` snow '' appears to be a mineral condensate of lead sulfide and bismuth sulfide precipitated from the atmosphere at altitudes above 2600 metres .   The nature of the `` snow '' was initially unknown . In radar images , smooth surfaces such as lava plains generally appear dark , while rough surfaces such as impact debris appear bright . The composition of the rock also alters the radar return : conductive material , or material with a high dielectric constant , appears brighter . It was therefore initially difficult to determine whether the high-altitude areas of Venus were different from the lowlands in chemical composition or in texture . Possible explanations included loose soil , different rates of weathering at high and low elevations , and chemical deposition at high elevation . It could not be water ice , which can not exist in the extremely hot , dry conditions of the Venusian surface .   Data from the radar mapper on the Pioneer Venus orbiter suggested an explanation in terms of chemical composition . It was hypothesized that the underlying rock contained iron pyrite or other metallic inclusions that would be very reflective . At the high temperatures found on the surface of Venus , these minerals would gradually evaporate . Faster weathering at high elevation might continually expose new material , causing the highlands to appear brighter than lowlands .  High-resolution radar observations by the Magellan probe by 1995 began to favor the hypothesis that metallic compounds sublimate in lower , warmer altitudes and deposit in higher , cooler areas .  Candidates included tellurium , pyrite , and other metal sulfides .

neg: Double planet In astronomy , a double planet ( also binary planet ) is a binary system where both objects are of planetary mass . The term is not recognized by the International Astronomical Union and is therefore not an official classification . At its 2006 General Assembly , the International Astronomical Union considered a proposal that Pluto and Charon be reclassified as a double planet , but the proposal was abandoned in favor of the current definition of planet . In promotional materials advertising the SMART-1 mission and pre-dating the IAU planet definition , the European Space Agency once referred to the Earth -- Moon system as a double planet .   Some binary asteroids with components of roughly equal mass are sometimes informally referred to as double minor planets . These include binary asteroids 69230 Hermes and 90 Antiope and binary Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) 79360 Sila -- Nunam and .

neg: List of missions to minor planets As of 2016 , the United States , Japan , the European Space Agency and the People 's Republic of China have conducted missions to minor planets . Most missions to date that have reached their targets have been to asteroids , however the Dawn and New Horizons spacecraft have visited the dwarf planets Ceres and Pluto respectively , and the former is currently in orbit there .   Spacecraft visits to minor planets have mostly been flybys , and have ranged from dedicated missions to incidental flybys and targets of opportunity for spacecraft that have already completed their missions . The first spacecraft to visit an asteroid was Galileo , which flew past 951 Gaspra in October 1991 ; an incidental encounter while the probe was en route to Jupiter . The first dedicated mission was NEAR Shoemaker , which was launched in February 1996 , and entered orbit around 433 Eros in February 2000 , having first flown past 253 Mathilde . NEAR was also the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid , surviving what was intended to be an impact with Eros at 20:01 on 12 February 2001 at the planned end of its mission . As a result of its unexpected survival , the spacecraft 's mission was extended until 1 March to allow data to be collected from the surface .   New Horizons , which flew by Pluto in July 2015 , is currently on its way to KBO which , if funded , it will encounter on New Year 's Day , 2019 .

neg: Superstate A superstate is defined as `` a large and powerful State formed when several smaller countries unite '' , `` A large and powerful state formed from a federation or union of nations '' .  This is distinct from the concept of superpower , although these are frequently seen together . It is also distinct from the concept of empire , where one nation dominates other nations through military , political , and economic power , although an empire may also be a superstate .   In the early 20th century , `` superstate '' had a similar definition as today 's supranational organisations . In a 1927 article by Edward A. Harriman on the League of Nations , a superstate was defined as merely `` an organisation , of which a state is a member , which is superior to the member themselves '' , in that '' -LSB- a -RSB- complete superstate has legislative , executive and judicial organs to make , to execute and to interpret its laws '' . According to this definition , Harriman saw the League of Nations as a `` rudimentary superstate '' , and the United States as `` an example of a complete and perfect superstate '' .   In World Order of Bahá ` u 'll áh , first published in 1938 , Shoghi Effendi , the Guardian of the Bahá ' í Faith , described the anticipated world government of that religion as the `` world 's future super-state '' with the Bahá ' í Faith as the `` State Religion of an independent and Sovereign Power . ''   In the 1970s , academic literature used the term `` superstate '' to indicate a particularly rich and powerful state , in a similar fashion to the term superpower .   In contemporary political debate , especially the one centred on the European Union , the term `` superstate '' is used to indicate a ( usually deemed unwelcome ) development in which the Union takes over the character of a State ( including the monopoly on violence ) thus abolishing the sovereignty and independence of its member states .  For instance , Glyn Morgan opposes the perspective of a `` European superstate '' to the ones of `` a Europe of nation-states '' and of `` a post-sovereign European polity '' . In her definition , a `` European superstate is nothing more than a sovereign state - a tried and tested type of polity that predominates in the modern world - operating on a European wide scale '' , i.e. , `` a unitary European state ''   The term was famously used by Margaret Thatcher in her 1988 Bruges speech , when she decried the perspective of `` a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels '' , and has since entered the eurosceptic lexicon .  Tony Blair argued in 2000 that he welcomed an EU as a `` superpower , not a superstate ''

neg: Size Size is the magnitude or dimensions of a thing , or how big something is . Size can be measured as length , width , height , diameter , perimeter , area , volume , or mass .   In mathematical terms , `` size is a concept abstracted from the process of measuring by comparing a longer to a shorter '' . Size is determined by the process of comparing or measuring objects , which results in the determination of the magnitude of a quantity , such as length or mass , relative to a unit of measurement . Such a magnitude is usually expressed as a numerical value of units on a previously established spatial scale , such as meters or inches .   The sizes with which humans tend to be most familiar are body dimensions ( measures of anthropometry ) , which include measures such as human height , and human body weight . These measures can , in the aggregate , allow the generation of commercially useful distributions of products that accommodate expected body sizes , as with the creation of clothing sizes and shoe sizes , and with the standardization of door frame dimensions , ceiling heights , and bed sizes . The human experience of size can lead to a psychological tendency towards size bias , wherein the relative importance or perceived complexity of organisms and other objects is judged based on their size relative to humans , and particularly whether this size makes them easy to observe without aid .

neg: Pluto in fiction Pluto has been featured in many instances of science fiction and popular culture . Initially classified as a planet upon its discovery in 1930 , Pluto has also received considerable publicity following a 2006 definition of planet decree ( which reclassified it as a dwarf planet ) and from the flyby of the New Horizons space probe in July 2015 .

neg: HD 17156 b HD 17156 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 240 light-years away in the constellation of Cassiopeia . The planet was discovered orbiting the yellow subgiant star HD 17156 in April 2007 . The planet is classified as a relatively cool hot Jupiter planet slightly smaller than Jupiter but slightly larger than Saturn in a so-called `` torched orbit '' . This highly-eccentric three-week orbit takes it approximately 0.0523 AU of the star at periastron before swinging out to approximately 0.2665 AU at apastron . Its eccentricity is about the same as 16 Cygni Bb , a so-called `` eccentric Jupiter '' . Until 2009 , HD 17156 b was the transiting planet with the longest orbital period .   The planet was discovered on April 14 , 2007 by a team using the radial velocity method on the Keck and Subaru telescopes . The team made an initial , negative , transit search , but they were only able to cover 25 % of the search space . This left the possibility of a transit open .   After the possibility of a transit was discussed on oklo.org , various groups performed a follow-on search . These searches confirmed a three-hour transit on October 2 , 2007 and a paper was published two days later .   Careful radial velocity measurements have made it possible to detect the Rossiter -- McLaughlin effect , the shifting in photospheric spectral lines caused by the planet occulting a part of the rotating stellar surface . This effect allows the measurement of the angle between the planet 's orbital plane and the equatorial plane of the star . This planet 's spin-orbit angle was initially measured by Narita in 2007 as +62 ± 25 but has been remeasured by Cochran +9.4 ± 9.3 degrees . By analogy with HD 149026 b , a low angle would imply the formation of the planet was peaceful and probably involved interactions with the protoplanetary disc . A much larger angle suggests a violent interplay with other protoplanets . Given its eccentricity the latter is equally probable until the discrepancy of the Rossiter results is resolved .   It is so distant from its star and eccentric , that it will never enter a secondary eclipse relative to Earth , of the planet behind the star . The star 's true temperature , and so the planet 's surface temperature , can not be measured with accuracy . Due to the high eccentricity the atmosphere of the planet undergoes a factor of 27 variation in stellar flux during each orbit .

neg: Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia is an astronomy website , founded in Paris , France at the Meudon Observatory by Jean Schneider in February 1995 , which maintains a database of all the currently known and candidate extrasolar planets , with individual `` note '' pages for each planet and a full list interactive catalog spreadsheet . The main catalogue comprises databases of all of the currently confirmed extrasolar planets as well as a database of unconfirmed planet detections . The databases are frequently updated with new data from peer-reviewed publications and conferences .   In their respective pages , the Planets are listed along with their basic properties such as the year of planet 's discovery , mass , radius , orbital period , semi-major axis , eccentricity , inclination , longitude of periastron , time of periastron , maximum time variation , and time of transit , including all error range values .   The individual planet data pages also contain the data on the parent star such as Name , Distance ( pc ) , Spectral Type , Effective Temperature , Apparent Magnitude V , Mass , Radius , Age , Right Asc . Coord. , Decl . Coord . Even when they are known , not all of these figures are listed in the interactive spreadsheet catalog . And many missing planet figures that would simply require the application of Kepler 's third law of motion are left blank . Most notably absent on all pages is the star 's luminosity .   As of June 2011 , the catalog aims to include objects up to 25 Jupiter masses , an increase on the previous inclusion criteria of 20 Jupiter masses .

neg: Nine Views Nine Views ( Devet pogleda ) is an ambiental installation in Zagreb , Croatia which , together with the sculpture Prizemljeno Sunce ( The Grounded Sun ) , makes up a consistent model of the Solar System .   Prizemljeno Sunce by Ivan Kožarić was first displayed in 1971 by the building of the Croatian National Theatre , and since then changed location a few times . Since 1994 it has been situated in the Bogovićeva Street . It is simply a bronze sphere around 2 metres in diameter .   In 2004 , artist Davor Preis had a two-week exhibition in the Josip Račić Exhibition Hall in Margaretska Street in Zagreb , and afterwards he placed 9 models of the planets of the Solar System around Zagreb , to complete a model of the entire solar system . The models ' sizes as well as their distances from the Prizemljeno Sunce are all in the same scale as the Prizemljeno Sunce itself .   Preis did this installation with very little or no publicity , so his installation is n't well known among citizens of Zagreb . On a few occasions individuals or small groups of people , particularly physics students , `` discovered '' that there was a model of the solar system in Zagreb . One of the earliest efforts to find all of the planets was started in November 2004 on the web forum of the student section of Croatian Physics Society .   The locations of the planets are as follows :   Mercury - 3 Margaretska Street  Venus - 3 Ban Josip Jelačić Square  Earth - 9 Varšavska Street  Mars - 21 Tkalčićeva Street  Jupiter - 71 Voćarska Street  Saturn - 1 Račićeva Street  Uranus - 9 Siget ( not at the residential building but at the garage across the street )  Neptune - Kozari Way 48  Pluto - Bologna Alley ( underpass ) - included in the installation before being demoted to dwarf planet   The system is at scale 1:680 000 000 . Earth 's model is about 1.9 cm in size and at 225 m distance from the sun 's model , while Pluto 's model is 7.7 km away from it .